Language Skills

Children's emergent literacy has received considerable attention in the last decade. The modal view of emergent literacy is that it encompasses all aspects of children's oral and written language skills. The present article proposes an alternative view whereby emergent literacy is a separate construct from oral language and metalinguistic skills. It is also proposed that emergent literacy is composed of two distinct components; children's conceptual knowledge (e.g., knowledge of the functions of print) and children's early procedural knowledge of writing and reading (e.g., invented spelling). Evidence is presented that supports this differentiated view of language and emergent literacy by showing that distinct patterns of relations exist among emergent literacy, oral language, and metalinguistic skills. It is concluded that separating the constructs of language and emergent literacy is an interesting alternative to current conceptions of emergent literacy. In time, such theoretical fine tuning will serve as better guides for policy and practice.

This thesis consists of three empirical studies in economics of education on the determinants and consequences of language-in-education (LiE) policies. The “Environmental settings – Inputs – Processes – Immediate outcomes – Long-term outcomes” (EIPOL) evaluation model is applied to LiE policies and programs and serves as the overall framework of this research (see Introductory Chapter). Each study then targets at least one stage of the EIPOL framework to test the validity of the “green” vs. “free-market” linguistic theories. Whereas the two first studies derive models tested empirically in the African context, the third is tested on a sample of countries from the International Adult Literacy Survey (IALS). The first study, Rationales to Language-in-Education Policies in Postcolonial Africa: Towards a Holistic Approach, considers two issues. First, it explores the factors affecting the choice of an LiE policy in 35 African countries. The results show that the countries adopting a uni...

Objective Poor condition at birth may impact on IQ, although its effect on other measures of neurodevelopment is unclear. The authors' aim was to determine whether infants receiving resuscitation after birth have reduced scores in measures of attention, memory and language skills or the need for educational support at school even in the absence of clinical encephalopathy. Methods Three groups of term infants were identifi ed from the Avon longitudinal study of parents and children: infants resuscitated at birth but asymptomatic for encephalopathy (n=612), infants resuscitated who developed symptoms of encephalopathy (n=40) and the reference infants who were not resuscitated and had no further neonatal care (n=8080). Measures of attention, language, memory and the need for educational support were obtained for children between 8 years and 11 years. Test results (standardised to a mean of 100 and SD of 15) were adjusted for clinical and social covariates. Missing covariate data were imputed using chained equations. Results Infants asymptomatic after resuscitation had similar scores to those not requiring resuscitation for all measures while infants who developed encephalopathy had lower working memory (−6.65 (−12.34 to −0.96)), reading accuracy (−7.95 (−13.28 to −2.63)) and comprehension (−9.32 (−14.47 to −4.17) scores and increased risk of receiving educational support (OR 6.24 (1.52 to 26.43)) than infants thought to be well at birth, although there was little evidence for an association after excluding infants who developed cerebral palsy. Conclusions The authors found no evidence that infants who were resuscitated but remained well afterwards differed from those not requiring resuscitation in the aspects of neuropsychological functioning assessed in this study. Infants who developed neonatal encephalopathy had evidence of worse functioning, particularly in language skills and were more likely to receive educational support at school.

Knowing that writing is a crucial but challenging language skill in both academic and career lives, researchers have continually explored ways to facilitate learning and teaching of writing at different educational levels. This experimental study investigates the impact of using mentor texts in undergraduate writing classes on the students' writing proficiency. A quantitative, pre-posttest experimental design was used to achieve this purpose. Based on the strong relationship between reading and writing, and stemming from the modeling approach to learning, mentor texts are tested as potential tools in teaching word choice, sentence structure, and organization for Arab university undergraduates studying English as a foreign language. This is done by examining expository essays written by 128 female students before, during, and after the fifteen-week study period. The subjects are divided into control and experimental groups. A non-parametric Friedman test of differences among repeated measures is conducted and rendered a Chi-square value of 125.242 which is significant (p<.01). Comparing the scores of the three components of the essays, which are word choice, sentence structure, and organization, resulted in the finding that mentor texts could be an effective strategy to teach these three writing traits to undergraduate students.

