Soft Law

AI is exponentially incrementing its relevance within contemporary societies. Legal systems are absolutely not exempt from this phenomenon. The essay stresses the need of what is called proactive regulation, as a complementary approach to the reactive regulation, that risk to look weary in front of AI. According to the specific perspective of the analysis, the proposed approach consists also in a better integration between law and other regulatory systems. The analysis develops toward: the concept of "technological neutrality", the relationships between ethics and law, looking at the role of self-regulation; the relationships between technology and law, looking at the role of co-regulation; the normative straight of code; the request of more flexible and innovative normative tools for AI.

SOMMARIO: 1. Considerazioni introduttive: da un approccio "reattivo" ad un approccio "proattivo" alla regolamenazione giuridica dell'IA-2. L'equivoco della neutralità tecnologica-3. Le forme di regolazione dell'Etica: lo spazio della self-regulation-4. Le forme di regolazione della Tecnica: lo spazio degli standards e della co-regulation -5. Il "codice" e la sua valenza regolativa-6. La maggior flessibilità normativa richiesta dall'IA-7. Considerazioni conclusive.

Long recognized in economics and the literature on standards, network effects occur where the value of a standard increases as the number of other agents using the same standard grows. Each additional user draws in more users, creating a snowball effect that triggers a spontaneous convergence around a particular standard. Spontaneous standardization from network effects abound: railway gauges, computer software, credit cards, videotape standards, time zones, currencies, electrical outlets, screw thread sizes, machine parts are just a few examples. Building upon the concept of network effects , this article posits a theory as to how legal standardization may occur in a decentralized , spontaneous fashion. To this end, the new lex maritima—with its historically transnational character, reliance on custom, increasing use of international arbitration and the highly networked structure of shipping connections—is used to flesh out a general theory of spontaneous legal standardization.

How to Design Impactful Laws - Treatise on Legistic and Legisprudence  in the Age of Soft Law

La loi peine toujours plus à « faire la loi » à l’ère du droit souple et de la globalisation. Afin de produire un impact législatif aussi juste qu’optimal, la légistique doit proposer dans ce nouveau contexte une démarche permettant d’intégrer démocratiquement la force du droit souple dans le processus législatif, de pair avec le contrôle de constitutionnalité des lois, sans se contenter d’améliorer la clarté des textes.

Ce traité présente les fondements de la légistique, constituée historiquement pour faire recouvrer à la loi sa rationalité, son efficacité, sa clarté et sa concision.

Il explique comment :
- créer une analyse d’impact intégrée qui prenne en compte toutes les composantes du développement durable parmi la multiplicité des instruments d’action tant publics que privés (légistique matérielle prospective) ;
- formuler des textes clairs et cohérents (légistique formelle) ;
- évaluer rétrospectivement les effets des lois et des politiques publiques par des méthodes appelées à devenir participatives (légistique matérielle rétrospective).

Ce traité porte sur le droit suisse et le droit de l’Union européenne, avec des aspects de droit comparé. Il intègre de manière critique les développements en économie comportementale, en sciences affectives, en intelligence artificielle et en sciences de la gouvernance et de la régulation.

Il s’adresse non seulement aux juristes mais aussi aux spécialistes en sciences sociales, au personnel politique et administratif ainsi qu’à toute personne intéressée par le pilotage des politiques publiques.

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How to Design Impactful Laws: Treatise on Legistic and Legisprudence  in the Age of Soft Law

In an age of soft law and globalization, it has become increasingly difficult for the law to “lay down the law”. To ensure in this new context that its impact is as fair as optimal, legistic must go beyond mere clear legislative drafting: it has to propose a method for integrating the strength of soft law in the democratic law-making process.
This treatise presents the foundations of the sciences of legislation (legistic or legisprudence), historically constituted to make laws more rational and effective, clearer and shorter.

It explains how to:
- create an integrated impact assessment that factors in all the components of sustainable development, among the multiplicity of public and private policy instruments (ex ante material legistic);
- formulate and communicate clear and coherent texts (formal legistic);
- retrospectively evaluate laws and public policies through methods which should become more participative (ex post material legistic).

This treatise is based on Swiss and European Union law, with a look on comparative law. It includes developments in regulation and regulatory governance, behavioral economics, affective sciences and artificial intelligence.

This work is intended not only for lawyers, but also for social scientist, members of political and administrative authorities, and anyone interested in public policy evaluation.

