Theory Lectures

1
Hands-On Relay School

Jon F. Daume
Bonneville Power Administration
March 14-15, 2011
Theory Track
Transmission Protection Theory
Symmetrical Components &
Fault Calculations
2
Class Outline
Power system troubles
Symmetrical components
Per unit system
Electrical equipment impedances
Sequence networks
Fault calculations
3
Power System Problems
Faults
Equipment trouble
System disturbances
4
Fault Causes
Lightning
Wind and ice
Vandalism
Contamination
External forces
Cars, tractors, balloons, airplanes, trees, critters,
flying saucers, etc.
Equipment failures
System disturbances
Overloads, system swings
5
6
Fault Types
One line to ground (most common)
Three phase (rare but most severe)
Phase to phase
Phase to phase to ground
7
Symmetrical
Components
8
Balanced & Unbalanced Systems
Balanced System:
3 Phase load
3 Phase fault
Unbalanced System:
Phase to phase fault
One line to ground
fault
Phase to phase to
ground fault
Open pole or
conductor
Unbalanced load
9
Balanced & Unbalanced Systems
A
C
B
Balanced
System
A
C
B
Unbalanced System
10
Sequence Currents for
Unbalanced Network
Ia2
Ic2
Ib2
Negative Sequence
Ic0
Ib0
Ia0
Zero Sequence
Ia1
Ic1
Ib1
Positive Sequence
11
Sequence Quantities
Condition + - 0
3 Phase load - -
3 Phase fault - -
Phase to phase fault -
One line to ground fault
Two phase to ground fault
Open pole or conductor
Unbalanced load
12
Phase Values From Sequence
Values
Currents:
I
A
= I
a0
+ I
a1
+ I
a2
I
B
= I
b0
+ I
b1
+ I
b2
I
C
= I
c0
+ I
c1
+ I
c2
Voltages:
V
A
= V
a0
+ V
a1
+ V
a2
V
B
= V
b0
+ V
b1
+ V
b2
V
C
= V
c0
+ V
c1
+ V
c2
13
a Operator
a = -0.5 + j 3= 1 120
2
a
2
= -0.5 j 3= 1 240
2
1 + a + a
2
= 0
1
a
a
2
14
Phase Values From Sequence
Values
Currents:
I
A
= I
a0
+ I
a1
+ I
a2
I
B
= I
a0
+ a
2
I
a1
+ aI
a2
I
C
= I
a0
+ aI
a1
+ a
2
I
a2
Voltages:
V
A
= V
a0
+ V
a1
+ V
a2
V
B
= V
a0
+ a
2
V
a1
+ aV
a2
V
C
= V
a0
+ aV
a1
+ a
2
V
a2
15
Sequence Values From Phase
Values
Currents:
I
a0
= (I
A
+ I
B
+ I
C
)/3
I
a1
= (I
A
+ aI
B
+ a
2
I
C
)/3
I
a2
= (I
A
+ a
2
I
B
+ aI
C
)/3
Voltages:
V
a0
= (V
A
+ V
B
+ V
C
)/3
V
a1
= (V
A
+ aV
B
+ a
2
V
C
)/3
V
a2
= (V
A
+ a
2
V
B
+ aV
C
)/3
16
Zero Sequence Filter
3I
a0
= I
g
= I
r
= I
A
+ I
B
+ I
C
and: 1 + a + a
2
= 0
I
A
= I
a0
+ I
a1
+ I
a2
+I
B
= I
a0
+ a
2
I
a1
+ aI
a2
+I
C
= I
a0
+ aI
a1
+ a
2
I
a2
= I
g
= 3I
ao
+ 0 + 0
17
Ia
Ic
Ib
3I0 = Ia + Ib + Ic
Zero Sequence Current Filter
18
Zero Sequence Voltage Filter
3V0
3 VO Polarizing Potential
Ea
Eb
Ec
19
Negative Sequence Filter
Some protective relays are designed to
sense negative sequence currents and/or
voltages
Much more complicated than detecting zero
sequence values
Most modern numerical relays have negative
sequence elements for fault detection
and/or directional control
20
Example
I
A
= 3 + j4
I
B
= -7 - j2
I
C
= -2 + j7
+j
-j
IA = 3+j4
IB = -7-j2
IC = -2+j7
21
Zero Sequence
I
a0
= (I
A
+ I
B
+ I
C
)/3
= [(3+j4)+(-7-j2)+(-2+j7)]/3
= -2 + j3 = 3.61 124
I
a0
= I
b0
= I
c0
Ic0
Ib0
Ia0
Zero Sequence
22
Positive Sequence
I
a1
= (I
A
+ aI
B
+ a
2
I
C
)/3
= [(3+j4)+(-0.5+j3/2)(-7-j2)
+(-0.5-j3/2)(-2+j7)]/3
= [(3+j4)+(5.23-j5.06)+(7.06-j1.77)]/3
= 5.10 - j 0.94 = 5.19 -10.5
I
b1
is rotated -120 I
c1
is rotated +120
23
Positive Sequence
Ia1
Ic1
Ib1
24
Negative Sequence
I
a2
= (I
A
+ a
2
I
B
+ aI
C
)/3
= [(3+j4)+(-0.5-j3/2)(-7-j2)
+(-0.5+j3/2)(-2+j7)]/3
= [(3+j4)+(1.77+j7.06)+(-5.06-j5.23)]/3
= -0.1 + j 1.94 = 1.95 92.9
I
b2
is rotated +120 I
c2
is rotated -120
25
Negative Sequence
Ia2
Ic2
Ib2
26
Reconstruct Phase Currents
Ia
Ic
Ib
Ic1
Ib1
Ia1
Ib0
Ia0
Ic0
Ia2
Ib2
Ic2
27
Positive, Negative, and Zero
Sequence Impedance
Network Calculations for a
Fault Study
28
+, -, 0 Sequence Networks
Simple 2 Source Power System Example
Fault
1PU
Z1
I1
Z2
I2
Z0
I0
V0
-
+
V2
-
+
V1
-
+
29
Impedance Networks & Fault Type
Fault Type + - 0
3 Phase fault - -
Phase to phase fault -
Two phase to ground fault
30
Per Unit
31
Per Unit
Per unit values are commonly used for fault
calculations and fault study programs
Per unit values convert real quantities to
values based upon number 1
Per unit values include voltages, currents and
impedances
Calculations are easier
Ignore voltage changes due to transformers
Ohms law still works
32
Per Unit
Convert equipment impedances into per unit
values
Transformer and generator impedances are
given in per cent (%)
Line impedances are calculated in ohms
These impedances are converted to per unit
ohms impedance
33
Base kVA or MVA
Arbitrarily selected
All values converted to common KVA or MVA
Base
100 MVA base is most often used
Generator or transformer MVA rating may be
used for the base
34
Base kV
Use nominal equipment or line voltages
765 kV 525 kV
345 kV 230 kV
169 kV 138 kV
115 kV 69 kV
34.5 kV 13.8 kV
12.5 kV etc.
35
Base Ohms, Amps
Base ohms:
kV
2
1000 = kV
2