Background: Analyses from the Jyväskylä Longitudinal Study of Dyslexia project show that the key childhood predictors (phonological awareness, short-term memory, rapid naming, expressive vocabulary, pseudoword repetition, and letter naming) of dyslexia differentiate the group with reading disability (n ¼ 46) and the group without reading problems (n ¼ 152) at the end of the 2nd grade. These measures were employed at the ages of 3.5, 4.5 and 5.5 years and information regarding the familial risk of dyslexia was used to find the most sensitive indices of an individual child's risk for reading disability. Methods: Age-specific and across-age logistic regression models were constructed to produce the risk indices. The predictive ability of the risk indices was explored using the ROC (receiver operating curve) plot. Information from the logistic models was further utilised in illustrating the risk with probability curve presentations. Results: The logistic regression models with familial risk, letter knowledge, phonological awareness and RAN provided a prediction probability above .80 (area under ROC). Conclusions: The models including familial risk status and the three above-mentioned measures offer a rough screening procedure for estimating an individual child's risk for reading disability at the age of 3.5 years. Probability curves are presented as a method of illustrating the risk.

Since 1990 the DRA Speech Research Unit has conducted research into applications of speech recognition technology to speech and language development for young children. This has been done in collaboration wirh Hereford and Worcester County Council Education ...

Learning about the world and sharing one's own discoveries can be powerful motivators for learning to read, write, and speak effectively. To build literacy, young children need more than instruction in such fundamental skills as recognizing letters, decoding words, learning vocabulary words, and reading and discussing stories. They also need opportunities to use oral and written language to learn about the world and to communicate their ideas and observations. Although educators traditionally have not thought of science instruction as a setting for literacy learning, inquiry-based science instruction can provide a rich context in which to build language skills. Students are typically curious about the world around them and eager to talk, read, and write about what they are learning. Inquiry-based science, as we define it, involves students in using the tools of science to answer questions about real-world phenomena. This type of inquiry is a collective effort in which students compare their thinking with others' thinking, actively communicate with one another, and express their ideas through words and graphics. Inquiry science and literacy intersect when students use reading, writing, and oral language to address questions about science content (for example, why humans are able to see different colors, or how an object's rate of motion is related to its mass), and to build their capacity to engage in scientific reasoning (for example, how to collect data in a controlled way, or how to generate claims about a phenomenon on the basis of patterns in data). Reading, Writing, and Oral Language What kinds of literacy learning can educators promote in the context of inquiry-based science? The following list is illustrative but not exhaustive.

Asperger syndrome (AS) is differentiated from high-functioning autism (HFA) largely on a history of “language delay.” This study examined “specific language impairment” as a predictor of outcome. Language skills of 19 children with AS and 45 with HFA were assessed at 4–6 years of age (Time 1) and 2 years later (Time 2). Children’s symptoms and functional outcome scores were assessed every 2 years (Times 3, 4, and 5) until ages 15–17 years old. Regression analysis revealed that specific language impairment at time 2 more often accounted for the greatest variation in outcome scores in adolescence than the standard diagnosis of AS versus HFA based on history of language delay. Diagnostic implications are discussed.

In this article, we assess the value of VRoma for Latin language learning. In particular, we discuss three exercises that we developed which combine Latin language and Roman culture in order to help students reinforce their Latin skills and gain a more in-depth understanding of ancient Roman society. Daily journals and evaluations of the assignments provided an assessment of student motivation and gave us information concerning students' perceptions of the benefits and challenges of working in the VRoma MOO. Transcripts and e-mail responses, both composed in Latin, allowed us to assess both the quality of students' interaction in the target language and their understanding of cultural and linguistic structures. Our studies have shown that by combining visual arts and cultural data with the capacity for real time communication in Latin, VRoma provides a unique opportunity for students to be immersed in language and culture simultaneously. Such an opportunity is not only useful for developing students' language skills but also for giving them a more sophisticated understanding of the ways that language and culture are integrated.

