Mithraic iconography

Vestiges of scorpion symbolism in medieval and early modern European culture, largely mediated through astrological, astro-medical, and occult doctrines, and promoted in religious iconography, were further influenced by the revival of classical precedents, often reinterpreted and newly adopted in contemporary contexts. Depictions of the scorpion symbol in early modern Italian art reflect this accumulated complexity, with its contrasts between, or combinations of, positive and negative meanings. A unique example will be studied here in the portrait of Elisabetta Gonzaga (1471-1526) wearing a scorpion pendant  on her forehead. My aim is to demonstrate that this scorpion jewel is not only a significant element of her portrait, in that it relates to meaningful aspects of Elisabetta's life, character, and public image, but also constitutes evidence of prevalent beliefs and attitudes.

Sažetak: Mitraizam je jedan od misterijskih kultova čija je popularnost u kasnoantičkom Rimu bila velika, posebno među legionarima. Mitra je bio ratničko, solarno božanstvo, a sakralna vizuelna predstava kulta bila je tauroktonija na kojoj Mitra ubija bika. U misterijama su učestvovali samo muškarci. Postojalo je sedam stupnjeva inicijacije, obeleženih maskama i atributima, a svaki je stajao pod zaštitom određene planete. Od prvih opsežnih istraživanja kulta koje je sproveo belgijski arheolog Franz Cumont (1868-1947), verovalo se da je Mitra preuzet iz persijskog panteona Mazdaizma, nakon čega je u Rimu poprimio minorne nove karakteristike. Međutim, 80ih godina prošlog veka predstavljene su nove teorije, koje pojavu rimske verzije Mitre povezuju sa Hiparhovim astronomskim otkrićem precesije ekvinocija. Precesijom je tačka prolećne ravnodnevice pomerena iz sazvežđa Bika u sazvežđe Ovna, pa je sa stanovišta geocentrične kosmologije izgledalo kao da je neka sila izvršila naginjanje čitave nebeske sfere za nekoliko stepeni. Simbolično "ubistvo" zodijačkog Bika pripisano je Mitri koji se razvio u novu predstavu izvankosmičkog božanstva, moćnog ratnika, nepobedivog drugog Sunca koje upravlja kosmosom. Pojava dva različita solarna božanstva u Mitraizmu, odabir astroloških simbola, kao i leontokefalus-bog ključar koji, obmotan zmijom, stoji na krajnjoj granici neba, daju dosta argumenata u prilog novom tumačenju, koje je prvi izneo američki istoričar religije David Ulansey.

The sacrifice of the sacred bull/calf deep in the underground cave, underlines the dualistic nature of the Mitraic Cult. The sacred bull was in its true nature a fetishist manifestation - phallus, of a multitude-form creator solar deity, a symbol of the sky and heavens, which through this ritual sacrifice ejaculates its seeds (blood) of life. While the underground cave , where Mitra was born from a stone, symbolized the interior (uterus) of the mother earth, which is about to be fertilized by the blood/seed of the celestial bull deep inside her.  The death was the symbolic rebirth in the same time, as the sexual culmination is often compared with the “small death.”
This symbolic sexual “penetration” of the celestial bull/phallus deep into the underground womb of the mother earth, can be deduced also from the unmistakably Phallus-like shape of the Mitraeums, the cave-like shrines of Mitra, where at the end of each the altar represented the ‘glans’ of these penis-shaped structures, and where the “celestial sperm” was spilled in the form of the bull’s blood. Moreover, in the famous Ostia’ Mitraeum in Italy, where was performed the symbolic “ejaculation” of the sacrificial seed  (i.e. bull’s blood and most probably the real ejaculation of the adepts and Paters, which was mixed with the “celestial seed” of the slain bull), there’s a very intuitive and proper inscription in Latin: “FELICISSIMUS EXVOTO” - ‘a maximum felicity from a vow’, with an urn-vessel (a mosaic image on the floor) for the ejection of the spilled blood/semen.
Mitraism was actually the most Chauvinistic and primitive predecessor of the 10th century dualistic movements, Bogomilism/Catharism and later Protestantism...