base kVA base MVA
Base amps:
base kVA = 1000 base MVA
3 kV 3 kV
36
Base Ohms, Amps (100 MVA Base)
kV Base Ohms Base Amps
525 2756.3 110.0
345 1190.3 167.3
230 529.0 251.0
115 132.3 502.0
69 47.6 836.7
34.5 11.9 1673.5
13.8 1.9 4183.7
12.5 1.6 4618.8
37
Conversions
Percent to Per Unit:
base MVA x % Z of equipment
3 MVA rating 100
= Z pu @ base MVA
If 100 MVA base is used:
% Z of equipment = Z pu
3 MVA rating
38
Ohms to Per Unit
pu Ohms = ohms / base ohms
base MVA x ohms = pu @ base MVA
kV
2
LL
39
Per Unit to Real Stuff
Amps = pu amps x base amps
kV = pu kV x base kV
Ohms = pu ohms x base ohms
40
Converting Between Bases
Z
new
= Z
old
x base MVA
new
x kV
2
old
base MVA
old
kV
2
new
41
Evaluation of System
Components
Determine positive, negative, and zero
sequence impedances of various devices
(Z
1
, Z
2
, Z
0
)
Only machines will act as a voltage source in
the positive sequence network
Connect the various impedances into networks
according to topography of the system
Connect impedance networks for various fault
types or other system conditions
42
Synchronous Machines
~
Machine values:
Machine reactances given in % of the
machine KVA or MVA rating
Ground impedances given in ohms
43
Machine values:
Subtransient reactance (X"
d
)
Transient reactance (X'
d
)
Synchronous reactance (X
d
)
Negative sequence reactance (X
2
)
Zero sequence reactance (X
0
)
44
Machine neutral ground impedance: Usually
expressed in ohms
Use 3R or 3X for fault calculations
Calculations generally ignores resistance
values for generators
Calculations generally uses X
d
for all
impedance values
45
Generator Example
Machine nameplate values:
250 MVA, 13.8 kV
X"
d
= 25% @ 250 MVA
X'
d
= 30% @ 250 MVA
X
d
= 185% @ 250 MVA
X
2
= 25% @ 250 MVA
X
0
= 10% @ 250 MVA
46
Generator Example
Convert machine reactances to per unit @
common MVA base, (100):
X"
d
= 25% / 250 = 0.1 pu
X'
d
= 30% / 250 = 0.12 pu
X
d
= 185% / 250 = 0.74 pu
X
2
= 25% / 250 = 0.1 pu
X
0
= 10% / 250 = 0.04 pu
base MVA x % Z of equipment = Z pu @ base MVA
3 MVA rating 100
47
Generator Example
~
R1 jX1 = 0.1
R0 jX0 = 0.04
R2 jX2 = 0.1
48
Transformers
Zx
X
Ze
Zh
H
1:N
Vh
Ih
Zhx
H
X
Equivalent Transformer - Impedance in %
Z
hx
= V
h
/I
h
= Z
h
+ Z
x
/N
2
Z
hx
% = V
h
/I
h
x MVA/kV
2
x 100
49
Transformers
Impedances in % of the transformer MVA
rating
Convert from circuit voltage to tap voltage:
%X
tap
= %X
circuit
kV
2
circuit
kV
2
tap
50
Transformers
Convert to common base MVA:
%X @ base MVA =
base MVA x %X of Transformer
MVA of Measurement
%X of Transformer = pu X @ 100 MVA
MVA of Measurement
X
1
= X
2
= X
0
unless a special value is given for
X
0
51
Transformer Example
250 MVA Transformer
13.8 kV - 230 kV Yg
10% Impedance @ 250 MVA
X = 10% = 0.04 pu @ 100 MVA
250
X
1
= X
2
= X
0
= X
Assume R
1
, R
2
, R
0
= 0
52
Transformer Example
R1 jX1 = 0.04
R0 jX0 = 0.04
R2 jX2 = 0.04
Zero sequence connection depends upon
winding configuration.
53
Transformer Connections
Winding Connection Sequence Network
Connections
Z1, Z2 Z0
Z1, Z2 Z0
54
Winding Connection Sequence Network Connections
Z1, Z2 Z0
Z1, Z2 Z0
Z1, Z2 Z0
Z1, Z2 Z0
55
Delta Wye Transformer
A
B
C
b
a
Ia
Ic
Ib
IA
IB
IC
nIA
nIC
3I0 = IA+IB+IC
nIB
56
Delta Wye Transformer
I
a
= nI
A
- nI
C
= n(I
a0
+I
a1
+I
a2
- I
a0
-aI
a1
-a
2
I
a2
)
= n(I
a1
- aI
a1
+ I
a2
- a
2
I
a2
)
I
b
= nI
B
- nI
A
= n(I
a0
+a
2
I
a1
+aI
a2
-I
a0
-I
a1
-I
a2
)
= n(a
2
I
a1
- I
a1
+ aI
a2
- I
a2
)
I
c
= nI
C
- nI
B
= n(I
a0
+aI
a1
+a
2
I
a2
-I
a0
-a
2
I
a1
-aI
a2
)
= n(aI
a1
- a
2
I
a1
+ a
2
I
a2
- aI
a2
)
No zero sequence current outside delta
57
A YG / YG connection provides a series
connection for zero sequence current
A / YG connection provides a zero sequence
(I
0
) current source for the YG winding
Auto transformer provides same connection as
YG / YG connection
Use 3R or 3X if a Y is connected to ground
with a resistor or reactor
58
Three Winding Transformer
Impedances Z
HL
, Z
HM
, & Z
ML
given in % at
corresponding winding rating
Convert impedances to common base MVA
Calculate corresponding T network
impedances:
Z
H
= (Z
HL
+ Z
HM
- Z
ML
)/2
Z
M
= (- Z
HL
+ Z
HM
+ Z
ML
)/2
Z
L
= (Z
HL
- Z
HM
+ Z
ML
)/2
59
T Network
Calculate corresponding T network
impedances:
Z
H
= (Z
HL
+ Z
HM
- Z
ML
)/2
Z
M
= (- Z
HL
+ Z
HM
+ Z
ML
)/2
Z
L
= (Z
HL
- Z
HM
+ Z
ML
)/2
Z
HL
= Z
H
+ Z
L
Z
HM
= Z
H
+ Z
M
Z
ML
= Z
M
+ Z
L
ZH ZM
ZL
60
Transformer Example
230 kV YG/115 kV YG/13.2 kV
Nameplate Impedances
Z
HL
= 5.0% @ 50 MVA
Z
HM
= 5.75% @ 250 MVA
Z
ML
= 3.15% @ 50 MVA
61
Transformer Example
Convert impedances to per unit @ common
MVA Base (100)
Z
HL
= 5.0% @ 50 MVA = 5.0 / 50
= 0.10 pu
Z
HM
= 5.75% @ 250 MVA = 5.75 / 250
= 0.023 pu
Z
ML
= 3.15% @ 50 MVA = 3.15 / 50
= 0.063 pu
62
Transformer Example
Convert impedances to T network equivalent
Z
H
= (Z
HL
+ Z
HM
- Z
ML
)/2
= (0.1 + 0.023 - 0.063)/2 = 0.03 pu
Z
M
= (- Z
HL
+ Z
HM
+ Z
ML
)/2
= (-0.1 + 0.023 + 0.063)/2 = - 0.007 pu
Z
L
= (Z
HL
- Z
HM
+ Z
ML
)/2
= (0.1 - 0.023 + 0.063)/2 = 0.07 pu
63
Transformer Example
0.03
-0.007
0.07
H M
0.03 -0.007
0.07
H
M
L
L
H, 230 kV L, 13.8 kV M, 115 kV
+, - Sequence 0 Sequence
Problem
Calculate pu impedances for generators and
transformers
Use 100 MVA base
Ignore all resistances
65
Problem
Fault
13.8 kV
13.8 kV
230 kV 230 kV
115 kV
66
Problem - Generator Data
Machine nameplate values:
300 MVA Nameplate rating
X"
d
= 25% @ 300 MVA
X'
d
= 30% @ 300 MVA
X
d
= 200% @ 300 MVA
X
2
= 25% @ 300 MVA
X
0
= 10% @ 300 MVA
Left generator: 13.8 kV
Right generator: 115 kV
67
Problem - Transformer Data
Two winding transformer nameplate values
300 MVA Transformer
13.8 kV - 230 kV Yg
10% Impedance @ 300 MVA
Three winding transformer nameplate values
230 kV Yg/115 kV Yg/13.8 kV
Z
HL
= 5.0% @ 50 MVA (230 kV 13.8 kV)
Z
HM
= 6.0% @ 300 MVA (230 kV 115 kV)
Z
ML
= 3.2% @ 50 MVA (115 kV 13.8 kV)
68
Transmission Lines
R jX
69
Positive & Negative Sequence
Line Impedance
Z
1
= Z
2
= R
a
+ j 0.2794 f log GMD
sep
60 GMR
cond
or
Z
1
= R
a
+ j (X
a
+ X
d
) /mile
R
a
and X
a
from conductor tables
X
d
= 0.2794 f log GMD
60
70
Positive & Negative Sequence
Line Impedance
f = system frequency
GMD
sep
= Geometric mean distance
between conductors =
3
(d
ab
d
bc
d
ac
) where
d
ab
, d
ac
, d
bc
= spacing between conductors
in feet
GMR
cond
= Geometric mean radius of
conductor in feet
R
a
= conductor resistance, /mile
71
Zero Sequence Line Impedance
Z
0
= R
a
+ R
e
+
j 0.01397 f log D
e
_______
3
(GMR
cond
GMD
sep
2
)
or
Z
0
= R
a
+ R
e
+ j (X
a
+ X
e
- 2X
d
) /mile
72
Zero Sequence Line Impedance
R
e
= 0.2862 for a 60 Hz. system. R
e
does
not vary with .
D
e
= 2160 ( /f) = 2788 @ 60 Hz.
= Ground resistivity, generally assumed to
be 100 meter ohms.
X
e
= 2.89 for 100 meter ohms average
ground resistivity.
73
Transmission Lines
Ra j(Xa+Xd)
Ra+Re j(Xa+Xe-2Xd)
Ra j(Xa+Xd)
Z
1
Z
2
Z
0
74
Transmission Line Example
230 kV Line
50 Miles long
1272 kcmil ACSR Pheasant Conductor
R
a
= 0.0903 /mile @ 80 C
X
a
= 0.37201 /mile
GMR = 0.0466 feet
Structure: horizontal H frame
75
Structure H frame:
GMD =
3
(d
ab
d
bc
d
ac
) =
3
(23x23x46)
= 28.978 feet
X
d
= 0.2794 f log GMD
60
= 0.2794 log 28.978 = 0.4085 /mile
A C B
23 Feet 23 Feet
J6 Configuration
76
Z
1
= Z
2
= R
a
+ j (X
a
+ X
d
)
= 0.0903 + j (0.372 + 0.4085)
= 0.0903 + j 0.781 /mile
Z
1
Line = 50(0.0903 + j 0.781)
= 4.52 + j 39.03 = 39.29 83.4
Per unit @ 230 kV, 100 MVA Base
base MVA x ohms = pu @ base MVA
kV
2
LL
Z
1
Line = (4.52 + j 39.03)100/230
2
= 0.0085 + j 0.0743 pu
77
Z
0
= R
a
+ R
e
+ j (X
a
+ X
e
2X
d
) = 0.0903
+ 0.286+ j (0.372 + 2.89 - 2 x0.4085)
= 0.377 + j 2.445 /mile
Z
0
Line = 50(0.377 + j 2.445)
= 18.83 + j 122.25 = 123.69 81.2
Per unit @ 230 kV, 100 MVA Base
Z
0
Line = (18.83 + j 122.25)100/230
2
= 0.0356 + j 0.2311 pu
78
Z
1
Z
2
Z
0