This paper reports a videotaped self-observation of a 47 minute ESL reading lesson. The focus of the lesson was on intensive reading. The entire teaching session was videotaped; the videotaped data were analyzed using (a) ethnographic microanalysis, (b) selective verbatim transcripts, (c) Seating Chart Observation REcord (SCORE), (d) conversational analysis, and (e) Initiation-Response-Feedback (IRF) sequences. The paper addresses key issues

The main objective of this paper is the presentation of implications for the creation of a Blended-Learning-Model. The mission of the Blended Learning is help through computer supported collaborative and individual learning tasks, as well as a more human-like dimension for positive and corrective feedback. The b-learning can assist the teacher in proposing class scenarios using Internet resources to develop communicative and intercultural competence.

Background: Children with poorer language skills are more likely to show externalizing behavior problems, as well as to become rejected by their peers. Peer rejection has also been found to affect the development of externalizing behavior. This study explored the role of peer rejection in the link between language skills and the development of externalizing behavior. Methods: Six hundred and fifteen (615) children were followed from kindergarten to grade 4. Receptive language skills were measured with the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test in grade 2. Teachers reported externalizing behavior and peer reports of social rejection were measured annually. Results: Children with poorer receptive language skills showed increasing externalizing behavior, while children with better receptive language skills showed decreases in externalizing behavior. Children with poorer receptive language skills experienced peer rejection most frequently. The link between receptive language skills and the development of externalizing behavior was mediated by the development of peer rejection. Findings suggested that this mediational link applied mostly to boys. Conclusion: Children with poorer language skills are at increased risk of becoming rejected by mainstream peers, which adds to the development of externalizing behavior.

nouns Refer to general concepts, qualities, feelings and ideas, e.g. freedom or honesty Algebra The part of maths that uses symbols or letters (called pro numerals) to stand for numbers, values or quantities, e.g. A = L x W Algebraic representation The conventions, symbols and letters used in writing algebraic sentences and formulae Analogy A similarity between like features of two things, on which a comparison may be based, e.g. the analogy between the heart and a pump Autonomous learner Independent learner with the willingness and capacity to take charge of own learning AQF Australian Qualifications Framework which is a single, 10 level coherent framework for the school, VET and higher education sectors in Australia Chance events An event or happening of which the outcome is uncertain, e.g. rolling a six with a die Complex sentence A sentence that contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses which are joined by words (subordinators) such as because, since, alt...

Objective: To present a model for autism showing that impairment of sensory and self-regulation is the core deficit that underlies delays in social/language skills and abnormal behavior in autism; and to demonstrate the efficacy of a treatment for autism based on Chinese medicine. Methods: Children with autism under 6 years of age were assigned to treatment or wait-list conditions. A total of 130 children were treated and the results compared with 45 wait-list controls. Treatment is a tuina methodology directed at sensory impairment--Kai Qiao Tuina. The treatment was a five-month protocol that was implemented daily by trained parents via trained support staff. The effects of treatment on the main symptoms, autistic behavior, social/ language delay, sensory and self-regulatory impairment, as well as on parenting stress, were observed and compared. Results: The treatment had a large effect size (P<0.0001) on measures of sensory and self-regulation. The evaluations done by pre-school teachers demonstrated improvement in the measures of autism (P<0.003), and were confirmed by evaluations done by parents (P<0.0001). There was a large decrease (P<0.0001) in parenting stress. Conclusions: Sensory and self-regulatory impairment is a main factor in the development and severity of autism. Treatment of young children with autism with Kai Qiao Tuina resulted in a decrease in sensory and self-regulatory impairment and a reduction in severity of measures of autism. KEYWORDS Kai Qiao Tuina, Qigong sensory training, autism treatment for children, sensory impairment, abnormal sensory responses, autism, early intervention for autism • 422 • Chin J Integr Med 2011 Jun;17(6):421-429

The work reported in this paper investigated the putative functional dependence of pragmatic language skills on general mind-reading capacity by testing theory-of-mind abilities and understanding of non-literal speech in patients with schizophrenia and in healthy controls. Patients showed difficulties with inferring mental states on a false-belief picture-sequencing task and with understanding metaphors and irony on a story-comprehension task. These difficulties were independent of low verbal IQ and a more generalised problem inhibiting prepotent information. Understanding of metaphors and understanding of irony made significant and independent contributions to discriminating patients from controls, suggesting that metaphor and irony make distinct pragmatic demands.