Roman cult of Mithra has its origin from Indo-Iranian religions. This article examines in detail how it arrived in the west and finally flowed into Christianity. Every major religion has its own passionate controversies and opinions regarding its origin and associated mythology. The author wants to emphasize the intent of this article is not to offend any religious beliefs of the followers but share the historical knowledge of cultural exchanges among various civilizations. The ultimate creator that created all of us, however, we have named him, are the master of the universe and our cosmos. Any religion that produces peaceful coexistence and message of universal brotherhood should enjoy equality and respect of all mankind. The subject of this article is discussed by many scholars for several decades and it may continue in the future, but from the historical point of view, the civilization exchanges had allowed people to practice from polytheisms phase of worshipping to monotheism phase of worshipping. In the ancient world, everyone practiced polytheism of worship involving the natural forces that governed the birth, lives, and death of the ancients.

Buddhism was one of the earliest monotheist faith that was propagated from India beginning in 19th century BCE, after Buddha’s death, the dating is adjusted to reflect the correction of the chronological error in Vikram Savant (Hindu era) and dating mistake created by the colonial historian related to misidentification of contemporary Indian kings. Please see my article at
https://www.academia.edu/40451947/Mahavira_and_Gautama_Buddha_were_not_contemporaries_as_we_thought_Introduction

This very article is dedicated to Pagan Armenian temple of Garni, one of the most unique and exceptional surviving masterpieces of ancient Hellenistic architecture that was dedicated to Armenian Sun god Mihr and Hellenistic Sun god Mithra. Article extensively covers the history of the monument since prehistory, Urartian period through times of Paganism in Armenia, as well as painstakingly presents all related aspects of Mithraism in ancient Armenia, Asia Minor, Rome and elsewhere in the ancient world. Many remarkable historical events are brought to readers' attention, as well as numerous ingenious artifacts and examples of various artistic forms of Armenian Mithraic worship are shown in greater details. Article is quite informative in terms of unfolding the most interesting history of Garni as the unique monument complex of ancient Armenia, comprising from mighty fortress, royal summer residence palaces, baths decorated with rich mosaics and pagan temple of the Sun dedicated to god Mihr/Mithra. Photographic examples of writings in Urartian cuneiform, Greek and Armenian languages found in Garni and its immediate vicinities also shown to readers. Article is aimed to be as informative and useful as possible, with immediate scientific task of uncovering many interesting and intriguing aspects of ancient world’s Hellenistic Pagan Architecture and Mithraic Pagan Religion in ancient Armenia and many other parts of ancient world.

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Matthew Canepa's recent study of the cultural and political interactions between Rome and Sasanian Iran, has provided an opportunity to reassess Sasanian rock reliefs in light of the claims and counter claims between these two empires. Since victory over Romans meant a victory over an-Erān, and generated the most potent of all farrs, i.e. the Aryan farr, many rock reliefs were conceived to show its reflection on the king. What is most interesting, though, is the array of nuances that are incorporated in them to account for the differences that were particular to each situation.

Tepe Nush-i Jan is amongst the rare major sites attributed to the Median period. The most important result of the recent excavation at the site by the present author in 2009 was the fact that the Median brick structures unearthed at Tepe Nush-i Jan originally represented a Mithraeum. The central temple of Nush-i Jan has a ground plan in the form of a cross divided by a wall into two sections. Cross motif is also seen as architectural ornament on an interior wall and on the exterior façade of the Central temple (semi-cross). The fact that the cross motif assumed a central place in the Mithraic iconography cannot be overemphasized.

Le immagini di proprietà dello Stato italiano sono state pubblicate su concessione del miBact -dipartimento per i Beni culturali e Paesaggistici -direzione Regionale per i Beni culturali e Paesaggistici del Friuli Venezia Giulia -Soprintendenza archeologia del Friuli Venezia Giulia ed è vietata l'ulteriore riproduzione e duplicazione con ogni mezzo senza l'autorizzazione della Soprintendenza. «antichità altoadriatiche» © centro di antichità altoadriatiche Via Patriarca Poppone 6 -33053 aquileia (ud) autorizzazione del tribunale di udine n. 318 del 27 ottobre 1973 © editreg di Fabio Prenc Sede operativa: via G. matteotti 8 -34138 trieste tel./fax ++39

Monuments of the Mithraic cult in the territory of Arupium (Dalmatia),  Romanising Oriental gods? Religious transformations in the Balkan provinces in the Roman period. New finds and novel perspectives.; Pоманизирање на ориентални богови? Религиски трансформации во балканските провинции во римскиот период. Нови наоди и перспективи.; Romanisation des dieux orientaux? Transformations religieuses dans les provinces balkaniques à l’époque romaine.Nouvelles découvertes et perspectives. Proceedings of the International Symposium Skopje, 18–21 September 2013. Skopje, 2015, 403-426.