0.0085 j0.0743
0.0356 j0.2311
0.0085 j0.0743
79
Long Parallel Lines
Mutual impedance between lines
80
Mutual Impedance
Result of coupling between parallel lines
Only affects Zero sequence network
Will affect ground fault magnitudes
Will affect ground current flow in lines
Line #1
Line #2
3I0, Line #1
3I0, Line #2
81
Mutual Impedance
Z
M
= R
e
+ j 0.838 log D
e
/mile
GMD
circuits
or
Z
M
= R
e
+ j (X
e
3X
d circuits
) /mile
R
e
= 0.2862 @ 60 Hz
D
e
= 2160 ( /f) = 2788 @ 60 Hz
X
e
= 2.89 for 100 meter ohms average
ground resistivity
82
Mutual Impedance
GMD
circuits
is the ninth root of all possible
distances between the six conductors,
approximately equal to center to center
spacing
GMD
circuits
=
9
(d
a1a2
d
a1b2
d
a1c2
d
b1a2
d
b1b2
d
b1c2
d
c1a1
d
c1b2
d
c1c2
)
X
d circuits
= 0.2794 log GMD
circuits
83
Mutual Impedance Example
A
C B
23 Feet 23 Feet
A C B
23 Feet 23 Feet
Circuit #1 Circuit #2
46 Feet
46 Feet
92 Feet
69 Feet
69 Feet
92 Feet
115 Feet
138 Feet
115 Feet
92 Feet
84
Mutual Impedance Example
GMD
circuits
=
9
(d
a1a2
d
a1b2
d
a1c2
d
b1a2
d
b1b2
d
b1c2
d
c1a1
d
c1b2
d
c1c2
) =
9
(92x115x138x69x92x115x46x69x92)
= 87.84 feet
X
d circuits
= 0.2794 log GMD
circuits
= 0.2794 log 87.84 = 0.5431 /mile
Z
M
= R
e
+ j (X
e
3X
d circuits
)
= 0.2862 + j (2.89 - 3x0.5431)
= 0.2862 + j 1.261 /mile
(Z
0
= 0.377 + j 2.445 /mile)
85
Mutual Impedance Model
Bus 1 Bus 2
Z0 Line 1
Z0 Line 2
ZM
Bus 1 Bus 2
Z02 - ZM
Z01- ZM
ZM
86
Mutual Impedance Model
Model works with at least 1 common bus
Z
M
Affects zero sequence network only
Z
M
For different line voltages:
pu Ohms = ohms x base MVA
kV
1
x kV
2
Mutual impedance calculations and modeling
become much more complicated with larger
systems
87
Mutual Impedance Fault Example
Taft
Taft
645 Amps
1315 Amps
645 Amps
1980 Amps
920 Amps
260 Amps 920 Amps
1370 Amps
1LG Faults With Mutual Impedances
1LG Faults Without Mutual Impedances
Garrison
Garrison
Taft Garrison
Taft Garrison
88
Problem
Calculate Z
1
and Z
0
pu impedances for a
transmission line
Calculate R
1
, Z
1
, R
0
and Z
0
Calculate Z
1
and Z
0
and the angles for Z
1
and Z
0
Calculate Z
0
mutual impedance between
transmission lines
Use 100 MVA base and 230 kV base
89
Problem
Fault
13.8 kV
13.8 kV
230 kV 230 kV
115 kV
90
Transmission Line Data
2 Parallel 230 kV Lines
60 Miles long
1272 kcmil ACSR Pheasant conductor
R
a
= 0.0903 /mile @ 80 C
X
a
= 0.37201 /mile
GMR = 0.0466 feet
H frame structure - flat, 23 feet between
conductors
Spacing between circuits = 92 feet centerline to
centerline
91
Fault Calculations and
Impedance Network
Connections
92
Why We Need Fault Studies
Relay coordination and settings
Determine equipment ratings
Determine effective grounding of system
Substation ground mat design
Substation telephone protection
requirements
Locating faults
93
Fault Studies
Fault Types:
3 Phase
One line to ground
Phase to phase
Phase to phase to ground
Fault Locations:
Bus fault
Line end
Line out fault (bus fault with line open)
Intermediate faults on transmission line
94
Fault Study Assumptions
Ignore loads
Use generator X
d
Generator X
2
equal X
d
Ignore generator resistance
Ignore transformer resistance
0 Fault resistance assumed
Negative sequence impedance = positive
sequence impedance
95
Positive Sequence Network
Z1sl Z1tl Z1Ll Z1Lr Z1sr
Z1h Z1m
Z1l
V1=1-I1Z1
+
Vl = 1 Vr = 1
I1
Fault
96
Negative Sequence Network
Z2h Z2m
Z2l
V2= -I2Z2
+
I2
Fault
97
Zero Sequence Network
Z0h Z0m
Z0l
V0= -I0Z0
+
I0
Fault
98
Network Reduction
Fault
1PU
Z1
I1
Z2
I2
Z0
I0
V0
-
+
V2
-
+
V1
-
+
99
Three Phase Fault
Only positive sequence impedance network
used
No negative or zero sequence currents or
voltages
Fault
100
Three Phase Fault
1PU
Z1
0.084
I1=11.9 I2=0 I0=0
V0
-
+
V2
-
+
V1
-
+
Z0
0.081
Z2
0.084
101
Three Phase Fault
Fault
Z1h Z1m
Z1l
V1=1-I1Z1
+
Vl = 1 Vr = 1
Sequence Network Connection for 3 Phase Fault
I1
0.1 0.037 0.04 0.037 0.1
0.03
0.07
-0.007
102
Three Phase Fault
Positive Sequence Network Reduced
Fault
V1=1-I1Z1
+
Vl = 1 Vr = 1
I1
0.177 0.160
103
Three Phase Fault Vectors
Va
Vc
Vb
Ia
Ic
Ib
104
Three Phase Fault
MVA
Fault
= MVA
Base
Z
Fault
pu
or
I pu Fault current = 1 pu E
Source
Z
Fault
pu
105
Three Phase Fault
I
1
= E / Z
1
= 1 / Z
1
I
2
= I
0
= 0
I
A
= I
1
+ I
2
+ I
0
= I
1
I
B
= a
2
I
1
I
C
= aI
1
V
1
= 1 I
1
Z
1
= 0
V
2
= 0, V
0
= 0
V
A
= V
B
= V
C
= 0
106
Phase to Phase Fault
Positive and negative sequence impedance
networks connected in parallel
No zero sequence currents or voltages
Fault
107
1PU
Z1
I1
Z2
I2
Z0
I0
V0
-
+
V2
-
+
V1
-
+
108
Z2h Z2m
Z2l
V2= -I2Z2
+
I2 = -I1
Z1h Z1m
Z1l
V1=1-I1Z1
I1
+
Vl = 1 Vr = 1
Sequence Network Connection for Phase to Phase Fault
Fault
109
Phase to Phase Fault Vectors
Va
Vc
Vb
Ic
Ib
110
I
1
= - I
2
= E = ___1___ I
0
= 0
(Z
1
+ Z
2
) (Z
1
+ Z
2
)
I
A
= I
0
+ I
1
+ I
2
= 0
I
B
= I
0
+ a
2
I
1
+ aI
2
= a
2
I
1
- aI
1
I
B
= (a
2
- a) E = _-j 3 E_ = -j 0.866 E
(Z
1
+ Z
2
) (Z
1
+ Z
2
) Z
1
I
C
= - I
B
(assume Z
1
= Z
2
)
111
V
1
= E - I
1
Z
1
= 1 - I
1
Z
1
V
2
= - I
2
Z
2
= V
1
V
0
= 0
V
A
= V
1
+ V
2
+ V
0
= 2 V
1
V
B
= V
0
+ a
2
V
1
+ aV
2
= a
2
V
1
+ aV
1
= -V
1
V
C
= -V
1
Phase to phase fault = 86.6%
3 phase fault
112
Single Line to Ground Fault
Positive, negative and zero sequence
impedance networks connected in series
Fault
113
1PU
Z1
.084
I0=4.02
V0
-
+
V2
-
+
V1
-
+
Z2
.084
Z0
.081
I2=4.02 I1=4.02
114
Z2h Z2m
Z2l
V2= -I2Z2
+
Z0h Z0m
Z0l
V0= -I0Z0
+
Z1h Z1m
Z1l
V1=1-I1Z1
+
Vl = 1 Vr = 1
I1
I2
I0
Sequence Network Connection for One Line to Ground Fault
I1 = I2 = I0
0.1 0.037 0.04 0.037 0.1
0.03
0.07
-0.007
0.04 0.116 0.04 0.116 0.04
0.03
0.07
-0.007
0.1 0.037 0.04 0.037 0.1
0.03
0.07
-0.007
115
Single Line to Ground Fault Vectors
Va
Vc
Vb
Ia
116
I
1
= I
2
= I
0
= ____E_____ = ____1_____
(Z
1
+ Z
2
+ Z
0
) (Z
1
+ Z
2
+ Z
0
)
I
A
= I
1
+ I
2
+ I
0
= 3 I
0
I
B
= I
0
+ a
2
I
1
+ aI
2
= I
0
+ a
2
I
0
+ aI
0
= 0
I
C
= 0
I Ground = I Residual = 3I
0
117
V
1
= E - I
1
Z
1
= 1 - I
1
Z
1
V
2
= - I
2
Z
2
V
0
= - I
0
Z
0
V
A
= V
1
+ V
2
+ V
0
= 0
V
B
= V
0
+ a
2
V
1
+ aV
2
= (Z
1
- Z
0
) + a
2
(Z
0
+Z
1
+Z
1
)
V
C
= V
0
+ aV
1
+ a
2
V
2
= (Z
1
- Z
0
) + a
(assumes Z
1
= Z
2
) (Z
0
+Z
1
+Z
1
)
118
Two Phase to Ground Fault
Positive, negative and zero sequence
impedance networks connected in parallel
Fault
119
1PU
Z1
I1
Z2
I2
Z0
I0
V0
-
+
V2
-
+
V1
-
+
120
Z2h Z2m
Z2l
V2= -I2Z2
+
Z0h Z0m
Z0l
V0= -I0Z0
+
Z1h Z1m
Z1l
V1=1-I1Z1
+
Vl = 1 Vr = 1
I1
I2
I0
Sequence Network Connection for Phase to Phase to Ground Fault
121
Two Phase to Ground Fault Vectors
Va
Vc
Vb
Ic
Ib
122
Other Conditions
Fault calculations and symmetrical
components can also be used to evaluate:
Open pole or broken conductor
Unbalanced loads
Load included in fault analysis
Transmission line fault location
For these other network conditions, refer to
references.
123
References
Circuit Analysis of AC Power Systems, Vol. 1 &
2, Edith Clarke
Electrical Transmission and Distribution
Reference Book, Westinghouse Electric Co.,
East Pittsburgh, Pa.
Symmetrical Components, Wagner and Evans,
McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.
Symmetrical Components for Power Systems
Engineering, J. Lewis Blackburn, Marcel
Dekker, Inc.
124
The end
Jon F. Daume
Retired!
1
Hands-On Relay School
Jon F. Daume
March 14-15, 2011
Theory Track
Transmission Protection Theory
Transmission System
Protection
2
Discussion Topics
Protection overview
Transmission line protection
Phase and ground fault protection
Line differentials
Pilot schemes
Relay communications
Automatic reclosing
Breaker failure relays
Special protection or remedial action schemes
3
Power Transfer
Vs Vr X
Power Transfer
0
0.5
1
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Angle Delta
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
t
t
e
d