Yayına Hazırlayan: Eren OKUR Bilge Strateji Dergisi ulusal hakemli bir dergidir. Bilge Strateji Dergisi yılda iki sayı olmak üzere Bahar ve Güz dönemlerinde yayınlanır. Bilge Strateji Dergisi'nin tüm hakları saklıdır. İzinsiz yayınlanamaz. Kaynak gösterilerek alıntı yapılabilir.

The period when corporate social responsibility (CSR) only referred to corporate philanthropic donations has passed. Present day CSR is intimately intertwined with sustainable development, and its growth in the last several decades has been evident in Canada. The recent appearance of “hybrid” corporate legal structures on the international stage marks a growing trend toward enabling the dual pursuit of economic and social mandates for businesses. It suggests that the next significant stage in the CSR movement will be in the reformation and creation of corporate legal models that not only enable, but require, CSR concepts to be embodied within corporate governance practices.

While the US shareholder primacy model is often presumed to be the model that is dominant in modern Canadian corporations, this presumption is flawed. This article identifies some of the fundamental legal features that set Canada apart from US shareholder primacy, and attempts to demarcate a path for Canada to attain transformational corporate governance through its laws. The term “transformational” is borrowed from the business sector to help identify a tangible goal for corporate governance reform in Canada. Highlights include having a sustainable purpose, long term vision, and multi-stakeholder collaboration. Canada is poised to become a leader in corporate governance reform on two fronts: through the reformation of its existing laws regulating mainstream corporate governance practices, and in the creation of hybrid laws that can meet growing demands to legally house and govern social purpose businesses and enterprises.

There has been much fanfare surrounding the possible implementation of a hybrid similar to the US “benefit corporation” in Canada in order to address growing for-profit sector needs to pursue social value in addition to profit-making. However, some of the fundamental legal characteristics within the benefit corporation actually parallel existing common laws in Canada regarding mainstream corporate governance practices. Canada does not need to adopt American solutions to American problems. During these formative years of Canada’s corporate legal development, it is critical that the nation’s progressive legal stance is properly understood and taken into account when establishing hybrid laws so as not to confuse and/or jeopardize that stance. An ongoing stream of thoughtful and intelligent commentary is needed to address and advance Canadian corporate legal needs for social progress, as well as the establishment of innovative new hybrid laws that can bridge the gap between for-profit and non-profit sectors.

This article suggests a tentative model for the legal conceptualization of the great variety of instruments by which international institutions exercise public authority, brought to light by the thematic studies of this project. If one were to display this variety of instruments on a scale that ranges from binding international law to non-legal instruments, hardly any thinkable step on this scale would remain empty. Situated at the top end of the scale one would find binding instruments such as international treaties, periodic treaty amendments, decisions on individual cases with binding effect or decisions having the potential to become binding by way of domestic recognition. While these instruments clearly have external legal effects, other instruments seem to be purely internal rules of procedure, although they have in fact considerable repercussions for national administrations. Next come various types of soft, i.e. non-binding legal instruments. Some of these instruments operate in the shadow of binding instruments. Others are kept in purely soft form, like product standards or codes of conduct, but also decisions concerning individuals. In the lower part of the scale one would find instruments containing non-binding rules that are foremost aimed at facilitating consultation, or soft private law instruments. At the bottom end one would discover non-legal instruments that are devoid of any deontic elements, but nevertheless have a high legal or political impact on the affected policy area. Examples of this class of instruments include factual assessment reports, indicators, reports on implementation and compliance, and databases.

The Turkish Competition Authority has published and released for public consultation “the draft Guidelines on the Assessment of Abusive Exclusionary Conduct by Dominant Undertakings” with regard to the prohibition of abuse of a dominant position under Article 6 of the Act on the Protection of Competition 1994. Having been prepared very similar to the European Commission’s “Guidance on the Commission’s Enforcement Priorities in Applying Article 82 of the EC Treaty to Abusive Exclusionary Conduct by Dominant Undertakings” in terms of both structure and content, the draft Guidelines are the first formal piece of secondary legislation in the area of unilateral conduct in Turkish competition law. This article critically analyses the substantial content of the draft Guidelines. Within this context, it answers the question as to whether there is a need for Guidelines under Article 6 in Turkey, discusses the prospective content and legal status of these Guidelines in the event of such a need, comments on the objective that has been pursued or should be pursued under Article 6 in these Guidelines and refers to any other elements that should be included in the future Guidelines.