The archaeological site of Grabak, not far from Trstenik, in the Western Morava River valley, is the most significant late La Tène and Roman locality in the Kruševac Basin. The late La Tène fibulae and coins of Dyrrhachium and Apollonia indicate the late La Tène layer of life at Grabak, while the finds of fibulae and pottery confirmed Roman strata. The majority of the 67 discovered fibulae belong to the Roman types, dating from the 2nd to the 4th century. Roman pottery from Grabak corresponds to the ceramics found during the excavations of the site of Konopljara in the village of Čitluk. A detail that draws attention is the carved swastikas on the side and bottom of a ceramic goblet from Konopljara. Another interesting find, from an unknown site, is a ceramic fragment decorated in relief, with the image of the god Mithras.

CULTI ORIENTALI NELLA REGIO IV ITALIAE. TESTIMONIANZE EPIGRAFICHE E INDIZI ARCHEOLOGICI oriental cults in the REGIO IV ITALIAE. epigraphic evidence and archaeological signs Riassunto: In questo lavoro si prendono in considerazione i documenti epigrafici come segnali della diffusione di culti "orientali" nella regio IV Italiae (Samnium et Sabina). Nella prima parte si fa il punto sulla presenza di analoghi segnali nelle altre città dell'Italia romana, che pongono la questione di eventuali luoghi di devozione pubblica riservati e dell'integrazione o meno di questi culti nel pantheon cittadino. Nell'analisi che segue, le testimonianze della regio IV sono discusse in relazione alla loro rappresentatività numerica, alla distribuzione geografica interna, ai personaggi coinvolti e alla datazione. Nel catalogo in calce al contributo, i documenti sono raccolti secondo i culti rappresentati e i centri di appartenenza. Parole chiave: culti orientali, regio IV Italiae, fonti epigrafiche, collegia religiosi.

LA PAROLA DEL PASSATO Rivista di studi antichi 2016/1-2 ~ a. 71 n. 400-401 Segni di coabitazione negli spazi urbani dell'Oriente romano (I-VI sec. d.C.) Signs of Cohabitations in the Urban Spaces of the Roman Near East (1st-6th cent. CE) LA PAROLA DEL PASSATO

Espacio y práctica cultural de los misterios mitraicos Resumen: Dentro del contexto religioso en transformación que caracteriza el cambio de Era y los primeros siglos del Imperio Romano, los cultos mistéricos de procedencia oriental constituyeron una oferta fundamental en la satisfacción de las inquietudes personales. Los misterios mitraicos gozaron de una especial aceptación en todas las regiones, y el aumento cuantitativo de sus espacios de culto es un hecho ampliamente confirmado por la arqueología. Pretendemos hacer una aproximación a las características que definieron estos templos mitraicos, para conocer mejor las prácticas cultuales que se desarrollaban en su interior y que diferenciaban la liturgia mitraica de las otras mistéricas.

What T. S. Eliot called the "mythic method," even in its modern form, was not an invention of Modernism. A significant precursor is Thomas Hardy, whose Mayor of Casterbridge has long been appreciated for its mythological structure and wealth of allusion. Here I suggest a new addition to mythological interpretation of the novel: the Greco-Roman deity Mithras and the iconography of the tauroctony. Extending a Frazerian reading of Michael Henchard and Donald Farfrae as rival "corn kings," I suggest that each character successively takes on attributes of Mithras. In addition to strengthening the allegorical element of the novel, this reading coordinates the repeating taurine symbolism in the mythical narrative and offers some justification for certain scenes otherwise belied by their melodrama.

The presence of singular elements in a modified coin found in the British city of Verulamium confront us with a particular case. The analysis of its content offers an approximation to a little-known aspect of the Mithraic cult: the possibility that an initiate in Mithraism has sought the way to make his devotion to this divinity close, combining elements of a syncretism unknown up to now.