Language impairment is a common core feature in Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDD) and Specific Language Impairment (SLI). Many studies have tried to define the specific language profiles of these disorders, some claiming the existence of overlaps, and others conceiving of them as separate categories. Fewer have sought to determine whether and how PDD-NOS language profile, including prosody, differs from those

The pattern of acquisition of social, communication, and daily living skills was examined for autistic children, compared to retarded and normal controls, by quantifying intradomain scatter on the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales. Autistic children were matched to normal children and mentally retarded children on Vineland raw scores; group differences in scatter were examined for each domain of adaptive behavior. Autistic children had significantly more scatter on Communication and Socialization than both control groups. Item analyses showed that the autistic children had particular weaknesses on items reflecting attention to and pragmatic use of language, as well as play and reciprocal social interaction; the autistic children had particular strengths on items reflecting written language and rote language skills, and rule-governed social behavior. The number of items showing consistent group differences, however, was small, suggesting that although autistic development appears seq...

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has always been a source of concern for ESP scholars in developing the learners" professional skills one which is their speaking proficiency. Inspired by implementation of ESP speaking tasks, the current study investigated the impact of speaking tasks on the speaking proficiency of Iranian cabin crew members in the safety emergency procedure course. The participants in the current study were 60 Iranian male and female cabin crew members selected from 100 cabin crew members at Mahan Airline. The took Oxford Placement Test (OPT) to homogenize their proficiency level as intermediate ESP learners, and they were randomly assigned into the experimental group and the control group with 30 participants in each group. In the course of the study, the participants in the control group were taught via traditional method of Mahan Airline curriculum while the participants in the experimental group were taught through in-flight group discussion as their treatment. To compare the speaking performances of the two groups, a pre-test prior to the treatment and a post-test after the treatment were administered. The results of the study revealed that using speaking tasks, which were applied through in-flight discussions on safety measures during the flight, could pave the way for the cabin crew members to improve their ESP speaking proficiency.

This study examined the development of language in low-SES rural Appalachian children from kindergarten through middle childhood. Findings showed that the children's language skills improved significantly between kindergarten and middle childhood, with all middle childhood language means within the average range. However, all areas of language except the ability to correctly interpret nonliteral language remained significantly below normative population means. Girls performed significantly better than did boys and higher-SES girls performed better than lower-SES girls. Nonliteral language and receptive syntax were relative strengths and vocabulary and pragmatic judgment were relative weaknesses. Use of grammatical markers of Appalachian English was not related to language skills and, as a group, these children demonstrated adequate phonological working memory. Standardized measures of morphology and syntax best classified children into groups who received remedial services for reading or other language-related tasks and those who did not. Implications of these finding are discussed.

Specific effects of home literacy on the development of word decoding and reading comprehension from first through third grade were examined in an ethnically and social-economically heterogeneous sample of 69 Dutch children. Home environment pertained to children's opportunity for educational interactions, and parents' instructional and social-emotional quality during literate (joint book reading) and nonliterate (joint problem-solving) activities. Home environment was assessed before first grade; reading achievement at the end of first and third grade. At the end of first grade, oral language skills also were measured. Results revealed that parents' instructional and social-emotional quality had an effect on the development of reading comprehension, but not on word decoding. The effect was found for parental quality during both literate and nonliterate interactions. Finally, the home environmental effect was mediated by children's oral language skills in first grade, which lends support to a pragmatic oral language route to reading comprehension.