The article attempts a comprehensive review of the human security concept in order to question its utility for both research and policy-making. It notes the term’s interdisciplinary and extensively normative content that have facilitated its evolution into a successful security discourse. On the other hand, human security’s wide appeal has as a side-effect an extended conceptual polysemy inhibiting the cumulation of knowledge and the development of a relevant theory. Absence of conceptual clarity has also complicated its policy implementation. The article attempts to break the deadlock and move the debate forward by using the work of John Gerring and Paul A. Barresi on concept formation as an organizing device.

En las páginas que siguen recordaremos que es mérito de Ángel Menéndez Rexach haber llamado la atención sobre la categoría de las disposiciones administrativas, por lo que me ha parecido un tema adecuado para contribuir, de forma modesta pero sentida, al homenaje a su trayectoria académica ejemplar.

Stosowanie unijnego soft law jest w praktyce źródłem wielu wątpliwości. Z jednej strony, dotyczą one możliwości zaskarżania aktów prawa giętkiego przed sądami unijnymi. Z drugiej zaś – sprecyzowania wymaga stopień, w którym soft law wiąże organy i sądy, tak na poziomie unijnym, jak
i krajowym. Niniejsze opracowanie poświęcone jest temu drugiemu zagadnieniu. Precyzując dostępne w doktrynie definicje prawa giętkiego, autorka analizuje zagadnienie samozwiązania aktami soft law unijnych organów, jak również problem ich stosowania przez Trybunał Sprawiedliwości Unii Europejskiej. W dalszej kolejności artykuł porusza kwestię związania organów państw członkowskich, w tym problem zastosowania soft law względem jednostek. Tłem dla powyższych rozważań jest unijne prawo konkurencji.

El autor examina la viabilidad del compliance como una respuesta efectiva ante los nuevos riesgos que enfrenta el arbitraje. En especial, la mitigación de los riesgos asociados a la ciberseguridad a la luz del Protocolo de Ciberseguridad en Arbitraje Internacional del International Council for Commercial Arbitration (ICCA), la New York City Bar Association (NYC Bar) y el International Institute for Conflict Prevention and Resolution (CPR). Finalmente, reflexiona sobre importancia de la protección de datos en el arbitraje.

Розглядається питання місця та ролі особливих норм, так званих «м’яких» норм міжнародного права – у регламентації
питання прав людини (пацієнта) у сфері охорони здоров’я. Звертається увага як на особливості характеру дії норм
м’якого права у міжнародному праві, так і питання їх співвідношення із національним законодавством.
Ключові слова: м’яке право, права пацієнта, охорона здоров’я, ВООЗ, Рада Європи.
Рассматривается вопрос места и роли особых норм, так называемых «мягких» норм международного права – в регламентации вопросов прав человека (пациента)
в сфере здравоохранения. Обращается внимание как на особенности характера действия норм мягкого права в международном праве, так и вопросы их соотношения с национальным законодательством.
Ключевые слова: мягкое право, права пациента, здравоохранение, ВООЗ, Совет Европы.
Place and role of the special norms, so-called «soft law» at international law, is dedicated through the issue of human rights (the patient) regulation in the health sector. Both the nature of the particular operation of soft law norms in international law, and the issues of their relationship with national law are scrutinized.
Keywords: soft law, the rights of the patient’s, healthcare, WHO, the Council of Europe.

Summary: This article explores the relationship between law and coercion, in order to discover whether the idea of "soft law" is combinable with a positivist concept of law. The notion of law as a "phenomenon of organized coercion" is traced in the writings of Austin, Jhering, Kelsen and bulgarian legal theorist Venelin Ganev (1880-1966). Using Weber's sociological concept of law I am taking the position that the law is rather centralized than coercive normative order.
"Soft law" can be used by the courts if there is a state-recognition of its standards as a valid arguments for taking legal decisions. The reason for the observance of such standarts is not the coercive force of the state. Even not recognised by the courts, "soft law" is factually normative, because of its concensual nature and the rationality (the social adequacy) of its rules. For these reasons it can be called “legal custom of the 21st century”. Its creation through formal procedures distinguishes it from the traditional consuetudo and gives to the lawyers the chance to explore the trends of self-regulation among the transnational globalization actors and use them as de lege ferenda proposals.

GONZÁLEZ MARTÍN / ALBORNOZ transfronteriza se lleva a cabo mediante la celebración y el cumplimiento de contratos internacionales, generalmente entre sociedades mercantiles. En el área de la contratación internacional, además de una free floating lex mercatoria, 3 existen múltiples instrumentos de soft law o de derecho blando. Piénsese, por ejemplo, en los INCOTERMS o en las UCP sobre créditos documentarios, ambos elaborados por la Cámara de Comercio Internacional, en la Ley Modelo de la CNUDMI sobre arbitraje comercial internacional, en los Principios UNIDROIT sobre los contratos comerciales internacionales (en adelante, Principios UNIDROIT) o en los recientemente adoptados Principios de La Haya sobre la elección de la ley aplicable en materia de contratos comerciales internacionales (en adelante, Principios de La Haya).