This paper deals with the preliminary results of the archaeological surveys and geophysical prospections carried out in city of Zeugma between 2008-2014, in order to assess the urban expansion and the physical borders of the city, as well as its association with the military installation. The main goal of this research was to investigate the location of the military installation and its characteristics, about which new theories are being proposed based on the latest results. Contrary to previous assumptions, the results of the recent research indicate that the relatively large flat area to the west of Belkıs Tepe was surrounded by Roman city walls, enclosing the so-called At Meydanı and most of the flat terraces overlooking
Bahçedere which determines the western boundary of the city. The southern margin of this large area, on other hand, seems to be bordered by a noticeable ridge which appears to overlap with the city walls
ascending to Belkıs Tepe. The geophysical results and the archaeological data suggest that this extensively fortified area was urbanised and settled by Latin speaking, westernized, civic and military inhabitants affiliated
to military units, including vexillatio and auxilia (especially cohors milliaria Maurorum) which primarily came from Pannonia, Moesia and Danube from the beginning of the 2st century onwards, through the middle of the 3rd century AD. It is likely that the soldiers of the legio IIII Scythica who were based at Zeugma around c.66/67 AD built their conventional type of garrison installation outside of the Hellenistic city, but not far from the western Hellenistic city walls of Seleucia. After the supplementation of the Roman military presence in the region in the 2nd and 3rd centuries with auxiliary legions, however, the area of the garrison appears to have expanded to the south, gaining an urban character and transforming this western expansion into a Roman military colony (colonia). This military urban installation developed in the fortified area of the Roman period, located to the west of Belkıs Tepe and to the south of Karatepe. The fact that the test trenches and soundings carried out in this large military quarter hitherto had not exposed any burned layer of destruction suggested that this well-fortified zone was not destroyed during the Sasanian
sack of the city in 252/253 AD. Considering this, it seems plausible that the civil inhabitants who had evacuated their dwellings in the old city centre might have taken refuge in this fortified military urban installation during the siege. Recent investigations have also brought some new results and theories concerning this military urban fabric and its architectural armatures. Results of the geophysical prospection indicated that the so-called theatre building might in fact be an amphitheatre, which is yet to be tested archaeologically with excavation. One of the important results of the investigation concerns the rectilinear terrain feature in At Meydanı, which was tentatively identified as a stadium in our previous field surveys.
Recent evaluation, however suggests that the structure might be associated with a campus, where military equestrian parade would have taken place. On the other hand, an elliptical/round anomaly exposed in
geophysical prospection on one of the terraces overlooking Bahçedere in the south-western sector of the military expansion, is probably associated with a small amphitheatron for military trainings. An important stray find of a marble Mithras relief that was found in 2015 near At Meydanı seems to be associated with an architectural structure and strongly suggests the presence of a mithraeum in this military urban expansion. Overall, archaeological and geophysical data collected during these surveys indicate that the fortified western expansion of the city was the venue of the military installation which developed in an urban fabric.
This installation model has its parallel in Dura-Europos, where the military quarter was largely built by the soldiers of legio IIII Scythica after 165 AD. It seems likely that the soldiers of this legion were involved in designing and improving their new military quarter at Dura-Europos as in Zeugma, enabling in both cases more integration with the civic life of the city.

The key themes in this paper are the exploration of the Roman cult of Mithras in Britain, including the origins and a history of the spread of the cult from the earliest sanctuary to the those of the latter Roman period. The paper aims to answer the question of how and why we see a focus of mithraeum along the northern frontier of the empire. It shall explore the case of the spread of the cult in Britain using archaeological theoretical models of centrality theory using betweenness and closeness of forts as a main case study and then go on to examine how we can look at the diffusion of the cult through Social Network Analysis (SNA) and also using Actor Network Theory (ANT). The paper shed new light on a much examined around of Northern Britain alongside discussion of why the cult was prevalently one associated with the male only military in the army.