P
o
w
e
r
P = Vs Vr sin / X
4
Increase Power Transfer
Increase transmission system operating
voltage
Increase angle
Decrease X
Add additional transmission lines
Add series capacitors to existing lines
5
6
Power Transfer During Faults
Power Transfer
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Angl e Del ta
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
t
t
e
d

P
o
w
e
r
Normal
1LG
LL
LLG
3 Phase
7
Vs Vr
Power Transfer
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Angle Delta
P
o
w
e
r
B
P1
3
2 1
P2
6
4
5
A
8
System Stability
Relay operating speed
Circuit breaker opening speed
Pilot tripping
High speed, automatic reclosing
Single pole switching
Special protection or remedial action
schemes
9
IEEE Device Numbers
Numbers 1 - 97 used
21 Distance relay
25 Synchronizing or synchronism check
device
27 Undervoltage relay
32 Directional power relay
43 Manual transfer or selector device
46 Reverse or phase balance current relay
50 Instantaneous overcurrent or rate of rise
relay (fixed time overcurrent)
(IEEE C37.2)
10
51 AC time overcurrent relay
52 AC circuit breaker
59 Overvoltage relay
62 Time delay stopping or opening relay
63 Pressure switch
67 AC directional overcurrent relay
79 AC reclosing relay
81 Frequency relay
86 Lock out relay
87 Differential relay
(IEEE C37.2)
IEEE Device Numbers
11
Relay Reliability
Overlapping protection
Relay systems are designed with a high level
of dependability
This includes redundant relays
Overlapping protection zones
We will trip no line before its time
Relay system security is also very important
Every effort is made to avoid false trips
12
Relay Reliability
Relay dependability (trip when required)
Redundant relays
Remote backup
Dual trip coils in circuit breaker
Dual batteries
Digital relay self testing
Thorough installation testing
Routine testing and maintenance
Review of relay operations
13
Relay Reliability
Relay security (no false trip)
Careful evaluation before purchase
Right relay for right application
Voting
2 of 3 relays must agree before a trip
Thorough installation testing
Routine testing and maintenance
Review of relay operations
14
Transmission
Line Protection
15
Western Transmission System
Northwest includes Oregon, Washington, Idaho,
Montana, northern Nevada, Utah, British Columbia
and Alberta.
WECC is Western Electricity Coordinating Council
which includes states and provinces west of Rocky
Mountains.
Voltage, kV Northwest WECC
115 - 161 27400 miles 48030 miles
230 20850 miles 41950 miles
287 - 345 4360 miles 9800 miles
500 9750 miles 16290 miles
260 - 500 DC 300 miles 1370 miles
16
Transmission Line Impedance
Z ohms/mile = R
a
+ j (X
a
+ X
d
)
R
a
, X
a
function of conductor type, length
X
d
function of conductor spacing, length
Ra j(Xa+Xd)
17
Line Angles vs. Voltage
Z = [R
a
2
+ j(X
a
+X
d
)
2
]
= tan
-1
(X/R)
Voltage Level Line Angle ( )
7.2 - 23 kV 20 - 45 deg.
23 - 69 kV 45 - 75 deg.
69 - 230 kV 60 - 80 deg.
230 - 765 kV 75 - 89 deg.
18
Typical Line Protection
19
Distance Relays
(21, 21G)
20
Distance Relays
Common protective relay for non radial
transmission lines
Fast and consistent trip times
Instantaneous trip for faults within zone 1
Operating speed little affected by changes
in source impedance
Detect multiphase faults
Ground distance relays detect ground
faults
Directional capability
21
CT & PT Connections
21
67N
I Phase
3I0 = Ia + Ib + Ic
3V0
V Phase
I Polarizing
22
Instrument Transformers
Z
secondary
= Z
primary
x CTR / VTR
The PT location determines the point from
which impedance is measured
The CT location determines the fault
direction
Very important consideration for
Transformer terminated lines
Series capacitors
Use highest CT ratio that will work to
minimize CT saturation problems
23
Saturated CT Current
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
-0.017 0.000 0.017 0.033 0.050 0.06
24
Original Distance Relay
True impedance characteristic
Circular characteristic concentric to RX axis
Required separate directional element
Balance beam construction
Similar to teeter totter
Voltage coil offered restraint
Current coil offered operation
Westinghouse HZ
Later variation allowed for an offset circle
25
Impedance Characteristic
R
X
Directional
26
mho Characteristic
Most common distance element in use
Circular characteristic
Passes through RX origin
No extra directional element required
Maximum torque angle, MTA, usually set
at line angle,
MTA is diameter of circle
Different techniques used to provide full
fault detection depending on relay type
Relay may also provide some or full
protection for ground faults
27
3 Zone mho Characteristic
X
R
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 3
3 Zone Distance Elements Mho Characteristic
28
Typical Reaches
21 Zone 1 85-90%
21 Zone 2 125-180%, Time Delay Trip
21 Zone 3 150-200%, Time Delay Trip
Typical Relay Protection Zones
67 Ground Instantaneous Overcurrent
67 Ground Time Overcurrent
67 Ground Time Permissive Transfer Trip Overcurrent
29
Coordination Considerations,
Zone 1
Zone 1
80 to 90% of Line impedance
Account for possible errors
Line impedance calculations
CT and PT Errors
Relay inaccuracy
Instantaneous trip
30
Coordination Considerations
Zone 2
125% or more of line impedance
Consider strong line out of service
Consider lengths of lines at next substation
Time Delay Trip
> 0.25 seconds (15 cycles)
Greater than BFR clearing time at remote bus
Must be slower if relay overreaches remote zone
2s.
Also consider load encroachment
Zone 2 may be used with permissive
overreach transfer trip w/o time delay
31
Zone 3
Greater than zone 2
Consider strong line out of service
Consider lengths of lines at next substation
Time Delay Trip
> 1 second
Greater than BFR clearing time at remote bus
Must be longer if relay overreaches remote zone
3s.
Must consider load encroachment
32
Zone 3 Special Applications
Starter element for zones 1 and 2
Provides current reversal logic for permissive
transfer trip (reversed)
May be reversed to provide breaker failure
protection
Characteristic may include origin for current
only tripping
May not be used
33
Problems for Distance Relays
Fault in front of relay
Apparent Impedance
Load encroachment
Fault resistance
Series compensated lines
Power swings
34
3 Phase Fault in Front of Relay
No voltage to make impedance
measurement-use a potential memory
circuit in distance relay
Use a non-directional, instantaneous
overcurrent relay (50-Dead line fault relay)
Utilize switch into fault logic
Allow zone 2 instantaneous trip
35
Apparent Impedance
3 Terminal lines with apparent
impedance
Fault resistance also looks like an
apparent impedance
Most critical with very short or
unbalanced legs
Results in
Short zone 1 reaches
Long zone 2 reaches and time delays
Pilot protection may be required
36
Apparent Impedance
Bus A Bus B
Za = 1 ohm
Ia = 1
Zb = 1
Ib = 1
Z apparent @
Bus A = Za +
ZcIc/Ia
= 3 Ohms
Apparent Impedance
Ic = Ia + Ib = 2
Zc = 1
Bus C
37
Zone 1
Set to 85 % of actual impedance to nearest
terminal
Zone 2
Set to 125 + % of apparent impedance to
most distant terminal
Zone 2 time delay must coordinate with all
downstream relays
Zone 3
Back up for zone 2
38
Load Encroachment
Z Load = kV
2
/ MVA
Long lines present biggest challenge
Heavy load may enter relay characteristic
Serious problem in August, 2003 East
Coast Disturbance
NERC Loading Criteria
150 % of emergency line load rating
Use reduced voltage (85 %)
30 Line Angle
Z @ 30 = Z @ MTA cos (MTA -30 ) for mho
characteristic
39
Load Encroachment
NERC Loading Criteria
Applies to zone 2 and zone 3 phase distance
Other overreaching phase distance elements
All transmission lines > 200 kV
Many transmission lines > 100 kV
Solutions
Dont use conventional zone 3 element
Use lens characteristic
Use blinders or quadrilateral characteristic
Tilt mho characteristic toward X axis
Utilize special relay load encroachment
characteristic
40
Load Encroachment
X
R
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 3
Load Consideration with Distance Relays
Load
Area
41
Lens Characteristic
Ideal for longer transmission lines
More immunity to load encroachment
Less fault resistance coverage
Generated by merging the common area
between two mho elements
42
Lens Characteristic
43
Tomato Characteristic
May be used as an external out of step
blocking characteristic
Reaches set greater than the tripping
elements
Generated by combining the total area of
two mho elements
44
Quadrilateral Characteristic
High level of freedom in settings
Blinders on left and right can be moved in
or out
More immunity to load encroachment (in)
More fault resistance coverage (out)
Generated by the common area between
Left and right blinders
Below reactance element
Above directional element
45
R
X
46
Special Load Encroachment
X
R
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 4
47
Fault Resistance
Most severe on short lines
Difficult for ground distance elements to
detect
Solutions:
Tilt characteristic toward R axis
Use wide quadrilateral characteristic
Use overcurrent relays for ground faults
48
Fault Resistance
X
R
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 3
Fault Resistance Effect on a Mho Characteristic
Rf
49
Series Compensated Lines
Series caps added to increase load
transfers
Electrically shorten line
Negative inductance
Difficult problem for distance relays
Application depends upon location of
capacitors
50
Series Caps
21
21
Zl Zc
Zl > Zc
51
Series Caps
Bypass MOD
Bypass Breaker
Discharge Reactor
Damping Circuit
Metal-Oxide Varistor (MOV)
Capacitor (Fuseless)
Triggered Gap
Isolating MOD Isolating MOD
Platform
Main Power Components for EWRP Series Capacitors
52
Zone 1
80 to 90% of compensated line impedance
Must not overreach remote bus with caps in
service
Zone 2
125% + of uncompensated apparent line
impedance
Must provide direct tripping for any line fault
with caps bypassed
May require longer time delays
53
Power Swing
Power swings can cause false trip of 3
phase distance elements
Option to
Block on swing (Out of step block)
Trip on swing (Out of step trip)
Out of step tripping may require special breaker
Allows for controlled separation
Some WECC criteria to follow if OOSB
implemented
54
Out Of Step Blocking
X
R
Zone 1
Zone 2
Typical Out Of Step Block Characteristic
OOSB Outer Zone
OOSB Inner Zone
t = 30 ms?
55
Ground Distance
Protection
and K
n
(21G)
56
Fault Types
3 Phase fault
Positive sequence impedance network only
Phase to phase fault
Positive and negative sequence
impedance networks in parallel
Positive, negative, and zero sequence
impedance networks in series
Phase to phase to ground fault
Positive, negative, and zero sequence
impedance networks in parallel
57
Sequence Networks
58
What Does A Distance Relay
Measure?
Phase current and phase to ground
voltage
Z
relay
= V
LG
/I
L
(Ok for 3 phase faults only)
Phase to phase current and phase to
phase voltage
Z
relay
= V
LL
/I
LL
(Ok for 3 phase, PP, PPG
faults)
Phase current + compensated ground
current and phase to ground voltage
Z
relay
= V
LG
/(I
L
+ 3K
n
I
0
) (Ok for 3 phase, 1LG,
PPG faults)
59
K
n
- Why?
Using phase/phase or phase/ground
quantities does not give proper reach
measurement for 1LG fault
Using zero sequence quantities gives the
zero sequence source impedance, not the
line impedance
Current compensation (K
n
) does work for
ground faults
Voltage compensation could also be used
but is less common
60
Current Compensation, K
n
K
n
= (Z
0L
- Z
1L
)/3Z
1L
Z
0L
= Zero sequence transmission line impedance
Z
1L
= Positive sequence transmission line
impedance
I
Relay
= I
A
+ 3I
0
(Z
0L
- Z
1L
)/3Z
1L
= I
A
+ 3K
n
I
0
Z
Relay
= V
A Relay
/I
Relay
= V
A
/(I
A
+ 3K
n
I
0)
= Z
1L
Reach of ground distance relay with current
compensation is based on positive sequence line
impedance, Z
1L
61
Current Compensation, K
n
Current compensation (K
n
) does work for
ground faults.
K
n
= (Z
0L
Z
1L
)/3Z
1
K
n
may be a scalar quantity or a vector quantity
with both magnitude and angle
Mutual impedance coupling from parallel
lines can cause a ground distance relay to
overreach or underreach, depending upon
ground fault location
Mutual impedance coupling can provide
incorrect fault location values for ground
faults
62
Ground Fault
Protection
(67N)
63
Ground Faults
Directional ground overcurrent relays
(67N)
Ground overcurrent relays
