Innovation, Patents, R&D

During the 1940s a heated debate took place in the federal courts and among patent attorneys regarding Justice William O. Douglas’s decision in a patent infringement case that a “new device, however useful, must reveal the flash of creative genius, not merely the skill of the calling.”  While a few commentators argued that this decision did nothing more than affirm a longstanding principle that an inventor show more than ordinary skill or ingenuity, most commentators and lower court judges interpreted this ruling to require that a patentable invention required its inventor to literally experience a moment of  inspiration.  In their effort to define invention the courts argued over whether invention was the province of the individual or whether organized industrial research could also be invention and thus protected by existing patent law.  The legal controversy was only resolved when Congress stepped in and modified the patent law in 1952 to make the nature of the inventive act immaterial to the question of patentability.  This paper argues that this legal debate over the over the nature of invention reflects a larger cultural anxiety about the role of the individual inventor growing out of the rapid rise of corporate research organizations.  At the same time, it seeks to explore the ways in which the patent system itself helps to define invention for the larger culture.

In the early-to-mid 1990s technology alliances suddenly surged to unprecedented levels – roughly 300% growth per year from 1990 to 1995 – and then declined just as precipitously. This massive increase in alliance activity caused the crystallization of a giant component in the global technology network that connected a large portion of the world’s firms, government labs, universities, and other organizations. However, when alliance activity declined, the component disintegrated. What caused this spike in alliance activity? And did this large-but-transient change in collaboration activity leave any enduring effect? The data here suggests that a major technology shock may have provoked this alliance surge. A technology shock may simultaneously unleash significant innovation opportunities, while creating great uncertainty in the economic environment. Though it is well-known that firms often use alliances both to respond to uncertainty and facilitate innovation, little is known about how technology shocks affect the collaboration behavior of firms, and how these two factors separately influence innovation outcomes. I integrate an inductive study of collaboration activity and a technology shock with existing research on economics, alliances and networks, to build a set of arguments about how technology shocks will influence alliance behavior, how changes in alliance behavior will influence the global technology collaboration network, and about how each of these changes is likely to influence the innovative outcomes of firms. I then explore the separate and joint effects of the technology shock and collaboration activity on innovation using a large sample panel study of patenting by North American firms.

One of the challenges for the Big Pharma is finding the golden line in the tradeoff between innovation and pricing. This paper investigates the relationship between R&D expenditures, patents and gross profits, based on US pharmaceutical industry panel data. The initial hypothesis states that there is a positive relationship between the R&D expenditures, patents applied in a current year and the company's profitability measured in terms of gross profits. The study concludes that there is a significant positive relationship between the R&D spending and the number of the applied patents in a current year. However, the relationship between the patents applied and the profitability has proved to be negative. The incline in the total assets and sales volume leads to the increasing profitability, whereas the size of the firm measured by the number of employees has an opposite negative effect. Results are relevant to the ongoing discussions regarding the fairness of pharmaceutical industry pricing, since it provides an evidence on the relationship between R&D expenditures, patents and gross profits.

The study examines the problems faced by businesses when innovating and then commercializing their innovation. It is particularly focused on the role of standards, regulations and intellectual property rights in the commercialization of innovative products and services. The analysis has been conducted based on data from the Flash Eurobarometer 394 survey. We analyse the factors affecting the likelihood of a company having problems with the cost or complexity of standards, lack of standards or problems related to intellectual property rights. The actual effects of each potential problem on the commercialization of innovative products are examined using logit and ordered logit regressions. On the one hand, costly or complex standards seem to be a deterrent to the commercialisation of innovation. This is especially evident in Portugal, Italy, Poland and France. On the other hand, a lack of standards may harm the commercial success of innovation measured by the share of turnover due to innovation. Financial or non-financial government or administrative support may be an effective way to promote the commercialisation of innovation in the case of intellectual property rights. This problem is particularly significant in the fields of information and communication, manufacturing, real estate, as well as in science and technology companies.

Terceiro Seminário dos "IP Topics for Engineering" ao Programa de Doutoramento em Engenharia Eletrotécnica e de Computadores da Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Monte da Caparica. Dia 16 de fevereiro de 2018.