Silvanus után Mithras kultusza gyakorolta a legnagyobb hatást Pannonia lakosságára, Pannoniából ismert legtöbb felirata, ahogyan innen ismert legtöbb szentélye is. Nemcsak az emlékek száma, hanem vallástörténeti értéke miatt is kiemelkedő, megelőzve a többi tartományt. Egyes vallástörténészek véleménye szerint a Duna-vidéke volt a kultusz kialakulási helye, 1 emellett a pannoniai Poetovio fontos szerepet töltött be a kultusz elterjesztésében 2 és az itt működő publicum portorium Illyrici libertusai aktív résztvevői voltak a dogmatikus rendszerének kialakításában. A Kr. u. 2. század folyamán már szervezett hívőközösségeket találunk Aquincumban, Carnuntumban és Poetovióban: ez a három település központi jelentőséggel bír a kultusz pannoniai elterjesztésében. Pannoniában a Mithras-kultusz a markomann-quad-szarmata-háborúk (Kr. u. 166/67-180) idejéig csupán néhány helyen volt jelen, ezt követően azonban széles körben elterjedt és népszerű lett a lakosság minden rétegében. Mithras tiszteletének vége nem datálható pontosan. A Kr. u. 4. század elején még olyan jelentőségű restaurálásra kerül sor, mint a carnuntumi III. Mithraeum esetében, ahol maguk a Római Birodalom uralkodói gon-1 A kultusz alapítási körülményei vitatottak, az egyes nézetekhez l.

Part of a collaborative study by members of the Empires of Faith project on 'Images of Mithras' in the ancient world, from Western Europe through to Central Asia. Thursday March 5th, 2.30-5.00pm, Sackler Rooms, The British Museum. See attached poster for further details.

William Blake's illustration to *Inferno* Canto 31 places an idol beside Nimrod. I argue that the idol is an iconographic confusion similar to the confusion of tongues Nimrod is tortured with. I also argue that the idol contains features of, *inter alia*, a lion-headed Mithra, along with an ambiguously-topped orb that could be surmounted by a cross, or a Nike. Nimrod was, in the discussions of centuries of antiquarians before Blake, considered to have been confused with a variety of other beings, including Belus, who was the most popular candidate for an idolatrized mortal installed at Babylon. While *Genesis* uses a taunting and specious Hebrew etymology to derive "Babel" from a term for linguistic confusion, Voltaire's *Philosophical Dictionary* in the English translation of 1824 had what we still accept as a good etymology for "Babel"--the "gate of God." If Blake was aware of this etymology, it would explain his use of a post-and-lintel construction for the gap in a wall within which he places the idol--it is a typical ancient architectural form of a gate.

Este artículo se centra en el altar mitraico recuperado en Tróia, cuyo vaciado se conserva en el Museo Nacional de Arqueología en Lisboa (nº inv. 997.50.1). Dado que el original se halla en manos privadas, hecho que ha dificultado su acceso, proponemos una reflexión sobre el uso del color en los Misterios de Mitra con el objetivo de indagar en aquellos aspectos que han sido relegados por la bibliografía tradicional.  Para ello, trazaremos paralelos con otros altares de iconografía similar y estudiaremos aquellas manifestaciones mitraicas que han conservado la policromía con el fin de abrir nuevas vías de investigación en el fenómeno religioso y acercarnos a una reconstrucción fidedigna del altar en cuestión. 
Palabras clave: Misterios de Mitra – Lusitania - Tróia – Iconografía – Policromía

"Nushijan Tappeh (Nushijan hill) in Malayer is one of the most important archeological sites belonging to Meadian era. The most significant scientific finding of the recent excavation of the hill led by the author in year 2009 was the fact that the mud-brick structures of Nushijan dating back to Meadian era are in fact remnants of a Mithra Temple.
In Avesta's Mehr Yasht, wherever the House of the God of Mithra  (Mehr Temple) is mentioned, one finds that most of these temples are located on high altitudes. Quite interestingly, what we face here is a natural hill in Nushijan which is 32 meters higher than the surrounding lands. One of the other points which can be understood via studying Mehr Yasht is the fact that Mithra has been  introduced as possessing vast plains, and this is what one sees around Nushijan hill.
The main entrance into the Nushijan buildings is located in the eastern front (towards sunrise).  Having entered through this gate, you would find the first building in eastern yard, called rooms and barns. A kind of religious ablution or baptism is mentioned in Mehr Yasht in which the pilgrim is washed and baptized with cow's urine, then whipped in order to be able to enter the Mithra temple. On the other hand, perhaps, all the elements in Nushijan are located on the left side; this suggests the religious importance of the concept of the left in Nushijan.
Other interesting points can be the ramps of Nushijan. Probably the ramps are towers higher than the building. The  Watchman is frequently mentioned in Mehr Yasht, and what is meant is those watchmen who are appointed for Izad Mehr.
Various other reasons can be brought up for proving the theory suggesting that Nushijan is a Mithra Temple.
"