Time overcurrent ground (51)
Instantaneous overcurrent (50)
Measure zero sequence currents
Use zero sequence or negative sequence
for directionality
64
Typical Ground Overcurrent
Settings
51 Time overcurrent
Select TOC curve, usually very inverse
Pickup, usually minimum
Time delay >0.25 sec. for remote bus fault
50 Instantaneous overcurrent
>125% Remote bus fault
Must consider affects of mutual coupling
from parallel transmission lines.
65
Polarizing for Directional
Ground Overcurrent Relays
I Residual and I polarizing
I Polarizing: An autotransformer neutral CT
may not provide reliable current polarizing
I Residual and V polarizing
I Residual 3I0 = Ia + Ib + Ic
V Polarizing 3V0 = Va + Vb + Vc
Negative sequence
Requires 3 phase voltages and currents
More immune to mutual coupling problems
66
Current Polarizing
I Polarizing
Auto Transformer Polarizing Current Source
CT
H1
X1
H3
X3
H2
X2
Y1
Y2
Y3
H0X0
67
Voltage Polarizing
3 VO Polarizing Potential
Ea
Eb
Ec
68
Mutual Coupling
Transformer affect between parallel lines
Inversely proportional to distance between
lines
Only affects zero sequence current
Will affect magnitude of ground currents
Will affect reach of ground distance relays
69
Mutual Coupling
Line #1
Line #2
3I0, Line #1
3I0, Line #2
70
Mutual Coupling vs. Ground
Relays
Taft
Taft
645 Amps
1315 Amps
645 Amps
1980 Amps
920 Amps
260 Amps 920 Amps
1370 Amps
1LG Faults With Mutual Impedances
1LG Faults Without Mutual Impedances
Garrison
Garrison
Taft Garrison
Taft Garrison
71
Other Line
Protection Relays
72
Line Differential
87 87
73
Line Differential Relays
Compare current magnitudes, phase, etc.
at each line terminal
Communicate information between relays
Internal/external fault? Trip/no trip?
Communications dependant!
Changes in communications paths or
channel delays can cause potential
problems
74
Phase Comparison
Compares phase relationship at terminals
100% Channel dependant
Looped channels can cause false trips
Nondirectional overcurrent on channel
failure
Immune to swings, load, series caps
Single pole capability
75
Pilot Wire
Common on power house lines
Uses metallic twisted pair
Problems if commercial line used
Requires isolation transformers and protection
on pilot wire
Nondirectional overcurrent on pilot failure
Newer versions use fiber or radio
Generally limited to short lines if metallic
twisted pair is used
76
Pilot Wire
77
Current Differential
Similar to phase comparison
Channel failure?
Distance relay backup or
Non directional overcurrent backup or
No backup must add separate back up
relay
Many channel options
Changes in channel delays may cause
problems
Care required in setting up digital channels
78
Current Differential
Single pole capability
3 Terminal line capability
May include an external, direct transfer trip
feature
Immune to swings, load, series caps
79
Transfer Trip
80
Direct Transfer Trip
Line protection
Equipment protection
Transformer terminated lines
Line reactors
Breaker failure
2 or more signals available
Analog or digital tone equipment
81
Tone 1 Xmit
Tone 2 Xmit
PCB Trip Coil PCB Trip Coil
Tone 1 Rcvd
Tone 2 Rcvd
Protective Relay
Protective Relay
82
Direct Transfer Trip Initiation
Zone 1 distance
Zone 2 distance time delay trip
Zone 3 distance time delay trip
Instantaneous ground trip
Time overcurrent ground trip
BFR-Ring bus, breaker & half scheme
Transformer relays on transformer
terminated lines
Line reactor relays
83
Tone 2 Xmit
Tone 2 Rcvd
Permissive Relay
PCB Trip Coil
PCB Trip Coil
Tone 2 Xmit
Tone 2 Rcvd
Permissive Transfer Trip
Permissive Relay
Permissive Transfer Trip
84
Permissive Keying
Zone 2 instantaneous
Permissive overcurrent ground (very
sensitive setting)
PCB 52/b switch
Current reversal can cause problems
85
PRT Current Reversal
A
C D
B
Ib
Id
Ia
Ic
Fault near breaker B. Relays at B pick up
Relays at B key permissive signal to A, trip breaker B instantaneously
Relays at A pick up and key permissive signal to B.
Relays at C pick up and key permissive signal to C.
Relays at D block
I Fault, Line AB
I Fault, Line CD
86
PRT Current Reversal
A
C D
B
Id
Ia
Ic
Breaker B opens instantaneously. Relays at B drop out.
Fault current on line CD changes direction.
Relays at A remain picked up and trip by permissive signal from B.
Relays at C drop out and stop keying permissive signal to C.
Relays at D pick up and key permissive signal to D.
I Fault, Line AB
I Fault, Line CD
87
Directional Comparison
Blocking
Overreaching relays
Delay for channel time
Channel failure can allow overtrip
Often used with On/Off carrier
88
Block Xmit
Block Rcvd
PCB Trip Coil PCB Trip Coil
Block Xmit
Block Rcvd
Directional Comparison Blocking Scheme
Time Delay
Time Delay
Forward
Relay
Reverse
Relay
Reverse
Relay
Forward
Relay
TD TD
Directional Comparison
89
Directional Comparison Relays
Forward relays must overreach remote
bus
Forward relays must not overreach remote
reverse relays
Time delay (TD) set for channel delay
Scheme will trip for fault if channel lost
Scheme may overtrip for external fault on
channel loss
90
Tone Equipment
Interface between relays and
communications channel
Analog tone equipment
Digital tone equipment
Security features
Guard before trip
Alternate shifting of tones
Parity checks on digital
91
Tone Equipment
Newer equipment has 4 or more
channels
2 for direct transfer trip
1 for permissive transfer trip
1 for drive to lock out (block reclose)
92
Relay to Relay Communications
Available on many new digital relays
Eliminates need for separate tone gear
8 or more unique bits of data sent from
one relay to other
Programmable functions
Each transmitted bit programmed for specific
relay function
Each received bit programmed for specific
purpose
93
Telecommunications
Channels
Microwave radio
Analog (no longer available)
Digital
Other radio systems
Dedicated fiber between relays
Short runs
Multiplexed fiber
Long runs
SONET Rings
94
Telecommunications
Channels
Power line carrier current
On/Off Carrier often used with directional
comparison
Hard wire
Concern with ground mat interconnections
Limited to short runs
Leased line
Rent from phone company
Considered less reliable
95
Automatic Reclosing (79)
First reclose ~ 80% success rate
Second reclose ~ 5% success rate
Must delay long enough for arc to
deionize
t = 10.5 + kV/34.5 cycles
14 cycles for 115 kV; 25 cycles for 500 kV
Must delay long enough for remote
terminal to clear
1LG Faults have a higher success rate
than 3 phase faults
96
Automatic Reclosing (79)
Most often single shot
Delay of 30 to 60 cycles following line trip
is common
Checking:
Hot bus & dead line
Hot line & dead bus
Sync check
Utilities have many different criteria for
transmission line reclosing
97
More on Reclosing
Only reclose for one line to ground faults
Block reclose for time delay trip (pilot
schemes)
Never reclose on power house lines
Block reclosing for transformer fault on
transformer terminated lines
Block reclosing for bus faults
Block reclosing for BFR
Do not use them
98
Breaker Failure
Relay
(50BF)
99
Breaker Failure
Stuck breaker is a severe impact to
system stability on transmission systems
Breaker failure relays are recommended
by NERC for transmission systems
operated above 100 kV
BFRs are not required to be redundant by
NERC
100
Breaker Failure Relays
1. Fault on line
2. Normal protective relays detect fault and
send trip to breaker.
3. Breaker does not trip.
4. BFR Fault detectors picked up.
5. BFR Time delay times out (8 cycles)
6. Clear house (open everything to isolate
failed breaker)
101
Breaker Failure Relay
Typical Breaker Failure Scheme with Retrip
BFR Fault
Detector
PCB Trip
Coil #1
TD
Protective Relay
86
Trip
Block Close
TD
PCB Trip
Coil #2
BFR Retrip
BFR Time
Delay, 8~
102
Typical BFR Clearing Times
Proper Clearing:
0 Fault occurs
+1~ Relays PU, Key TT
+2~ PCB trips
+1~ Remote terminal clears
3-4 Cycles local clearing
time
4-5 Cycles remote clearing
time
Failed Breaker:
0 Fault occurs
+1~ BFR FD PU
+8~ BFR Time Delay
+1~ BFR Trips 86 LOR
+2~ BU PCBs trip
+1~ Remote terminal clears
12-13 Cycles local back up
clearing time
13-14 Cycles remote
backup clearing
103
Remedial Action
Schemes (RAS)
aka: Special
Protection Schemes
104
Remedial Action Schemes
Balance generation and loads
Maintain system stability
Prevent major problems (blackouts)
Prevent equipment damage
Allow system to be operated at higher
levels
Provide controlled islanding
Protect equipment and lines from thermal
overloads
Many WECC & NERC Requirements
105
Remedial Action Schemes
WECC Compliant RAS
Fully redundant
Annual functional test
Changes, modifications and additions must be
approved by WECC
Non WECC RAS
Does not need full redundancy
Local impacts only
Primarily to solve thermal overload problems
106
Underfrequency Load Shedding
Reduce load to match available generation
Undervoltage (27) supervised (V > 0.8 pu)
14 Cycle total clearing time required
Must conform to WECC guidelines
4 Steps starting at 59.4 Hz.
Restoration must be controlled
Must coordinate with generator 81 relays
Responsibility of control areas
107
Undervoltage Load Shedding
Detect 3 Phase undervoltage
Prevent voltage collapse
Sufficient time delay before tripping to ride
through minor disturbances
Must Conform to WECC Guidelines
Primarily installed West of Cascades
108
Generator Dropping
Trip generators for loss of load
Trip generators for loss of transmission
lines or paths
Prevent overloading
109
Reactive Switching
On loss of transmission lines
Trip shunt reactors to increase voltage
Close shunt capacitors to compensate for loss
of reactive supplied by transmission lines
Close series capacitors to increase load
transfers
Utilize generator var output if possible
Static Var Compensators (SVC) provide high
speed adjustments
110
Direct Load Tripping
Provide high speed trip to shed load
May use transfer trip
May use sensitive, fast underfrequency (81)
relay
Trip large industrial loads
111
Other RAS Schemes
Controlled islanding
Force separation at know locations
Load brake resistor insertion
Provide a resistive load to slow down
acceleration of generators
Out of step tripping
Force separation on swing
Phase shifting transformers
Control load flows
112
Typical RAS Controller
113
Typical RAS Controller Outputs
Generator tripping
Load tripping
Controlled islanding and separation (Four
Corners)
Insert series caps on AC Intertie
Shunt capacitor insertion
Shunt reactor tripping
Chief Jo Load Brake Resister insertion
Interutility signaling
AGC Off
114
Chief Jo Brake
1400 Megawatts @ 230 kV
115
RAS Enabling Criteria
Power transfer levels
Direction of power flow
System configuration
Some utilities are considering automatic
enabling/disabling based on SCADA data
Phasor measurement capability in relays
can be used to enable RAS actions
116
RAS Design Criteria
Generally fully redundant
Generally use alternate route on
telecommunications
Extensive use of transfer trip for signaling
between substations, power plants, control
centers, and RAS controllers
117
UFOs vs. Power Outages
118
the end
Jon F. Daume
retired
March 15, 2011
Transmission System Faults and
Event Analysis
Fault Analysis Theory
and
Modern Fault Analysis Methods
Presented by:
Matthew Rhodes
Electrical Engineer, SRP
1
Transmission System Fault
Theory
Symmetrical Fault Analysis
Symmetrical Components
Unsymmetrical Fault Analysis using
sequence networks
Lecture material originally developed by
Dr. Richard Farmer, ASU Research
Professor
2
3
Symmetrical Faults
4
Faults
Shunt faults:
Three phase
a
b
c
Line to line
Line to ground
2 Line to ground
b
a
c
a
b
c
a
b
c
5
Faults
Series faults
One open phase:
a
b
c
2 open phases
a
b
c
Increased phase
impedance
Z
a
b
c
6
Why Study Faults?
Determine currents and voltages in the
system under fault conditions
Use information to set protective devices
Determine withstand capability that
system equipment must have:
Insulating level
Fault current capability of circuit breakers:
Maximum momentary current
Interrupting current
7
Symmetrical Faults
t=0
2 V
i(t)
Fault at t = 0
AC
R
L
) sin( 2 ) ( + = t V t e
8
Symmetrical Faults
For a short circuit at generator terminals at t=0
and generator initially open circuited:
dt
di
L Ri t e + = ) (
dt
di
L Ri t VSin + = + ) ( 2
by using Laplace transforms i(t) can be found
(L is considered constant)
9
Symmetrical Faults
]
/
) ( ) ( [
2
) (
T t
e Sin t Sin
Z
V
t i