Purpose: To examine the relationship between phonological processing skills prior to kindergarten entry and reading skills at the end of 1st grade, in children with speech sound disorders (SSD). Method: The participants were 17 children with SSD and poor phonological processing skills (SSD-low PP), 16 children with SSD and good phonological processing skills (SSD-high PP), and 35 children with typical speech who were first assessed during their prekindergarten year using measures of phonological processing (i.e., speech perception, rime awareness, and onset awareness tests), speech production, receptive and expressive language, and phonological awareness skills. This assessment was repeated when the children were completing 1st grade. The Test of Word Reading Efficiency was also conducted at that time. First-grade sight word and nonword reading performance was compared across these groups. Results: At the end of 1st grade, the SSD-low PP group achieved significantly lower nonword decoding scores than the SSD-high PP and typical speech groups. The 2 SSD groups demonstrated similarly good receptive language skills and similarly poor articulation skills at that time, however. No between-group differences in sight word reading were observed. All but 1 child (in the SSD-low PP group) obtained reading scores that were within normal limits. Conclusion: Weaknesses in phonological processing were stable for the SSD-low PP subgroup over a 2-year period.

Language is the vehicle of our thought, a significant medium of expression of our feelings and experiences. Of all the languages, English is considered the most important language owing to its worldwide use as a medium of communication between nations. In the present-day world, one ought to have command of English language if one wishes to succeed in his chosen field. Accordingly, the importance of teaching English cannot be overemphasized. It constitutes an integral part of curriculum for B.Ed. students. The present book has been prepared with meticulous care as per the new syllabus on English Method for B.Ed. course. It contains ten chapters, each chapter having sections and sub-sections arranged systematically and sequentially to best meet the needs of B.Ed. students of various universities in India. It is a reader-friendly piece of work based on the experiences of authors, in the teaching of English Method, interaction with B.Ed. students, literature available in different libraries, and the data downloaded from the internet.
Beginning with the concept of language, the book provides an in-depth study of aims and objectives of ELT, language skills, teaching methods, instructional materials, evaluation and linguistics. Besides, chapters devoted to contents and pedagogical analysis and spoken English are highly informative and easily comprehensible. While Appendices and Subject Index included in the book facilitate easy understanding, Bibliography completes the book.
The present book will undoubtedly prove extremely useful for all B.Ed. students and MA (Education) of Indian Universities whereas for teachers it is an ideal reference book.
This is a syllabus-based book for B.Ed., & MA(Education) course , especially designed for the students of M.D. University, Kurukshetra University, Ravenshaw University, Utkal University, Rohtak University, Lovely Professional University, Himachal Pradesh University, Punjab University, Fakir Mohan University, Sambalpur University, Central University, Koraput, Central University, Hayana, Central University, Punjab, and J.N. University. The book would be equally useful for MA (Education), B.Ed., B.Ed Special Education M.Ed, M.Ed Special Education and DIET, JBT students of other Colleges of Teacher Education, Center of Advanced Studies in Education, District Institutes of Education and Training, Indian and foreign universities throughout the world.

This article describes 2 points of view about the relationship between oral-language and literacy skills: The phonological sensitivity approach posits that vocabulary provides the basis for phonological sensitivity, which then is the key language ability supporting reading, and the comprehensive language approach (CLA) posits that varied language skills interact with literacy knowledge and continue to play a vital role in subsequent reading achievement. The study included 533 Head Start preschool-aged children (M ϭ 4 years 9 months) in 2 locations and examined receptive vocabulary, phonological awareness, and print knowledge. Partial correlational and regression analyses found results consistent with the CLA approach and evidence of a core deficit in phonological sensitivity, interpreted in a manner consistent with the CLA perspective.