Abstrakt: Článek pojednává o patentových informacích coby nedílné součástí informační obsahové analýzy v oblasti Competitive Technical Intelligence z pohledu práva, životního cyklu a následně konkrétním příkladům využití patentových informací pro firmy a na základě dosavadní praxe navrhuje strukturu pro provádění auditu duševního vlastnictví ve společnostech s využitím doporučených informačních zdrojů. První část analyzuje patent jako právní entitu, druhá část zkoumá patentový dokument z hlediska procesu zveřejňování informací, třetí část se zaměřuje na informační zdroje patentových dokumentů pro zjišťování právního stavu patentových dokumentů a poslední část dává do souvislostí informace o duševním vlastnictví v rámci Intellectual Property Auditu. Abstract: The article discusses the patent information as an integral part of the information content analysis of Competitive Technical Intelligence from the point of laws, life cycle. Based on previous experience suggests a structure for auditing intellectual property in companies using the recommended information sources and specific examples of usage patent information for companies. The first part analyzes the patent as a legal entity, the second section examines the patent document the process from point of disclosure, the third part focuses on the information resources of patent documents to ascertain the legal status of patent documents and the final section provides links to information on intellectual property within the Intellectual Property audit.

"Elinizdeki bu kitap, sosyal psikolojinin konularını en geniş kapsamıyla ele almakta, klasikleşmiş deneysel ve saha araştırmalarını en güncel bilimsel çalışmalarla harmanlamaktadır. Bu bakımdan, akademisyen ve öğrencilerin yararlanabileceği eşsiz bir kaynaktır. Kitapta, sosyal psikoloji konuları bölüm bölüm ele alınmıştır; ilgili kavram, terim, kuram ve araştırmalar aktarılırken her bölüm kendi içinde bir bütünlük arz edecek şekilde akıcı bir öyküsel kurguyla ve dille yazılmıştır ayrıca bu kitap; tarihsel olaylarla, edebî ve felsefi metaforlarla zenginleştirilmiştir.
Ayrıca bu kapsamlı çalışma, sadece bilimsel bir disiplinin temel konularını okuyucuya aktarmakla kalmamakta, aynı zamanda savaş, açlık, çevre gibi gerçek dünya sorunlarının sosyal psikolojik boyutlarıyla ilgili çözüm önerileri de getirmektedir. Bu bakımdan elinizdeki kitap yalnızca bir ders kitabı değil, aynı zamanda sosyal psikolojiye ilgi duyan herkesin merakla okuyabileceği bir kitaptır."

A brief look into the need to re-evaluate the sustainability of patent regime and the consideration of whether the present patent regime forestalls the surge in software-related patent application. The perspective of the United Kingdom(UK), the European Patent Office(EPO) and the United States(US) are discussed.

İnovasyonun On Tipi kitabı ile inovasyon yapmak isteyenlere reçete veriliyor. Adım adım ve yalın bir şekilde inovasyonun nasıl geliştirilebileceği konusunda önemli sırlar ortaya koyuluyor. Bu kitap, özellikle teknoloji odaklı inovasyon yapmak isteyenlere yapılan hataları da göstererek uygulama ortamı oluşturuyor. Yenilik ilkelerini verirken startupların ve hatta büyük kuruluşların anlamlı ve sürdürülebilir büyüme konusundaki donanımını artırıyor. 2000'den fazla başarılı yeniliğin ortaya çıkışında önemli içgörüler sağlıyor.
Bu kitabın anlatım tarzında özel bir algoritma uygulanarak anlamlı gruplar belirlendi. İnovasyon fırsatlarını belirlemek için firmaların iç ve dış büyüme parametreleri ve performans değerleri, rakiplerini de devreye alarak şekillendirildi. İnovasyon odaklı performansın artırılabilmesi, önemli değerlendirmeler yapılabilmesi için özel ve hazır yol haritaları sunuldu. Endüstriler için de inovasyon modellerini teşhis edip yeni bir anlayış ve yöntem geliştirme imkânı sunuluyor.
Çevrimsel araştırmanın altyapısını vererek farklı ve anlamlı değişim ve dönüşümü düşündürüp kalıcı ve kullanışlı yollar uygulatarak kitabın ne kadar değerli olduğunu kanıtlıyor. Eğer kurumunuzda anlamlı ve sürdürülebilir büyümeyi inovasyon odaklı gerçekleştirmek isterseniz yenilik ilkelerinin detaylı olarak anlatıldığı İnovasyonun On Tipi kitabını okuyun.
Bu kitabın yazarlarından Larry Keeley'in tecrübelerinden yararlanmak büyük bir fırsat. Kendisi BusinessWeek tarafından inovasyon alanındaki dünya görüşünü ve paradigmaları değiştiren, yedi yenilik gurusundan biri olarak seçilmiş olup Doblin firmasının kurucusudur. Diğer yazarlar ile birlikte inovasyonun tasarlanması ve sürdürülebilir kılınması konusunda dünya çapında pek çok girişimciyi, yöneticiyi, şirketleri ve startupları etkilemiştir.