+ =
2 2 2 2
) ( X R L R Z + = + =
R
X
Tan
R
L
Tan
1 1
= =

Where:
R
X
R
L
T
= = Time Constant
]
/
) ( ) ( [ 2 ) (
T t
e Sin t Sin
ac
I t i

+ =
Where: I
ac
= ac RMS fault current at t=0
(Examples)
Note that for a 3-
phase system will be
different for each
phase. Therefore, DC
offset will be different
for each phase
10
t = 0
ac
I 2
i
ac
I
dc
= 0
]
/
) ( ) ( [ 2 ) (
T t
e Sin t Sin
ac
I t i

+ =
o
90 = =
V 2
e(t)
o
90 =
11
]
/
) ( ) ( [ 2 ) (
T t
e Sin t Sin
ac
I t i

+ =
0 =
o
90 =
V 2
e(t)
t = 0
i
ac
0
2
ac
I
0
2
ac
I
i
dc
12
i
ac
0
2
ac
I
0
2
ac
I
i
dc
0
2 2
ac
I
t
0 =
o
90 =
]
/
) ( ) ( [ 2 ) (
T t
e Sin t Sin
ac
I t i

+ =
) (t i
13
Symmetrical Faults
I
ac
and I
dc
are independent after t = 0
2 2
dc
I
ac
I
RMS
I + =
T t
e
aco
I
dc
I

= 2
Substituting:
T t
e
ac
I
T
t
e
ac
I
ac
I
RMS
I
2
2 1 )
2
2
2
( (max)

+ =
+ =
]
/
) 2 / ( [
2
) (
T t
e t Sin
Z
V
t i

+ + =
14
Asymmetry Factor
I
RMS
(max) = K() I
ac
Asymmetry Factor = K()
r
x
e K
4
2 1 ) (

+ =
Where:
= number of cycles
(Example 7.1)
fR X T 2 / =
15
Example 7.1
Fault at a time to produce maximum DC offset
Circuit Breaker opens 3 cycles after fault inception
I
Fault at t = 0
AC
R = 0.8 X
L
= 8
V = 20 kV
LN
-
+
CB
Find:
1. I
ac
at t = 0
2. I
RMS
Momentary at = 0.5 cycles
3. I
RMS
Interrupting Current
16
Example 7.1
a.
RMS AC
kA I 488 . 2
8 8 . 0
20
) 0 (
2 2
=
+
=
b.
438 . 1 2 1 ) 5 . 0 (
)
10
5 .
( 4
= + =

e K
KA I
momentary
577 . 3 ) 488 . 2 )( 438 . 1 ( = =
c.
023 . 1 2 1 ) 3 (
)
10
3
( 4
= + =

e K
KA I
ng Interrupti
545 . 2 ) 488 . 2 )( 023 . 1 ( = =
17
AC Decrement
In the previous analysis we treated the
generator as a constant voltage behind a
constant impedance for each phase. The
constant inductance is valid for steady state
conditions but for transient conditions, the
generator inductance is not constant.
The equivalent machine reactance is made
up of 2 parts:
a) Armature leakage reactance
b) Armature reaction
(See Phasor Diagram)
18
AC Decrement
Steady state model of generator
X
L
is leakage reactance
X
AR
is a fictitious reactance and X
AR
>> X
L
X
AR
is due to flux linkages of armature current with the field
circuit
.
Flux linkages can not change instantaneously.
Therefore, if the generator is initially unloaded when a fault
occurs the effective reactance is X
L
which is referred to as
Subtransient Reactance, x.
E
I
R
X
L
X
AR
Load
19
I
L
jI
L
X
L
jI
L
X
AR
(t)
E
I
Field
Flux
Armature Reaction
Resultant
Field
E
T
X
L
X
AR
-
+
E
I
I=I
L
Load
Loaded Generator
20
E
Field
Flux
Armature Reaction = 0
Resultant
Field
E
T0
t = 0 -
X
L X
AR
=0
E
T0
-
+
E = E = E = E
T0
I=0
Unloaded Generator
21
X
L
X
AR
-
+
E = E = E = E
T0
I=0
t=0
E
Field
Flux
Resultant
Field
E
T0
= 0
Faulted Generator
22
X
L
X
AR
=0
-
+
E = E = E = E
T0
I = I
E = jIX
L
t=0+
Field
Flux
Resultant
Field
E
T
= 0
I
23
X
L
X
AR
-
+
E = E = E = E
T0
I = I
E = jI(X
L
+ X
AR
)
t 3Cyc.
Field
Flux
Resultant
Field
E
T
= 0
I
24
X
L
X
AR
-
+
E = E = E = E
T0
I = I
E = jI(X
L
+ X
AR
)
t =
Field
Flux
Resultant
Field
E
T
= 0
I
25
AC Decrement
As fault current begins to flow, armature reaction will
increase with time thereby increasing the apparent
reactance. Therefore, the ac component of the fault
current will decrease with time to a steady state
condition as shown in the figure below.
" 2I
' 2I
I 2
" 2I
26
AC Decrement
For a round rotor machine we only need to
consider the direct axis reactance.
d X
E
I
"
" 2
" 2 =
Subtransient
d X
E
I
'
' 2
' 2 =
d
X
E
I
2
2 =
Transient
Synchronous
(steadystate)
27
AC Decrement
Can write the ac decrement equation
] ( [ )] ) ' ( ) ' " ( 2 ) (
'
"
+ + + =

t Sin I e I I e I I t
ac
i
d T
t
d T t
For an unloaded generator
(special case):
T
E E E E = = = ' "
Td: Subtransient time constant
(function of amortisseur winding X/R)
Td: Transient time constant
(function of field winding X/R)
Look at equation for t=0 and t=infinity
28
AC Decrement
For t = 0
] ( [ )] ) ' ( ) ' " ( 2 ) (
'
"
+ + + =

t Sin I e I I e I I t
ac
i
d T
t
d T t
For t =
I I i
ac
2 ] 0 0 [ 2 (max) = + + =
" 2 ] ) ' ( ) ' " [( 2 (max) I I I I I I i
ac
= + + =
29
ac and dc Decrement
Transform ac decrement equation to phasor form
]
+
/
'
) ' (
"
) ' " (
_
I
d T
t
e I I
d T
t
e I I
ac
I
dc decrement equation:
A
T
t
e Sin I
dc
I
= ) ( " 2
Where T
A
= Armature circuit time constant
(Example 7.2)
30
Example 7.2
I
Fault at t = 0
AC
R = 0
V = 1.05 pu
-
+
CB
x
d =.15pu Td = .035 Sec.