This paper reports a study that followed the development of reading skills in 72 children from the age of 8.5 to 13 years. Each child was administered tests of reading, oral language, phonological skills and nonverbal ability at time 1 and their performance on tests of reading comprehension, word recognition, nonword decoding and exception word reading was assessed at time 2. In addition to phonological skills, three measures of non-phonological oral language tapping vocabulary knowledge and listening comprehension were unique concurrent predictors of both reading comprehension and word recognition at time 1. Importantly, all three measures of oral language skill also contributed unique variance to individual differences in reading comprehension, word recognition and exception word reading four and a half years later, even when the autoregressive effects of early reading skill were controlled. Moreover, the extent to which a child's word recognition departed from the level predicted from their decoding ability correlated with their oral language skills. These findings suggest that children's oral language proficiency, as well as their phonological skills, influences the course of reading development.

This study investigated relations between preschool talk exposure and immigrant first graders' second language literacy and oral skills outcomes. Participants in the study were 25 children with Turkish as their first language and Norwegian as their second, attending various multilingual and ethnically diverse preschool classrooms in Norway and videotaped during preschool group conversations. Group conversations were coded for vocabulary richness, discourse complexity and emergent phonics talk. Relations between the qualities of the preschool group conversations that the children participated in and their second language vocabulary, listening comprehension and code related skills outcomes 1 year later in first grade were examined. Preschool classroom vocabulary richness and discourse complexity predicted first grade vocabulary (receptive vocabulary and word definition skills), but not listening comprehension. No associations were found between preschool classroom emergent phonics talk and first grade code-related skills. The findings have implications for early interventions addressing reading comprehension.

Language samples from matched groups of 80 autistic, mentally handicapped, and normally developing children were coded for the presence of neologisms and~or idiosyncratic language use. Cognitive, socia~ or linguistic factors that might account for these errors were identified and assessed. More autistic subjects used neologisms and idiosyncratic language than age-and language skill-matched control groups. No single factor or combination of factors was responsible for this difference. Across diagnostic groups, similar patterns of error were noted, except that the autistic subjects were more likely to use words inappropriately that had no phonological or semantic similarity to the intended English word. For the autistic groups, the frequency of idiosyncratic language increased with language complexity. In contrast, such errors decreased with language skill in the mentally handicapped group. Theoretical implications for determining the nature and source of the language disorder associated with autism are discussed

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between a teacher report measure, the Teacher Rating of Oral Language and Literacy (TROLL; Dickinson et al. in Teacher rating of oral language and literacy (TROLL): a research-based tool. Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 2001) and a direct behavioral measure of language development, the Preschool Language Scale-4 (PLS-4; Zimmerman et al. in Preschool Language Scale-4. The Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, 2002), among English-speaking (n = 210), Spanish-speaking (n = 34), and English/Spanish bilingual (n = 109) typically-developing preschool children. Three hundred and fifty-three preschool children who attended early childhood education programs in an urban area of the Southwestern United States participated. Preschool teachers completed the TROLL, and the PLS-4 was individually administered to the children at preschool centers. The TROLL and PLS-4 were significantly correlated for English-speaking children, but with small effect sizes noted. For Spanish-speaking children, the TROLL and the expressive subscale of the PLS-4 were not significant, and for bilingual children the TROLL and PLS-4 were not significant. English-speaking children scored higher on the TROLL than the Spanish-speaking and bilingual children. Finally, a higher proportion of Spanish-speaking and bilingual children received a TROLL score at or below the 10th percentile. Results suggest that the TROLL did not adequately capture typically developing children’s linguistic and literacy development in a uniform manner across language groups. Caution is recommended when relying upon a single instrument to describe the emergent literacy and language skills of preschool children from Spanish-speaking and bilingual backgrounds.