Cet article considère la mise au point à long terme du procédé du Kodachrome trichrome, issue de la collaboration scientifique entre les chercheurs indépendants Léopold Mannes, Léopold Godowsky et Eastman Kodak, en la situant à travers le prisme du financement, de l’incertitude de la recherche et de l’innovation technologique. L’analyse inédite du fonds d’archives Kodak de la British Library de Londres permet de mieux appréhender les rapports entre les débuts de la photographie et du cinéma amateur en couleur à grande échelle et les stratégies d’investissement des grandes firmes photographiques au vingtième siècle. Au cours de cette longue maturation du Kodachrome, le statut des chercheurs Mannes et Godowsky évolua en fonction du degré de confiance grandissant qu’Eastman Kodak leur conféra, par l’intermédiaire de son directeur de la recherche Kenneth Mees. Les contrats originaux entre Mannes, Godowsky et Eastman Kodak révèlent combien la recherche industrielle façonna une photographie en couleurs naturelles en devenir et, ce faisant, notre vaste culture visuelle du vingtième siècle. L’article analyse également la compétition intense entre Mannes, Godowsky et Leonard Troland, alors directeur de la recherche chez Technicolor, concernant ses innovations brevetées sur la technologie soustractive de tripack intégral.
Mots-clés : Kodak, Kodachrome, photographie en couleurs, recherche industrielle, innovation, brevets.

As far back as the late 1980s, Dave Siever began collecting, writing and publishing papers on Stimulation Technologies such as: Nutrition, Audio-visual Entrainment (AVE), Cranio-electrical Stimulation (CES) and transcranial DC Stimulation (tDCS). In Dave's quest for excellence in these technologies, he also had some insights into major improvements to these therapies and has applied for patents on some of his innovations as listed.

Patents and patent portfolios are valuable assets. Companies need a conceptual structure to assess the value of their patent portfolio. This paper develops a practical and reproducible framework that can support scholars and practitioners to leverage the value of patents and to extract all possible strategic information from patent portfolio. The patent assessment process aims at comparing and contrasting the management of patents to the company’s technologic and innovative strategy. The framework employs determinants of patent value that are elicited from patent databases, such as claims, citations, and market coverage, and that are expressed in terms of judgments achieved by interviewing involved managers, such as strategic relevance and economic relevance. The paper examines the main methodological issues in assessing patent portfolio value then, it describes the characteristics of the framework; subsequently, it illustrates the implementation of the proposed framework into two companies which operate in the aerospace and defense sector. The two implementations show that the framework can be used for strategic planning and strategic technology management.

In the era of the 21st century, the best higher education institutions have more than one role. Not only do they educate and train students but they also create new ideas and knowledge for the short-term contemporary issues as well as long-term complex problems. In the strategic goals, five aspects are critical in higher education: the democratization of knowledge and access, the contestability of the market and funding, the research technologies, the global mobility and the integration with the industry. Universities should have strategic plans including strategic goals. In this study, the strategic models and plans of the public (5) and private (5) universities are analysed from the five different aspects. In order to deeply understand the dynamics at these universities, the phenomenological interpretive analysis is preferred. University leaders
and managerial departments should consider market needs and do strategic plan accordingly. Hence, they should develop the strategic thinking capacity of both their academic staff and researchers for short and long terms need of the industry. Results have shown that most universities have wrong perception regarding the strategic model and plan. Neither private nor public universities possess enough knowledge on the subject.
Keywords: Higher education, university and industry partnership, strategic model and planning, higher education management, financing of higher education.

Primeiro Seminário dos "IP Topics for Engineering" ao Programa de Doutoramento em Engenharia Eletrotécnica e de Computadores da Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Monte da Caparica. Dia 16 de fevereiro de 2018.