La crisi finanziaria deflagrata nel 2008 ha evidenziato il complesso livello di interrelazioni del mercato finanziario su scala mondiale e posto il problema di incrementarne la resilienza.  I fora tradizionalmente deputati a discutere sul futuro della regolamentazione ne hanno guidato il rinnovo focalizzandosi sull’obiettivo di spezzare il connubio tra azzardo morale e status di “immortalità” proprio delle istituzioni finanziarie di rilevanza sistemica. Dopo un decennio di riforme, gli standard-setter globali avvertono come vicina la meta «towards ending “too big to fail”», poiché lo «development of policies to help ensure that systemically important financial institutions (SIFIs) can be resolved without wider disruption if they fail is largely complete» (Financial stability board, 2017). Siamo dunque all’epilogo del “tbtf”?
A questa domanda prova a rispondere questo lavoro, muovendo anzitutto dall’iter seguito dai consessi internazionali per la definizione di un quadro giuridico applicabile alle istituzioni finanziarie di rilevanza sistemica, e in particolare alle banche globali, sul piano della c.d. soft law. Lo studio continua con la ricerca dei punti di contatto, del senso delle direttrici d’azione e delle influenze reciproche, con il coevo processo di rinnovamento dell’ordinamento bancario dell’Unione europea, presa a modello come una sorta di cartina di tornasole sul grado di recepimento delle riforme internazionali. Prosegue poi con un approfondimento del dato fenomenologico, teso anche a valutare le possibili ripercussioni degli accresciuti presidi regolamentari sulle scelte degli intermediari.
Dall’analisi svolta emergerà, da un lato, il rafforzamento del governo sull’economia globalizzata e la sua influenza riguardo alla realizzazione di storiche trasformazioni in sede europea, ma anche, dall’altro lato, la difficoltà per la riforma di andare oltre la propria ombra. Il parallelo tra l’essere e il dover essere mostrerà infatti criticità sul piano degli obiettivi (presunzione di bloccare l’impatto sistemico delle crisi), degli strumenti a disposizione della autorità nazionali/transnazionali di vigilanza (lacunosi o di complicata attuazione) e della portata dell’intervento regolatorio su aspetti cruciali, quali ad esempio l’interconnessione, la finanza marked-based ed i modelli d’intermediazione.

Globalization frequently attracts negative connotations in terms of legality and democracy. However, the current process of globalization also carries positive developments in terms of good governance and public participation, particularly regarding public policies for heritage. Natural and cultural heritage law has been developed by different networks during the previous decades: the natural – environmental – law was significantly renewed by the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio, 1992), which reinforced participation and provoked the affirmation of an environmental democracy. Some of the improvements associated with the environment and to the globalization process have also reached the sphere of heritage law despite the fact that the international legal framework has remained the same since the adoption of the 1972 convention on the world Heritage. This paper shows that the development of soft law and investment guidelines has improved the protection of cultural heritage.

This paper proposes the enactment of an ex gratia compensation scheme for loss of Indigenous languages in Australia. Although some Australian states have enacted ex gratia compensation schemes for the victims of the Stolen Generation policies, the victims of ‘linguicide’ (language killing) are largely overlooked by the Australian Government. Existing grant schemes to support Aboriginal languages are inadequate, and they should be complemented with compensation schemes, which are based on a claim of right. The proposed compensation scheme for the loss of Aboriginal languages should support the effort to reclaim and revive the lost languages. We first outline the history of linguicide during colonisation in Australia. We then put a case for reviving lost Aboriginal languages by highlighting the benefits of language revival. After evaluating the limits of existing Australian law in supporting the language revival efforts, this paper proposes a statute-based ex gratia compensation scheme, which can be colloquially called ‘Native Tongue Title’.