The main purpose of this paper is to explain the advantages of
using literature as a resource in second and foreign language
classrooms. To this end, the benefits of integrating literature in
language classrooms is first presented within the scope of the
following items: a) authenticity, b) cultural awareness, c) thinking
skills, d) personal development, e) four basic language skills (i.e.
reading, writing, listening and speaking). In the second section,
the paper provides information about the significant contribution
that different literature genres (e.g. poetry, drama) can make to
language learning. The third section of this article highlights the
importance of specific criteria (e.g. students’ language level, age,
cultural background) for selecting appropriate literary texts to be
used in foreign language classrooms. In the concluding section,
this paper suggests that, in order to get the full benefit of these
advantages, language teachers should be properly trained on the
effective use of literary texts, as well. All in all, this paper
emphasizes that literary texts, when chosen carefully, considering
the features of the target group, and used effectively by welltrained teachers in educational settings, can add not only to the
students’ linguistic development, but also to their personal
growth.

We assessed the effects of teaching sociodramatic play to three children with autism. The training was conducted using a variation of Pivotal Response Training (PRT), a program traditionally used to teach language to children with autism. Measures of play skills, social behavior, and language skills were obtained before treatment, after treatment, and at a follow-up period. The correlation between language and pretend play was explored, as was the relationship between sociodramatic play and social competence. Positive changes were observed in play, language, and social skills. These changes generalized across toys and settings, although little generalization to other play partners occurred. Effects of play training with children with autism and maintenance of behavior change is discussed.

This study investigated the role of students' motivation and attitudes in second language (L2) study within an online language course context (LOL). Students' attitudes and motivation were examined within a socioeducational framework while learning contexts were examined based on Dörneyi's (1994) components of foreign language learning motivation. Students' learning behaviors and learning outcomes were used as predictor and criterion variables in a series of quantitative and qualitative analyses. The results showed that students tended to have relatively high anxiety about the LOL course at the beginning of the semester, perhaps due to their lack of familiarity with the specific LOL learning environment. However, students' motivation and attitudes toward L2 study were relatively positive and stable during the course. The findings provided some evidence that motivated students studied regularly and productively to take every opportunity to perfect their language skills. It was also found that each teacher idiosyncratically implemented the LOL course, thereby creating a unique class culture and affecting students' motivation and attitudes toward studying the L2 in the LOL context. The findings reinforced the importance of students' motivation and attitudes in L2 study and, equally important, the continuing critical role of the teacher in technology-enhanced teaching.

The COVID-19 pandemic will not be easily forgotten as its contagious impact has penetrated education. In response to this, educational practices have moved online within various forms and terms, and Emergency Distance Education (EDE) is one of them. Within this frame, this qualitative study aimed to investigate the recommendations of 118 English Language Teaching (ELT) Department students for their teachers and for students themselves in developing four language skills-reading, writing, listening, and speaking-during EDE settings to improve the efficiency of the online courses. In doing so, Framework Method via NVivo 11 Plus was utilized. The participants' recommendations for EDE included a total of 152 comments for reading, 141 for writing, 131 for listening, and 147 for speaking skills. The participants' recommendations for four skills centered on a total of seven themes: for teachers, for students, for online platforms, for eliminating technical issues, satisfactory, no recommendation, and no answer. The data analysis demonstrated that the majority of the recommendations for each skill were given for teachers under two sub-themes: content and implementation. While content had the highest frequency for reading, writing, and listening skills, implementation was found to be the top concern for speaking skills. The results of the study presented valuable insights not only for ELT contexts but also for all language education settings.

The skills, social impairments and challenging behaviours of a total population of 166 children, with severe intellectual disabilities and/or autism, were assessed through interview with the main carers, when the children were under 15 years old (time 1). Twelve years later, 141 of these individuals were re-assessed, using the same measures (time 2). &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot;Abnormal&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;quot; behaviours tended to reduce with age and were associated with poorer language skills and poorer quality of social interaction. Individuals with most abnormal behaviours at time 1, tended to have most at time 2. Abnormal behaviour at time 2 was predicted by the presence of abnormal behaviour at time 1, poor expressive language at time 1, poor quality of social interaction at time 1 and a diagnosis of autism/autistic continuum at time 1.