Managing large numbers of employees in an international context can be a real challenge, particularly when a consistent and uniform handling of employees and their employment contracts is required across the corporation globally. Subtleties of local law also have to be taken into consideration, from statutory requirements regarding working time and vacation to regulatory requirements regarding remuneration, just to name but a few. One important aspect of employment contracts is the assignment of IP rights to the employer. It goes without saying that the employer must be entitled to use the employees’ work product. However, how this can be effected in various jurisdictions is not obvious in many cases. In this article, we touch on only some of the important points in a . Specific IP assignment agreements will need to be assessed on a case-by-case basis.

The introduction of hot blast was the most important development in early 19th century iron smelting. The conventional story of James Beaumont Nielson’s 1828 patent has been widely accepted since the 1840s. This paper re-appraises the development of hot blast in the light of an earlier patent of Thomas Botfield, and suggests that many elements of Botfield’s development anticipated those of Nielson. The role of Gilbert Gilpin, and through him connections with John Wilkinson and the iron industry in South Wales, are also discussed. It is argued that the early development of hot blast iron smelting in fact remains poorly understood, and some suggestions are made for improving understanding.

Mapping Research and Innovation in the State of Israel is the fifth of a series of country profiles prepared by UNESCO’s Global Observatory of Science, Technology and Innovation Policy Instruments (GO-SPIN). The series is designed to expose – through the rigorous application of an assessment lens—usable insights about science, technology, engineering and innovation (SETI) policies and their context. The GO-SPIN programme is helping Member States to reform and upgrade national science systems and governance. It promotes building capacity to monitor and evaluate the policy performance, through a structural analysis (covering the explicit policy, the SETI national ecosystem, the legal framework and operational policy instruments), because such analysis points to implicit policies and gaps, and situates the performance of Israel’s policy. In this way, the scope of standard SETI assessment can be widened, to take into account country-specific contexts, as well as emerging knowledge of technological advances that contribute to sustainable development. While complementing efforts to promote evidence-based SETI policy-making as well as efforts to evaluate policy performance, GO-SPIN offers a good baseline for the promotion of scientific and technological foresight studies.

This article sheds light on the pressing issue of software patents by giving an account of the approaches followed in Europe, the US and India. The occasion of this study is the adoption in 2016 of the final version of the Indian guidelines on the examination of computer-related inventions, which have been surprisingly overlooked in the legal literature. The main idea is that the Internet of Things will lead to a dramatic increase of applications for software patents and if examiners, courts, and legislators are not careful, there is a concrete risk of a surreptitious generalised grant of patents for computer programs as such (in Europe) and for abstract ideas without inventive concept (in the US). The clarity provided by the Indian guidelines, following a lively public debate, can constitute good practice that Europe and the US should take into account. Conversely, the sea of patent software looks very stormy in the US, where, after some reversals of the leading case Alice Corp v CLS Bank International, there seems to be the risk of swelling the ranks of speculative schemers who make it their business to watch the advancing wave of improvement, and gather its foam in the form of patented monopolies. Some good news, however, comes from a dissenting opinion that innovatively suggests bringing free speech into the reasoning on patents.

PLEASE CITE AS: Guido NOTO LA DIEGA, Software patents and the Internet of Things in Europe, the United States, and India, in European Intellectual Property Review, 2017, 39(3), 173-184.

The paper discusses upon the implication of TRIPs agreement relating to life forms in USA, EPO, India and Japan. It also sets the grounds on which patent are granted across these jurisdictions on life forms and the reasons for not granting patents for the same.

In 2015, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Standardization Association made some controversial changes to its patent policy. The changes include a recommended method of calculation of FRAND royalty rates, and a request to members holding a standard essential patent (SEP) to forego their right to seek an injunction except under limited circumstances. The updated policy was adopted by the IEEE Board of Directors after obtaining a favorable Business Review Letter by the US Department of Justice, which found any potential competitive harm from the policy to be outweighed by potential pro-competitive benefits. In this paper, we examine whether the same favorable conclusion would be reached under EU competition analysis. After discussing the role of patent policies of Standard-Setting Organizations (SSO) and the rules and principles applicable to the IEEE's activities, the paper concludes that standardization agreements based on the updated policy may constitute a violation of article 101 TFEU.