xd = .24pu Td = 2.0 Sec.
xd = 1.1pu T
A
= 0.2 Sec.
No load when 3-phase fault occurs
Breaker clears fault in 3 cycles.
Find: a) I, b) I
DC
(t)
c) I
RMS
at interruption d) I
momentry
(max)
S
500 MVA, 20kV, 60 Hz Synchronous Generator
31
Example 7.2
1 . 1
1
1 . 1
1
24 .
1
24 .
1
15 .
1
05 . 1 ) (
2
035 .
t
t
AC
e e t I
2 .
max
" 2 ) (
t
DC
e I t I

=
KA I
Base
434 . 14
3 20
500
= =
kA pu
d x
E
I 101 0 . 7
15 .
05 . 1
"
"
" = = = =
a
DC
I
2 . 2 .
max
9 . 9 ) 7 ( 2 ) (
t t
DC
e e t I

= =
b
32
Example 7.2
Part c: Find I
RMS
at interruption (3 cycles)
. sec 05 . 0
60
3
= = t
1 . 1
1
1 . 1
1
24 .
1
24 .
1
15 .
1
05 . 1 ) (
2 05 .
035 .
05 .
e e t I
AC
( ) [ ] pu I
AC
92 . 4 909 . ) 975 )(. 258 . 3 ( ) 24 (. 5 . 2 05 . 1 ) 05 (. = + + =
pu e I
DC
71 . 7 9 . 9 ) 05 (.
2 .
05 .
= =

kA pu I
RMS
132 146 . 9 71 . 7 92 . 4 ) 05 (.
2 2
= = + = c
33
Example 7.2
Part d: Find I
Momentary
(max) at t = cycle
sec 0083 .
60
5 .
= = t
( ) [ ] pu I
AC
43 . 6 909 . ) 996 )(. 258 . 3 ( ) 79 (. 5 . 2 05 . 1 ) 0083 (. = + + =
1 . 1
1
1 . 1
1
24 .
1
24 .
1
15 .
1
05 . 1 ) (
2 0083 .
035 .
0083 .
e e t I
AC
pu e I
DC
5 . 9 9 . 9
2 .
0083 .
= =

kA pu I
RMS
215 9 . 14 5 . 9 43 . 6
2 2
= = + =
d
34
Turbine
Gen.
Energy
35
Superposition for Fault Analysis
36
Superposition for Fault Analysis
New representation:
I
F1
I
F2
=0
Bus 1
Bus 1 Bus 2
I
G
= I
G!
+ I
G2
= I
G1
+ I
L
I
M
= I
M1
I
L
I
F
= I
G1
+ I
M1
Example 7.3
I
G1
I
G2
I
L
I
M1
I
G
I
F I
M
37
Example 7.3
For the system of Slide 35 and 36 the generator is operating
at 100 MVA, .95 PF Lagging 5% over rated voltage
Part a: Find Subtransient fault current magnitude.
From Slide 36
pu j
j
j
Z
V
I
TH
F
F
08 . 9
116 .
05 . 1
655 .
) 505 )(. 15 (.
05 . 1
"
1
= = = =
Part b: Neglecting load current, find Generator and
motor fault current.
pu j j I
G
7
655 .
505 .
08 . 9 "
1
= =
pu j j j I
M
08 . 2 ) 7 ( 08 . 9 "
1
= =
38
Example 7.3
Part c: Including load current, find Generator and
motor current during the fault period.
2 2
*
*
18 / 952 .
05 . 1
18 / 1
0 / 05 . 1
95 . cos / 1
M G
o
o
o
Load
I I
V
S
I = = =
= =
pu j I
o o
G
83 / 35 . 7 18 / 953 . 7 " = + =
pu j I
o o
M
243 / 00 . 2 18 / 952 . 08 . 2 " = =
c
c
39
Z Bus Method
For Z bus method of fault studies the
following approximations are made:
Neglect load current
Model series impedance only
Model generators and synchronous
motors by voltage behind a reactance for
the positive sequence system
40
AC
AC
AC
+
Eg
-
+
E
m
-
J 0 . 2
J 0 . 305
J 0 . 15
1
2
-V
F
I
F
41
Z Bus Method
For the circuit of Figure 7.4d (Slide 36 & 40)
2
1
22
12
21
11
2
1
E
E
Y
Y
Y
Y
I
I
Injected
node
currents
[matrix
Y-bus]
nodal
admittance
Node
voltages
Premultiplying both sides by the inverse of [Y-bus}
Pre-fault
node
Voltage
[Z-Bus]
=[Y-Bus]
-1
Injected
node
Current
-I
F1
0
For a fault
at Bus 1
) (
1 11 1 F
I Z E =
=
11 11
1
1
Z
V
Z
E
I
F
F
2
1
22 21
12 11
2
1
I
I
Z Z
Z Z
E
E
42
Z-Bus Method
=
11 11
1
1
Z
V
Z
E
I
F
F
) (
1 11 1 F
I Z E =
11
1
Z
V
I
F
F
=
where:
For a fault at Bus 1
I
F1
= Fault current at bus 1
V
F
= Prefault voltage of
the faulted bus (Bus 1)
43
Z-Bus Method
For N bus system, fault on Bus n
0
.
0
0
0
.
. . , . . .
.
.
.
.
.
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 3 33 32 31
2 2 23 22 21
1 1 13 12 11
3
2
1
Fn
NN Nn N N N
nN nn n n n
N n
N n
N n
N
N
I
Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z
E
E
E
E
E
-V
F
nn
F
Fn
Z
V
I = Where: V
F
= Pre-fault voltage at faulted bus
Z
nn
= Thevinen impedance
44
Z-Bus Method
After I
Fn
is found the voltage at any bus can be
found from:
E
1
=Z
1n
(-I
fn
) E
2
= Z
2n
(-I
fn)
Etc.
If voltage at each bus is found, current through
any branch can be found:
I
12
= (E
1
- E
2
) /
12
Etc/
Note:
12
is series impedance between Bus1
and Bus 2, not from Z-Bus.
(Example 7.4)
45
Example 7.4
For the system of Figure 7.3 (Slide 40) using the Z-bus
method find:
a) Z bus
b) I
F
and I contribution from Line for Bus 1
fault
c) I
F
and I contribution from Line for Bus 2
fault
Y
20
= -j5 Y
10
= -j6.67
Y12 = -j3.28
1
2
I
F
46
Example 7.4
[ ]

=
95 . 9 28 . 3
28 . 3 95 . 9
j j
j j
Y
Bus
[ ] [ ]

= =

139 . 046 .
046 . 1156 .
1
j j
j j
Y Z
bus Bus
2
1
2
1
139 . 046 .
046 . 1156 .
I
I
j j
j j
E
E
0
-I
F
1 1
) 1156 . ( I j E =
-V
F
-I
F
08 . 9
1156 .
" j
j
V
I
F
F
= =
a
b
47
Example 7.4
2
1
2
1
139 . 046 .
046 . 1156 .
I
I
j j
j j
E
E
For fault at Bus 1: E
1
= E
1
1
+ E
1
2
= 0
E
2
= E
2
1
+ E
2
2
= V
F
+ (j.046)I
1
E
2
= 1.05 + (j.046)(j9.08) = .632 /0
o
07 . 2
305 .
0 632 .
21
1 2
21
j
j Z
E E
I =
=
Find: Line current
b
48
Example 7.4
Y
20
= -j5 Y
10
= -j6.67
Y12 = -j3.28
1 2
I
F
Find I
F
and I contribution from Line for Bus 2 fault
2
1
2
1
139 . 046 .
046 . 1156 .
I
I
j j
j j
E
E
-V
F
pu j
j
I
F
55 . 7
139 .
05 . 1
2
= =
- I
F2
o
F F
j j I j V E 0 / 703 . ) 55 . 7 )( 046 . ( 05 . 1 ) )( 046 . (
1
= + = + =
pu j
j Z
E E
I 3 . 2
305 .
0 703 .
12
2 1
12
=
=
c
49
Z-Bus Method
[Z-Bus] = [Y-Bus]
-1
Will not cover formation of [Z-Bus] or [Y-Bus]
[Z-Bus] can be considered a fictitious circuit
which has the appearance of a rake. See
Figure 7.6 on Page 371.
50
nn
F
n F
Z
V
I I = =
Example: Fault at Bus n
) )( (
1 1 n n F
I Z V E =
Etc.
Z-Bus Rake equivalent
51
Class Problem 1
pu j Zbus
=
08 . 06 . 04 .
06 . 12 . 08 .
04 . 08 . 12 .
For the given Bus Impedance matrix(where
subtransient reactances were used) and a
pre-fault voltage of 1 p.u.:
a. Draw the rake equivalent circuit
b. A three-phase short circuit occurs at bus
2. Determine the subtransient fault
current and the voltages at buses 1, 2,
and 3 during the fault.
52
53
Symmetrical Components is often referred to
as the language of the Relay Engineer but it
is important for all engineers that are
involved in power.
The terminology is used extensively in the
power engineering field and it is important
to understand the basic concepts and
terminology.
54
Used to be more important as a calculating
technique before the advanced computer age.
Is still useful and important to make sanity
checks and back-of-an-envelope calculation.
We will be studying 3-phase systems in
general. Previously you have only considered
balanced voltage sources, balanced impedance
and balanced currents.
55
n
a
a
b
b
c
V
a
V
b
V
c
V
a
V
b
V
c
Balanced load supplied by balanced voltages results
in balanced currents
This is a positive sequence system,
In Symmetrical Components we will be studying
unbalanced systems with one or more dissymmetry.
Z
Y
Z
Y
Z
Y
I
b
I
a
I
c
56
For the General Case of 3 unbalanced voltages
V
A
V
B
V
C
6 degrees of freedom
Can define 3 sets of voltages designated as positive
sequence, negative sequence and zero sequence
57
Common a operator identities
a =1/120
o
a
2
= 1/240
o
a
3
= 1/0
o
a
4
= 1/120
o
1+a+a
2
= 0
(a)(a
2
) = 1
58
Positive Sequence
120
o
120
o
120
o
V
A1
V
B1
V
C1
V
A1
= V
A1
V
B1
= a
2
V
A1
V
C1
= a V
A1
a is operator 1/120
o
59
Negative Sequence
120
o
120
o
120
o
V
A2
V
C2
V
B2
a is operator 1/120
o
V
A2
= V
A2
V
B2
= aV
A2
V
C2
= a
2
V
A2
60
Zero Sequence
V
A0
V
B0
V
C0
V
A0
= V
B0
= V
C0
61
Reforming the phase voltages in terms of the symmetrical
component voltages:
V
A
= V
A0
+ V
A1
+ V
A2
V
B
= V
B0
+ V
B1
+ V
B2
V
C
= V
C0
+ V
C1
+ V
C2
What have we gained? We started with 3 phase voltages
and now have 9 sequence voltages. The answer is that the 9
sequence voltages are not independent and can be defined
in terms of other voltages.
62
Rewriting the sequence voltages in term of the Phase A
sequence voltages:
V
A
= V
A0
+ V
A1
+V
A2
V
B
= V
A0
+ a
2
V
A1
+ aV
A2
V
C
= V
A0
+ aV
A1
+a
2
V
A2
V
A
= V
0
+ V
1
+V
2
V
B
= V
0
+ a
2
V
1
+ aV
2
V
C
= V
0
+ aV
1
+a
2
V
2
Drop A
Suggests matrix notation:
V
A
1 1 1 V
0
V
B
1 a
2
a V
1
V
C
1 a a
2
V
2
=
[V
P
] = [A] [V
S
]
63
We shall consistently apply:
[V
P
] = Phase Voltages
[V
S
] = Sequence Voltages
1 1 1
[A] = 1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
[V
P
] = [A][V
S
]
Pre-multiplying by [A]
-1
[A]
-1
[V
P
] = [A]
-1
[A][V
S
]= [I][V
S
]
[V
S
] = [A]
-1
[V
P
]
64
Operator a
a = 1 /120
o
= - .5 + j .866
a
2
= 1 / 240
o
= - .5 - j.866
a
3
= 1 / 360
o
= 1
a
4
= 1 / 480
o
= 1 / 120
o
= a
a
5
= a
2
etc.
1 + a + a
2
= 0
a - a
2
= j
3
1 - a
2
= /30
o
1/a = a
2
3
Relationships of a can greatly expedite calculations
( Find [A]
-1
)
65
Inverse of A
[ ]
=
2
2
1
1
1 1 1
a a
a a A
Step 1:
Transpose
[ ]
=
2
2
1
1
1 1 1
a a
a a A
T
Step 2: Replace each element by its minor