2021---GIBRALTAR TRAS EL BREXIT ¿UN NUEVO MODELO DE COOPERACIÓN TRANSFRONTERIZA EN EL MARCO UE?
TIEMPO DE PAZ Nº 140 2021 PP. 55-69
SEPARATA
ALEJANDRO DEL VALLE-GÁLVEZ
INMACULADA GONZÁLEZ-GARCIA

RESUMEN
          El Brexit ha impactado directamente en la relación de España con el Reino Unido (RU) por la cuestión de Gibraltar. La salida británica ha obligado a redefinir el estatuto europeo de Gibraltar, y sus relaciones con España y la Unión Europea (UE), en términos institucionales, jurídicos y económicos. En este contexto, también se ha ideado unos mecanismos novedosos para regular y encauzar el tratamiento de la cooperación transfronteriza con Gibraltar, frecuente objeto de vaivenes políticos y cambios con los diferentes Gobiernos españoles y británicos.
      La cooperación transfronteriza del territorio de Gibraltar con el Campo de Gibraltar, Andalucía y España ha tenido variadas e intermitentes fases en su planteamiento y evolución en el tiempo.  En el marco del proceso de salida del RU de la UE se ha acordado un nuevo modelo en los sucesivos Tratados y acuerdos UE-RU que combinan Hard Law de Derecho originario con Soft Law de Memorandos de Entendimiento (Memorandum of Understanding - MOU). Esta regulación ha requerido de una negociación específica previa británico-española.
      El primer Tratado de Retirada de 2019 ha conformado un auténtico sistema de cooperación transfronteriza que involucra al RU, la UE, Gibraltar y España, mediante una serie de Memorandos interconectados con un Protocolo sobre Gibraltar, que reenvían al Tratado fiscal y establecen una cooperación concreta sobre derechos de los ciudadanos y trabajadores fronterizos; tabaco y otros productos; cooperación en materia medioambiental; y cooperación policial y aduanera.
      Por su parte, el segundo Tratado, el Acuerdo comercial de relación futura, aún no en vigor, no trata el estatuto de Gibraltar, pues se ha preferido dedicar un Tratado separado RU-UE al estatuto de Gibraltar con la UE, Tratado que debe aún negociarse y celebrarse; sin embargo, un ‘Principio de acuerdo’ previo hispano-británico ya ha sentado las bases de esa futura negociación y convenio específico para el futuro de Gibraltar en su relación con la UE y España, con una cooperación transfronteriza reforzada y garantizada con el Campo de Gibraltar y Andalucía.
        En definitiva, el proceso del Brexit parece aportar un nuevo modelo para la cooperación trasfronteriza con Gibraltar, articulado bilateralmente por España y Reino Unido en el marco institucional y jurídico de la UE.


ABSTRACT
            Brexit has directly impacted Spain's relationship with the UK due to the Gibraltar issue. The British withdrawal from the EU has forced the redefinition of the European statute of Gibraltar, and its relations with Spain and the European Union, in institutional, legal and economic terms. In this context, novel mechanisms have also been devised to regulate the treatment of cross-border cooperation with Gibraltar, which is frequently the subject of political ups and downs and changes with the different Spanish and British governments.
          The cross-border cooperation of the territory of Gibraltar with the Campo de Gibraltar, Andalusia and Spain has had intermittent phases in its evolution over time. Within the framework of the British exit process, a new model has been agreed in successive EU-UK agreements that combine Hard Law (Primary EU Law) with Soft Law (Memoranda of Understanding – MOU). This regulation has required a specific prior British-Spanish negotiation.
          The first Withdrawal Treaty of 2019 has formed a peculiar cross-border cooperation system involving the UK, the EU, Gibraltar and Spain, through a series of Memoranda interconnected with the Protocol on Gibraltar. The Protocol refer to the Tax Treaty and establish concrete cooperation on rights of citizens and cross-border workers; tobacco and other products; cooperation in environmental matters; and police and customs cooperation.
          The second Treaty, the Future Relationship Trade Agreement, not yet in force, does not deal with the status of Gibraltar, as it has been preferred to dedicate a separate UK-EU Treaty to the status of Gibraltar with the EU, a Treaty that still must be negotiated and celebrated.  However, a prior Spanish-British 'Principle of Agreement' has already laid the foundations for that future negotiation and specific agreement for the future of Gibraltar in its relationship with the EU and Spain, with a reinforced and guaranteed cross-border cooperation with the Campo de Gibraltar and Andalusia.
          In short, the Brexit process seems to provide a new model for cross-border cooperation with Gibraltar, articulated bilaterally by Spain and the United Kingdom within the institutional and legal framework of the EU.


PALABRAS CLAVE
Brexit, Gibraltar, Soft Law, Memorandum of Understanding, Unión Europea, Acuerdo de retirada, Schengen, Cooperación transfronteriza
KEYWORDS
Brexit, Gibraltar, Soft Law, Memorandum of Understanding, European Union, Withdrawal Agreement, Schengen, Cross-border Cooperation.