The present study discusses a little-known technology developed by Owen Jones for the relievo papier-mâché binding of the book, The Psalms of David, also known as The Victoria Psalter, published in 1861 in London. The essay presents results of the research on the patents for the book and provides evidence about their technological features. After exploring patent archives and libraries in Europe and in America, the author shares commentaries on the patent of Frederick Leake (relievo leather hangings), the patent of William Hancock (adhesive binding improvements in book-binding), and the patent of Samuel Slade and Robert Goldstein (ornamenting leather). Familiarity with the bookbinding patents is essential for the study of the historical structure, which also helps conservators’ technical preparedness and affords a complete scientific understanding of materials and techniques used in the manufacture of all Victorian relievo papier-mâché bindings.

*Belcheva, Malina. Unveiling Secrets of the Trade: Owen Jones and the Relievo Art of The Psalms of David. In book: Suave Mechanicals: Essays on the History of Bookbinding. Editor: Julia Miler, Vol. 7, The Legacy Press, Ann Arbor, MI, USA, 2022, 78-108. (ISBN: 9781953421081)

http://www.thelegacypress.com/suave-mechanicals-vol-7.html

Traditional Knowledge (TK) is a central component for the daily life of millions of people in developing countries, including India where access to “modern” health care services and medicine is limited due to economic and cultural constraints. Some TK is codified, that is, formalized in some way (eg Ayurveda) however, a great part of it is non-codified, such as, “folk”, “tribal” or “indigenous” medicine which is based on traditional beliefs, norms and practices accumulated during centuries old experiences of trial and error, and passed to successive generations through oral tradition. The protection under Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) of traditional and indigenous knowledge has received growing attention since the adoption of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1992. However, the concept of Protection in case of TK is understood and interpreted in different ways by different groups; hence there exist two schools of thought-as per one belief protection essentially means to exclude the unauthorized use by third parties; whereas others regard protection as a tool to preserve traditional knowledge from uses that may erode it or negatively affect the life or culture of the communities who are in possession of such knowledge and have developed / applied it.

Patents compared with any other intellectual property rights have unique features. In copyrights and trademarks, intellectual property rights may be protected regardless of their registration or not. This is somehow difficult in patents. It is very easy to infringe patent other than trademark and copyright, and this is what made the protection of it being crucial. We are living in the world of science and technology, and as patent involves inventions and innovations it could be unworthy and dangerous not giving it high degree of protection compared to other intellectual property rights. In Tanzania, patent is protected by the Patent (Registration) Act, [CAP.217, R.E. 2002]. The Act was enacted so as to make better provisions for the promotion of inventivity and innovation for the facilitation of the acquisition of technology on fair terms through the grant and regulation of patents, utility certificates and innovation certificates.
The Act has provided a number of provisions on how various inventions can be patentable upon a number of conditions.
This paper aim at showing those conditions, elements to be fulfilled by the petitioner(s) on the patentability of patent in Tanzania.

Este trabajo trata sobre los desarrollos biotecnológicos susceptibles ser protegidos, principalmente a través del sistema de patentes en Argentina, EE.UU y Europa. Es un trabajo que integra conocimientos científico - tecnológicos y derecho de patentes, mostrando los diferentes requerimientos legales para la protección, ventajas y desventajas.

Inquisitive scientists are untiring and relentless in the hard work they perform day in and day out. In this pursuit, a researcher has to exercise their intellectual expertise in its entirety. Eventually, all credit of the invention is vested with the inventor who has the right of control over their intellectual creation. Likewise, pharmaceutical companies spend extravagantly in successfully introducing a novel drug from hundreds and thousands of lead compounds. Hence, it is a prerogative for every company to protect its innovative products from unauthorized duplication. Certainly, "patents" are the sole custodians of these products of medical intelligence-the drugs! This review focuses on the various intricacies of the drug patent system all over the world with special emphasis on India, Europe, and the United States. A note on other intellectual properties such as copyrights, trademarks, and designs is also added.

This study analyses the patents filed and technologies licensed by network of Indian laboratories under world's one of the largest Public Funded Research Organization (PFRO)-Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR). A case study approach is followed based on secondary data collected from annual reports of CSIR laboratories, official websites, government data repositories and through Right to Information (RTI) applications filed (under RTI Act 2005, Government of India). The study analyzes various characteristics of patents filed and technologies licensed by CSIR laboratories and, using grounded theory approach, substantiated the analysis with existing literature to enhance robustness. It was attempted to establish relation between Extra Budgetory Resources generated, patents filed and technologies transferred by CSIR laboratories.