Due to the myriad of problems associated with autism, parents often consider alternative treatments. The investigation was undertaken to determine the effects of the Tomatis Method on language skills in children with autism utilizing a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover design. The results indicated that although the majority of the children demonstrated general improvement in language over the course of the study, it did not appear to be related to the treatment condition. The percent change for Group 1 (Placebo/Treatment) for treatment was 17.41%, and placebo was 24.84%. Group 2 (Treatment/ Placebo) showed -3.98% change for treatment and 14.15% change for placebo. The results reflect a lack of improvement in language using the Tomatis Method for children with autism.

Researchers, the Deaf community, teachers of deaf children and speech and language therapists all share a concern about how to improve deaf children's written language skills. One part of literacy is story writing or narrative. A fi nding from a small number of studies is that children exposed to sign language from early childhood onwards achieve the highest level of bilingualism and become skilled readers and writers Morgan, 2005). Potential contributing factors may include fi rst language transfer, meta-linguistic awareness, cognitive readiness, motivation, parental interaction and emotional well-being. This paper reviews the fi rst three contributing factors and outlines the theoretical case for bilingual narrative activities in deaf children.

The PDD Behavior Inventory (PDDBI) is a rating scale filled out by caregivers or teachers that was designed to assess children having a Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD; autism, Asperger disorder, PDD-NOS, or childhood disintegrative disorder). Both adaptive and maladaptive behaviors are assessed in the scale, making it useful for treatment studies in which decreases in maladaptive behaviors and improvements in adaptive social and language skills relevant to PDD are expected. The adaptive behaviors assessed include core features of the disorder such as joint attention skills, pretend play, and referential gesture. The maladaptive behaviors sample a wide variety of behaviors observed in both lower- and higher-functioning individuals and include stereotyped behaviors, fears, aggression, social interaction deficits, and aberrant language. The inventory was found to have a high degree of internal consistency. Inter-rater reliability was better for adaptive behaviors than for malada...

This research investigates whether early childhood bilingualism affects working memory performance in 6- to 8-year-olds, followed over a longitudinal period of three years. The study tests the hypothesis that bilinguals might exhibit more efficient working memory abilities than monolinguals, potentially via the opportunity a bilingual environment provides to train cognitive control by combating interference and intrusions from the non-target language. Forty-four bilingual and monolingual children, matched on age, sex, and socioeconomic status, completed assessments of working memory (simple span and complex span tasks), fluid intelligence, and language (vocabulary and syntax). The data showed that the monolinguals performed significantly better on the language measures across the years whereas no language group effect emerged on the working memory and fluid intelligence tasks after verbal abilities were considered. The study suggests that the need to manage several language systems in the bilingual mind affects children’s language skills whilst having little impact on the development of working memory abilities.

English teachers in Indonesian primary schools are often in doubt about the ‗what' and the ‗how' to teach because most English teachers training colleges do not provide them with specialized training in how to meet the needs of primary school students; TEYL is a new and highly dynamic field; the status of English in the curriculum of primary schools in Indonesia is a local content, and thus the National Education Ministry does not provide English syllabus for primary school. Since the objective of teaching English in primary school is to provide a good basis for communicative competence as a foundation to study it in secondary school; the development of the four language skills should be made the focus of all learning activities. This paper provides some guidelines, which are adapted from some publications and discussions concerning TEYL for teaching the four language skills in primary schools.

This paper constitutes a relatively new area that has emerged from the relation between writing skills and literature. Admittedly, it is often believed that literature is rich in linguistic knowledge and has been proved as a good source of well-developed structure. Namely thatEnglish teachers nowadays are concerned about their teaching style; thus, they are seeking new ways to teach the writing skill effectively, one of which is using literature to improve students&#39; writing skills. Therefore, this study tries to find out the effectiveness of literature as a tool in improving the writing skill for students at primary levels. To achieve this aim, the researcher interviewed (20) male and female teachers who are selected semi-randomly from public schools in Palestine; West Bank and Gaza Strip. In this respect, the present paper explores teachers&#39; opinions regarding using literature as a tool to improve students&#39; writing skills. Results showed that teachers should invest more...