Flexibility of international transport, which is a driver of all unification projects in transport law does not necessarily depend on the creation of a single act. There is already a duality of international orders in rail transport within Europe and Asia. One is governed by the Convention concerning International Carriage by Rail (COTIF), the other is ruled by two international agreements: the Agreement on International Passenger Transport by Rail (SMPS) and the Agreement on the International Goods Transport by Rail (SMGS). The idea that only a single act shall provide flexibility and incentives for business and trade seems to be anachronistic in the era of polycentric legal orders. International rail transport deserves flexible legal solutions, which can be achieved in other, more adequate ways, also applicable to situations, when different legal regimes govern rail transport contract. Poland is among the border countries that have legal experience in cooperating within both the international legal regimes: COTIF and SMGS/SMPS, and now dealing with the overlapping rules of international conventions and the European law. Whether a single step forward—to one international rail convention, Unified Railway Law (URL)—is a good move, shall be judged in the light of the present legal experience, bearing in mind the ongoing process of decodification of private law.

El sistema de fuentes en derecho internacional carece de una "meta--norma" o, en terminología hartiana, una regla de reconocimiento expresa. El surgimiento soft law o derecho blando se vincula tanto con la indeterminación estructural de las fuentes del derecho internacional como con la incapacidad de los modelos tradicionales para describir la realidad jurídica existente hoy día. Por esta razón, este paper intenta comprender el soft law como una fuente del derecho internacional a partir de su condición y de la comprensión del sistema jurídico como un sistema complejo adaptativo desde la teoría de la complejidad contemporánea. Utiliza como ejemplos el Código de conducta sobre la fiscalidad de las empresas de la Unión Europea y la lex mercatoria.

On peut comprendre la soft law en distinguant le caractère obligatoire des règles de leur force contraignante. Des exemples pris du droit économique international montrent qu’on ne peut pas simplement qualifier les règles de «contraignantes» ou «non contraignantes». La contrainte existe toujours «dans une certaine mesure», dont l’évaluation est une des missions politiques du juge.
Ainsi,  l’analyse  de  la  jurisprudence  de  la  Cour  de  justice  des  Communautés européennes relative à l’invocabilité du droit de l’OMC, plus particulièrement à son caractère  «inconditionnel»,  révèle  l’existence  d’une  politique jurisprudentielle modulant la force contraignante des règles juridiques.
D’autre part, les références à des textes de soft law présentes dans les Accords de l’OMC relatifs aux mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires (SPS) et aux obstacles techniques au commerce (OTC) sont un exemple de « reprise » de la soft law par le droit positif et, dès lors, de modification de la contrainte dont il est assorti. De nouveau, cette contrainte dépend en grande partie de l’appréciation du juge.

This paper investigates the effect of eco-labeling on rental rates, sale prices and occupancy rates. The consensus emerging from previous studies appears to be that investors in and occupiers of eco-labeled buildings obtain a bundle of benefits related to lower operating costs, reputation benefits and productivity higher. In this study, a hedonic model is used to test whether the presence of an eco-label has a significantly positive effect on rental rates, sale prices and occupancy rates of commercial office buildings in the US. The results suggest that office buildings with Energy Star or LEED eco-labels obtain rental premia of approximately 3–5%. Dual certification produces an additive effect with rental premia estimated at 9%. Respective sale price premia for Energy Star and LEED labeled office buildings are 18% and 25%. The sale price premium for dual certification is estimated at 28–29%. An occupancy premium could not be confirmed for LEED labeled office buildings and only a small positive occupancy premium was found for Energy Star.► Eco-labeling premiums are tested in rents, prices & occupancy of US office buildings. ► Energy Star or LEED commands a 3–5% rental premium, 9% for dual certified buildings. ► Sale price premium is 18% and 25% for Energy Star and LEED, 28–29% for dual certified. ► No occupancy premium for LEED buildings but a small positive effect for Energy Star.

This book deepens the study of the law of treaties by offering specific solutions to current legal problems. It provides a high-level theoretical and practical approach, touching upon all major current issues of the law of treaties. It is noteworthy that each subject-matter discussed in this work was thoroughly analyzed and supported by a rigorous methodology, including the use of the most accurate terminology and a well-reasoned explanation of each of the issues addressed in accordance with the most authoritative legal scholarly writings. This work is also a helpful reference for governmental and diplomatic officials, legal practitioners and the legal academia at large in trying to understand how international acts are negotiated and adopted, what the rules are for the formulation of reservations and introduction of amendments to conventional texts, how a State is definitely deemed to be bound by an international act or treaty, which the effects are of a treaty that came into force and how treaties should be applied at the international level, etc.