Cette thèse a pour but d’éclairer le rôle économique de la science et de la technologie dans le cadre du capitalisme. À cette fin, elle s’enracine d’abord dans une discussion des thèses développées à ce sujet par Karl Marx à l’égard du capitalisme industriel qu’il avait sous les yeux. En tenant compte de la distance temporelle qui nous sépare du contexte de rédaction de son œuvre, soit de la transition du capitalisme industriel au capitalisme avancé, elle s’intéresse ensuite au rôle que joue la production scientifique et technologique dans le cadre du capitalisme avancé. En ce sens, l’objectif de cette thèse est double. D’une part, elle vise à ressaisir et à mettre au jour la façon dont Marx problématise le rapport de la science et de la technologie à la dynamique économique de son époque. D’autre part, elle vise à éclairer les modalités et les enjeux liés à l’intégration de la production scientifique et technologique dans la dynamique économique contemporaine.

Cette thèse prend le contrepied d’auteurs comme Michael Hardt et Antonio Negri qui ont cherché de façon similaire à théoriser l’avènement d’une économie dite « immatérielle » à partir du concept d’« intellect général » de Marx. Elle montre les insuffisances de cette perspective théorique tant du point de vue du diagnostic posé sur le travail immatériel que du point de vue de l’interprétation de concepts centraux de la pensée de Marx. Dans la première partie, cette thèse s’efforce de ressaisir et de recomposer une trame narrative qui traverse l’œuvre de Marx, non seulement au sujet du rôle économique de la science et de la technologie, mais plus fondamentalement en ce qui concerne l’inventivité qui est posée par cet auteur comme une dimension inhérente à l’activité humaine et dont il problématise la prise en charge sous le capitalisme comme un devenir étranger des potentialités humaines, c’est-à-dire comme procès d’aliénation. Dans la seconde partie, cette thèse fait état des transformations organisationnelles et institutionnelles qui ont caractérisé l’avènement du capitalisme avancé : soit la grande corporation, les marchés oligopolistiques, le système financier et le système des brevets. S’attardant au cas historique type d’un modèle d’affaires fondé sur la recherche et le développement, General Electric, elle rend compte des modalités organisationnelles et institutionnelles qui opèrent l’intégration de l’activité scientifique et technologique à la production dans le cadre du capitalisme avancé. Enfin, à partir de la discussion préalable de l’œuvre de Marx, elle problématise les enjeux liés à cette intégration de la production scientifique et technologique comme soumission virtuelle de la pratique sociale au capital, c’est-à-dire comme capacité à déterminer des objets d’usage futurs et les formes de pratiques et de jouissances sociales qui s’y rattachent.

Prolonged development times for pharmaceuticals need special strategies for successful patent protection. The combination of patent (and SPC) protection with data exclusivity (market protection) may be used for the protection of investments in new drugs. The knowledge of these protection means helps to anticipate a potential market entry of generic products (update at www.inpharmation.de).

The law of patents in India is governed by the patent Act 1970 as
amended by the patent Act 1990. A bill named patent bill 1999 which
had proposed substantial changes in the law was introduced in the
parliament  in  December  1999,  and  was  passed  as  the  patent  Act
2002.A  patent  is  monopoly  right  granted  to  a  person  who  has
invented a new and useful or an improvement of an existing article or
a new process of making an article. After the expiry of the duration
of patent, anybody can make use of the invention. A patent is a form
of industrial property or as it is now called intellectual property. The
owner of the patent can sell this property. A patent being a creation
of statute is territorial in extent. A patent granted in one stated cannot
be enforced in another state unless the invention concerned is also
patented in that state. A patent is not granted for an idea or principal
as such, but for some  article or the process of  making some article
applying the idea.
The object of granting a patent is to encourage and develop new
technology and industry. An inventor may disclose the new invention
only  if  he  is  rewarded;  otherwise  he  may  work  it  secretly.  In
consideration  of  the  grant  of  monopoly  for  a  limited  period,  the
inventor discloses the details of the new invention and the method
working it so that after the expiry of monopoly period others can use
the invention or improve upon it.