The existence of the ruling cult is questioned on the basis of coins which are the most important evidence of the founding periods of Amastris, which was rebuilt by a queen in the Hellenistic Period in Paphlagonia Region and named after her. The head dressed in tiara on the front of Amastris coins depicts the queen herself, emphasizing her
religious and racial origins. The depiction of Aphrodite Anahitis / Ourania on the back represents the Greek and Macedonian aspect of the queen. The most important feature of the ruling cult is that it provides unifying power for the kingdoms to hold different peoples together. It also proves the existence of a conservative cult of the city
of Amastris, where Tieion, Sesamos, Kromna and Kytoros, which the queen independently managed, are brought together. After her death, she was heroized by the people of Amastris and honored as ktistes. The Persian origin of Amastris and its involvement in the Macedonian court culture is the first and the best bassileia that bears the images of the Macedonian-Persian ruling elite that Alexander the Great tried to create.

The iconographic representation of the god mithra is linked to his image wearing a type of clothing that has traditionally been called "oriental dress" or "Persian dress". Within this way of dressing, the presence of the trousers (anaxyrides) reached a certain prominence, due to its cultural impact. This garment had received a pejorative connotation from Greek times at the moment of defining the Achaemenian barbarian al-terity and later this vision was assumed by the Romans, transferred to their enemies the Parthians. There are several contexts in which the followers of Mithra could assume their presence within the Mithraic context. We propose with this paper to clarify what really means this category and what could be the reaction that from the Mithraic cult was exercised before one of the pieces that were part of these clothes: the trousers.

M Mi it tr ra a, , D Di io o i in n T Tu us sc ci ia a Il mitraismo è stato, probabilmente, il primo grande culto di tipo universale: sono stati censiti mitrei (ovvero luoghi destinati al culto del dio) in tutta Europa, nell' Asia mediorientale e in Nord Africa: praticamente in tutto il mondo allora conosciuto. In Italia, in particolare, se ne contano molte decine, da Trieste a Napoli. Ben sedici sono emersi nei soli scavi di Ostia antica. E nella Tuscia? Facendo perno con la punta di un ideale compasso su Viterbo, in un raggio di una cinquantina di Km o, se preferite, in meno di un' ora di macchina, se ne possono raggiungere almeno sette, di cui un paio, come vedremo, non ancora individuati, pur disponendo di reperti da essi provenienti. Vi sono fondate ragioni per ritenere che il mitraismo fosse alquanto diffuso nelle nostre campagne all' epoca della venuta di Cristo e nei secoli immediatamente successivi: questo credo si è infatti sviluppato contestualmente al cristianesimo e, almeno nelle fasi iniziali, si è trovato in diretta competizione con esso, salvo esserne poi marginalizzato e sconfitto. Il secolare testa a Giuseppe Moscatelli

Publicado en Florentia Iliberritana 15(2004), pp. 9-28. Universidad de Granada RESUMEN. La ausencia de textos que desarrollen la liturgia y la teología de los Misterios Mitraicos ha provocado que la iconografía del interior de los mitreos se haya convertido en una fuente de información fundamental para conocer cuáles eran las prácticas que se desarrollaban en los templos. Por tanto, resulta importante conocer los elementos que participan en su composición, para poder revelar muchos de los puntos que aún continúan sin resolver. Planteamos una revisión de los motivos iconográficos más destacados del Mitraísmo, para retomar algunos de los aspectos que aún permanecen sin resolver y considerar otras opciones de interpretación en conexión con la relación del dios Mitra con el contexto iranio de donde es originario.

Yemen museums recently displayed two stone reliefs with animal couplings, one from Wâdî'Abadân (south of Shabwa) with two bulls, and a second one from Aden area with lions. In the center, the driver is their master, an astral divinity, probably a lunar one.
The motif of "deployed coupling"(french: attelage déployé) is a series spread over a large geographical area from Eastern Mediterranean to India. It spread to South Arabia, around the 3rd cent. AD, along sea routes used by Syrians and especially by Palmyrenians merchants.