El autor revisa las formas en que ha sido entendido el término Soft Law, su importancia para el Derecho, y la rela- ción que guarda el mismo con otras disciplinas de relevancia jurídica. Asimismo, se hace hace una determinación de la natu- raleza del Soft Law concluyendo que el mismo no puede enten- derse como una norma jurídica, sino dentro de la categoría de la fuentes materiales del Derecho.

This paper explores the relationship between tourism and the challenges of governance in the Arctic region. Recently, both political and academic interest in the Arctic has been on the rise as a result of the increasing geopolitical importance of the region. Changes of the climatic conditions and melting of the Arctic ice caps have resulted in increased access to the “world´s last wilderness”. The increased access and interest are contributing to a growing number of tourists visiting the North. As yearly arrivals continue to rise, a number of problematic issues need to be addressed. This paper reviews the main instruments relevant to the discussion of tourism currently employed in the governance of the Arctic, and critically evaluates the insufficiencies of the current legal framework for Arctic governance and regulation of tourism in the Arctic. It concludes that although tourism in the Arctic has a number of advantages, particularly for the indigenous populations, the current legal and regulatory framework in the region lacks the scope and authority to minimize the potential (and increasing) environmental, economic, and social risks associated with increased tourism and other human activity in the region.

Swilling and Annecke (2012, p. xiv) state that "the balance between synthesis and analysis" is necessary to critically understand the problems of sustainability, and to formulate creative problem solving. The shift from understanding sustainability problemsinto creative solutions through democracy and innovation is the just transition that the authors promote throughout the book. This book review dissects chapters of the book based on the similar spirit, i.e. to assemble pieces of sustainability problems presented and critically assess the links between the problems and the solutions offered in the book.

The paper presents the main tensions and problems caused by the global financial crisis to the employment and employment policies in Romania and EU countries. The current crisis has once again confirmed that economies are interconnected and no region in the world can be independent in a globalized world economy. Thus, the implementation of EU economic policies in general and employment policies, in particular, were influenced by the current financial and economic crisis. Because of this, at the level of EU there have been strengthened efforts to promote employment, as part of a strategy to overcome financial and economic crisis, through programs such us New Skills for New Jobs, Lisbon Strategy 2020, Labour market developments in the crisis.

Omniprésente mais constituant un phénomène qui échappe souvent à notre perception, la standardisation a pour objet la production de normes de référence destinées aux biens, produits, services et processus. Portant en apparence sur des matières techniques et s’enrobant d’une volonté de neutralité politique, la standardisation couvre toutefois des pans de plus en plus larges des activités humaines. Son influence est d’autant plus significative lorsqu’elle devient internationale, compte tenu de l’espace de production des standards ou de leur portée. Les problèmes juridiques qu’elle soulève sont d’autant plus complexes et nombreux lorsqu’elle est élaborée par des instances composées de personnes privées, que ce soit parce que l’État, impuissant face aux forces du marché, préfère se reposer sur des acteurs privés ou que ces derniers comblent le vide laissé par les autorités publiques. En ce sens, au-delà des problèmes de légitimité démocratique qu’elle soulève, la standardisation internationale privée constitue un processus d’influence économique qui nous invite à repenser les rapports entre l’État, le droit et le marché, tout autant qu’elle permet au juriste d’explorer de nouvelles formes de normativité.

Human right to water has arguably become a flashpoint issue for debates over the social dimensions of globalization. The social dimension of a globalization is a current and main challenge to ensure that globalization and global governance become a positive force incorporating inclusiveness, accountability and participation with shared responsibilities. In this context, this paper argues that a lack of the social dimension in a process of globalization means a crisis in global governance.

Soft law is often seen as a way to overcome certain problems of legitimacy in international law, notably the weaknesses of a voluntaristic conception of international law’s validity. Other perceived benefits of soft law include flexibility, speed of adoption and modification, and even effectiveness. Yet, soft law is seen by others as a threat to law, because it effaces the border between law and politics. This paper explores different approaches to the boundary between law and not-law that seek both to maintain this boundary and to reconceptualize it in a way that better anchors the validity of international legal rules.