This research was funded by, and implemented within, a UK national research organisation, while the author was the KE and Impact Evaluation Manager responsible for assessing impact on a £15m UK government-funded research programme.

This work was also submitted as the authors MBA dissertation which was accepted and awarded in 2009.

ABSTRACT: A methodology and methods ‘toolbox’ is proposed for conducting impact research and assessment from within research programmes. The emphasis is upon how to clarify and assess the wider impacts from the early stages onwards.

The approach explicitly acknowledges, and attempts to address, the known issues and challenges of impact assessment while drawing upon the resources and opportunities available to research managers and researchers within such programmes.

The study has two triangulating foundations. Firstly, it examines the academic literature to help identify and design the pilot methodology and methods. Secondly it trials these in a real programme to both test and improve them.

The study was conducted over one year within one leading UK research organisation, where two research programmes (and around 60 research projects of £15m total value) were being assessed for their impacts. The study draws upon actual impact management experience and reflection, prospective (ex ante) and retrospective (ex post) assessments, participatory contributions from leading researchers undergoing assessment, and consultation with external users. The findings of this study outline the pilot and its first iteration. Recommendations are made for improvement to the methodology and methods.

A subsequent follow-on bid to UK government incorporating the impacts identified from implementing this methodology, successfully led to a further £15m of government funding.

It is expected the pilot methodology and methods will be applicable to other organisations, conducting and funding such research programmes, required to research and assess the wider research impacts.

Although primary focus of implemetation trials was upon research in physical sciences, technology, high-tech engineering, computing/IT, and environment, the wider literature study, the methodology design and justification, the methods proposed and used, and the resulting general recommendations and lessons are expected to apply more broadly to many other research areas, where the impact is to be found more widely in the society, economy, government or public sector or within organizations, policies, professions or the public.

Interest in this work is expected from research programme managers, impact managers and assessors, management consultants advising in this area, and government funding managers, all seeking to embed a developing approach to understand, capture, and enhance wider impact.

Desde hace algún tiempo algunos sectores han proclamado una falsa dicotomía a saber: derecho de patentes vs apropiado acceso a los medicamentos, o monopolios derivados de patentes vs derecho a la salud. En realidad, se advierte que no se trata de un derecho versus el otro, sino de la existencia de una complementación de ambos.
Pero una cosa es proclamarlo y otra muy diferente es abordar esta temática compleja, desmenuzarla con seriedad y probar la complementariedad aludida.
En la presente obra los autores se han propuesto asumir el desafío de estudiar el delicado equilibrio entre el respeto a las patentes y el acceso a las medicinas esenciales, el contenido de cada uno de los derechos involucrados (propiedad y salud), los conflictos que se pueden suscitar entre ellos y el juicio de proporcionalidad como propuesta de solución.
Pablo Ianello en el capítulo II analiza la justificación de la propiedad y de las patentes sobre medicinas desde la filosofía moral y política. Presenta una revisión de las dos principales explicaciones filosóficas sobre la propiedad intelectual, mostrando los límites que éstas presentan. Posteriormente, brinda una aproximación jurídica al sistema de patentes en materia de medicamentos esenciales, describiendo el estado actual de la cuestión en relación con los instrumentos internacionales más importantes. Efectúa una interesante reflexión desde una óptica que resulta a menudo olvidada con respecto a qué derecho priorizar: si solamente lo de las generaciones actuales o también los derechos de las próximas generaciones, asumiendo que estas últimas serán quienes sufrirán las consecuencias de una disminución de la tasa de invención. Enfatiza que si los monopolios de las patentes cumplen una función de incentivar la investigación y el propósito es atacarlo sin suplantarlo, la investigación tenderá a decrecer por lo que se vería indefectiblemente afectado el derecho a la salud de las generaciones futuras.
Gustavo Schötz en el capítulo III se dedica a demostrar que, pese a lo que sostienen algunos, es posible alcanzar la convivencia armónica entre el derecho de salud de los pacientes, que requieren acceso a medicinas esenciales, y el derecho de propiedad intelectual de los titulares de patentes sobre esas medicinas.
Alienta el respeto de todos los miembros de la comunidad, procurando acreditar que el derecho a la salud de los pacientes no va en desmedro del respeto al derecho de propiedad del inventor y viceversa. Señala el problema de sucumbir al facilismo de sostener que ambos derechos entran en colisión y que únicamente se puede favorecer a uno en desmedro del otro.
Para poder vislumbrar una solución, Schötz en los capítulos IV y V se propuso analizar el contenido y eficacia de tales derechos afrontando la tarea de evaluar si el derecho de propiedad emanado de la patente puede ser caratulado como derecho humano como lo es el derecho a la salud.
Destaca que el derecho a la salud corresponde primeramente a los ciudadanos frente al Estado, señalando en este sentido que toda persona tiene derecho a la prevención, tratamiento y control de enfermedades. Efectúa una importante reflexión con respecto a aquellos que acusan al sistema de patentes como obstáculo al acceso a los medicamentos. Nos recuerda que existen múltiples prestaciones vinculadas con el derecho a la salud, citando a la vacunación universal, el acceso a estudios clínicos preventivos, el poder acceder a cirugías, transplantes, provisión de prótesis, internación, tratamientos de rehabilitación, etcétera. En este sentido, cita un documento explicativo de las Naciones Unidas que proclama que el grado de obligatoriedad de los Estados los obliga a adoptar medidas que sean necesarias para que toda persona tenga acceso a los establecimientos, bienes y servicios de salud, incluyendo a los preventivos, curativos y de rehabilitación, tratamiento apropiado de enfermedades, afecciones, lesiones y discapacidades frecuentes.
En otras palabras, es un llamado de atención a aquellas voces que parecen sostener que el derecho a la salud se agota en el suministro de medicación, carga que únicamente parece recaer sobre quienes se dedican al desarrollo de medicinas innovadoras, cuando en realidad hay distintos sectores involucrados y son varios los jugadores que deben verse comprometidos en esa misión.
A su vez, Schötz apropiadamente enfatiza que en relación al objeto del derecho al medicamento, no todas las medicinas son iguales, alertando que existen prioridades y urgencias. Solamente aquellos medicamentos que no pueden demorarse su administración merecen el rótulo de “medicina esencial”. Señala entonces que parece oportuno limitar el objeto del derecho humano al medicamento a las medicinas esenciales, expresando que sólo una pequeña cantidad de las medicinas esenciales están sujetas a patentes, lo cual tampoco implica su disfrute asegurado pues los problemas de acceso tienen más que ver con la infraestructura médica o la cadena de distribución.
En este sentido, indica que las empresas farmacéuticas sin dudas tienen una función en todo este esquema, consistente en la responsabilidad de colaborar con la vigencia del derecho a la salud, primariamente, cumpliendo su principal objetivo que es desarrollar y proveer medicinas eficaces. Pero enfatiza que es el Estado el protagonista esencial que debe velar por los enfermos, sin tener que necesariamente desconocer para tal fin el derecho de propiedad de los innovadores.
Nos recuerda que tanto la propiedad intelectual como los demás derechos tienen en común propender al bienestar de las personas. Sostiene que, de hecho, la finalidad de la concesión de la patente es en beneficio de la salud de los pacientes, ya que su objetivo primordial es lograr nuevos y mejores medicamentos.
Para no debatir solo en teoría, el autor citado en el capítulo X analiza un caso en particular, como lo fue la licencia compulsiva sobre el “Efavirenz” (antirretroviral contra el HIV) decretada por el gobierno brasileño, tratando de demostrar que tales derechos entran en un aparente conflicto cuando, en realidad, son intrínsecamente complementarios o cooperativos.
OCTAVIO MITELMAN
Citar: elDial.com - CC377E. Copyright 2020 - elDial.com - editorial Albrematica - Tucumán 1440 (1050) - Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires - Argentina

FROM THE WHITE HOUSE to the World Trade Organization (WTO), heated debates have flared up around the compulsory licensing of COVID-19 vaccine technologies, producing a flurry of op-eds in all of the major US newspapers. Should patent protections, these op-eds ask, be temporarily relaxed to enable developing countries to produce and distribute cheaper shots to ensure timely global immunization? Can compulsory licenses actually achieve that goal, or would the efforts of developing countries be thwarted by other constraints, like limited production capacity, equipment, and skills? Conversely, would the granting of such licenses stymie medical innovation?
These exchanges provide a window onto today’s patent politics and the chasm between the financial interests of the Global North and the health needs of the Global South. They also highlight the rhetorical dimensions of health policy discourse as it plays out in the media, not through scholarly articles and data sets but in compact op-eds.