In the global arena, the cooperation between the BRICS countries – Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa – covers around 42% of the world’s population and some of the world’s most dynamic emerging economies. Initially, the BRICS cooperation was suggested as an idea, and it was later welcomed as a new addition to the global governance debate about the future. The BRICS countries have already held ten consecutive summits of heads of state plus a large number of meetings at the ministerial level. The cooperation describes itself as a cooperation and dialogue” platform, but it has nonetheless signed a number of binding treaties and, notably, established the New Development Bank (NDB) as a permanent institution headquartered in Shanghai (China).
The cooperation has also met with resistance, criticism and problems caused by the overall complexity of global affairs in a rapidly changing world. The diversity and remote locations of the BRICS countries have also been thought of as an obstacle to their successful cooperation and their ability to play an active part in global governance in the twentyfirst
century. The main challenge thus lies in their ability to overcome their differences and to make a difference in designing the future global political and economic world order.
Against the backdrop of the global governance debate, the present paper therefore asks whether the BRICS cooperation constitutes a novel model of regionalism with multilateral aspirations, and what role law and, notably, the “rule of law” can play in this important task. The paper includes a discussion of the extent to which the BRICS cooperation needs to be upgraded in legal and institutional terms, and possibly to proceed from cooperation via consolidation to the codification of its most important sources of global law.

This article examines five common misunderstandings about case-study research: (a) theoretical knowledge is more valuable than practical knowledge; (b) one cannot generalize from a single case, therefore, the single-case study cannot contribute to scientific development; (c) the case study is most useful for generating hypotheses, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building; (d) the case study contains a bias toward verification; and (e) it is often difficult to summarize specific case studies. This article explains and corrects these misunderstandings one by one and concludes with the Kuhnian insight that a scientific discipline without a large number of thoroughly executed case studies is a discipline without systematic production of exemplars, and a discipline without exemplars is an ineffective one. Social science may be strengthened by the execution of a greater number of good case studies.

INDICE 1.-AMÉRICA LATINA Y SU CRISIS SOCIAL: MÁS POBRES Y HAMBRIENTOS PERO CON MÁS ALIMENTOS 2.-LOS DERECHOS ECONÓMICOS, SOCIALES Y CULTURALES EN LA REGIÓN: DOS PASOS ADELANTE, UN PASO ATRÁS. 2.1.-Breve retazo histórico: consolidación a pesar de todo 2.2.-Los DESC a finales del siglo XX: un avance más teórico que real para el ciudadano

Bounded rationality, opportunism, the primacy of markets and the action of economizing are building blocks of Oliver Williamson's Transaction Cost Economics (TCE). As in all intellectual exchanges, Williamson has used a range of argumentative devices to set up and negotiate his basic notions and assumptions with economists. Rhetorical analysis is applied here to study his argumentation in a certain institutional context within economics. Negotiations with the mainstream, with the competence view of the firm and within the New Institutional Economics, for instance, have had an impact on the construction of TCE and are given attention here. Difficult decisions have been made in order to forge ahead with TCE, including whether to uphold some notions (e.g. opportunism) at the cost of leaving others behind (e.g. economics of atmosphere). Rhetorical transactions like this have shaped TCE and its recognition in economics and related areas.

The international norms that are developed as tools of global governance can be placed on a continuum from traditional "hard law" treaties to the vaguest and voluntary "soft law." In this article we develop an analytical framework for comparing norms on different positions along the continuum, thus for comparing international hard and soft law. We root the framework in both the rationalist and the constructivist paradigms of international relations by focusing on two overarching evaluative criteria: effectiveness and legitimacy. These broad concepts are divided into smaller building blocks encompassing mechanisms through which norms can exert influence; for example, by changing material incentives, identities, and building capacity, and by contributing to building source-based, procedural, and substantive legitimacy. We illustrate the applicability of the framework with three norm processes of varying degrees of "softness" in global climate governance.

Abstract This paper introduces a new dataset from 100 Dutch institutional investors in respect of their domestic and international investments. We focus on institutional investor private equity allocations and provide comparisons to public equity, and show similarities in the determinants of socially responsible investment for different asset classes.

The problem of contemporary piracy has led to the rise of a complex organizational field. A myriad of organizations have become active in counter-piracy. This chapter sets out to disentangle the field of counter-piracy. A systematic mapping of the different practices and actors engaged in counter piracy is presented. Counter-piracy activities are captured as organized in different functional streams or categories of practice, including governance, epistemic, military, law enforcement, development stream, and humanitarian streams. The intention behind this mapping is that in the meantime it has become very difficult to navigate through the complex organizational jungle of counter-piracy. Coordinating the diverse counter-piracy actors is an ongoing challenge not the least to avoid contradictory projects, and duplication. It is also important to guarantee a better management of knowledge about piracy and counter-piracy and to ensure that lessons learned by one agency are recognized and considered by another. The chapter reviews over fifty organizations and their contribution to the counter-piracy field.