1 1
1 1
2 2
2 2
2 2 2
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a a a
1
1
2
3
2 3
66

1 1
1 1
2 2
2 2
2 2 2
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a a a
1
1
2
3
2 3
Inverse of A
Step 3: Replace each element by its cofactor

1 1
1 1
2 2
2 2
2 2 2
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a a a
1
1
2
3
2 3
67
Inverse of A

1 1
1 1
2 2
2 2
2 2 2
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a a a
1
1
2
3
2 3
Step 4: Divide by Determinant
[ ]
=
2
2
1
1
1 1 1
a a
a a A
) ( 3 ) ( 1 ) ( 1 ) ( 1
2 2 2 2
a a a a a a a a D = + + =
a
a
a
a
a a
a
a
a
a a
a
=
1
1 1 1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1 1 1
a
a a
a
a a a
a
= =
68
Inverse of A
a a
a a A
2
2
1
1
1
1 1 1
3
1
69
Previous relationships were developed for voltages.
Same could be developed for currents such that:
I
A
I
B
I
C
[I
P
] =
I
0
I
1
I
2
[I
S
] =
[I
P
] = [A] [I
S
]
[I
S
] = [A]
-1
[I
P
]
1 1 1
[A] = 1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
1 1 1
[A]
-1
= 1/3 1 a a
2
1 a
2
a
70
Significance of I
0
I
A
I
B
I
C
I
0
I
1
I
2
1 1 1
= 1/3 1 a a
2
1 a
2
a
I
0
= 1/3 ( I
A
+ I
B
+ I
C
)
n
I
A
I
B
I
C
I
n
I
n
= I
A
+ I
B
+ I
C
= 3 I
0
For a balanced system I
0
= 0
For a delta system I
0
= 0
(Examples 8.1, 8.2 and 8.3)
71
Example 8.1
[ ]
=
a
a V
o
o
o
P
277
277
277
120 / 277
120 / 277
0 / 277
2
[ ] [ ] [ ]
= =
=

0
0 / 277
0 1
1
1
1 1 1
3
277
2
2
2
1
2
1
0
o
P S
a
a
a a
a a V A
V
V
V
V
0
1
2
Find [V
S
] (Sequence
voltages)
a
b
c
72
Example 8.2
Y connected load with reverse sequence
[ ] ( )
=
2
1
10
120 / 10
120 / 10
0 / 10
a
a I
o
o
o
P
a
b
c
Find I
S
(Sequence Currents)
[ ] [ ] [ ]
= =

o
P S
a
a
a a
a a I A I
0 / 10
0
0 1
1
1
1 1 1
3
10
2 2
2
1
0
1
2
73
Example 8.3
I
a
= 10 / 0
o
I
c
= 10
/120
o
I
b
=
o
I
n
[ ] [ ] [ ]
P S
I A
I
I
I
I
1
2
1
0
=
[ ]
=
a a a
a a I
S
0
1
1
1
1 1 1
3
10
2
2
[ ]
+
+
=
o
o
o
S
a
a
a
a
I
60 / 33 . 3
0 / 67 . 6
60 / 33 . 3
2
3
10
1
2
1
3
10
2
2
0
1
2
o
n
I I 60 / 10 3
0
= =
a
b
c
74
Sequence Impedance for
Shunt Elements
Sequence Networks of balanced Y elements( Loads, Reactors,
capacitor banks, etc.)
V
A
= I
A
Z
y
+ (I
A
+ I
B
+I
C
) Z
n
= (Z
Y
+ Z
n
)I
A
+ Z
n
I
B
+ Z
n
I
C
V
B
= Z
n
I
A
+ (Z
Y
+ Z
n
)I
B
+ Z
n
I
C
V
C
= Z
n
I
A
+ Z
n
I
B
+(Z
Y
+ Z
n
)I
C
n
I
B
I
C
.
I
A
V
B
V
A
V
C
Z
Y
Z
Y
Z
Y
Z
n
75
Shunt Elements
+
+
+
=
C
B
A
n Y n n
n n Y n
n n n Y
C
B
A
I
I
I
Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z
V
V
V
[V
P
] = [Z
P
] [I
P
] (1)
Transform to sequence reference frame. We know:
[V
P
] = [A] [V
S
] and [I
P
] = [A] [I
S
], Substitute in(1)
[A][V
S
] = [Z
P
][A][I
S
] premultiply both sides by [A]
-1
[V
S
] = [A]
-1
[Z
P
][A][I
S
] = [Z
S
][I
S
]
where: [Z
S
] = [A]
-1
[Z
P
][A]
76
Shunt Elements
[Z
S
] =
+
+
+
2
2
2
2
22 21 20
12 11 10
02 01 00
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
1 1 1
3
1
a a
a a
Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z
a a
a a
Z Z Z
Z Z Z
Z Z Z
n Y n n
n n Y n
n n n Y
[ ]
+
=
Y
Y
n Y
S
Z
Z
Z Z
Z
0
0 0
0 0 3
0
1
2
0
1 2
77
Shunt Elements
+
=
2
1
0
2
1
0
0 0
0 0
0 0 3
I
I
I
Z
Z
Z Z
V
V
V
Y
Y
n Y
V
0
= Z
00
I
0
where: Z
00
= Z
Y
+3 Z
n
V
1
= Z
11
I
1
V
2
= Z
22
I
2
where Z
11
= Z
22
= Z
Y
Systems are uncoupled: Zero sequence currents only
produce zero sequence voltages. Positive sequence
currents only produce positive sequence voltages, etc.
78
Shunt Elements
We can form sequence circuits which represent the equations:
Z
Y
3 Z
n
Z
Y
Z
Y
V
0
V
1
V
2
I
0
I
1
I
2
Zero sequence circuit Z
n
only in zero Sequence No
neutral: Z
n
= infinity Solid
ground: Z
n
= 0
Positive sequence circuit
Negative sequence circuit
79
Shunt Elements
Delta connected shunt element
Z
Y
V
0
V
1
V
2
I
0
I
1
I
2
open
Z
/3
Z
/3
Sequence circuits
.
A
B
C
I
A
I
B
I
C
Z
80
Shunt Elements
For the general case: [Z
S
] = [A]
-1
[Z
P
][A]
2
2
2
2
22 21 20
12 11 10
02 01 00
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
1 1 1
3
1
a a
a a
Z Z Z
Z Z Z
Z Z Z
a a
a a
Z Z Z
Z Z Z
Z Z Z
CC CB CA
BC BB BA
AC AB AA
If there is symmetry: Z
AA
= Z
BB
= Z
CC
and Z
AB
= Z
BC
= Z
CA
we could perform multiplication and get:
[ ]
+
=
AB AA
AB AA
AB AA
S
Z Z
Z Z
Z Z
Z
0 0
0 0
0 0 2
We see that: Z
11
= Z
22
and Z
00
> Z
11
81
Z
AB
Z
BC
Z
AA
Z
CC
V
AA
Z
BB
V
AA
V
BB
I
A
I
B
I
C
V
A
V
B
V
C
Z
CA
V
A
V
B
V
C
C
B
A
CC CB CA
BC BB BA
AC AB AA
C C
B B
A A
I
I
I
Z Z Z
Z Z Z
Z Z Z
V V
V V
V V
'
'
'
n
n
Series Element Sequence Impedance
82
Matrices in compact form
[V
P
]-[V
P
] = [Z
P
] [I
P
]
We can transform to the symmetrical component reference frame:
[V
S
] - [V
S
] = [Z
S
] [I
S
] where:
[Z
S
] = [A]
-1
[Z
P
][A]
If Z
AA
= Z
BB
= Z
CC
and Z
AB
= Z
BC
= Z
CA ,
[Z
S
] will be the diagonal matrix:
[ ]
=
2
1
0
Z
Z
Z
Z
S
83
The sequence circuits for series elements are:
Z
0
V
0
V
0
I
0
o
n0
Z
1
V
1
V
1
I
1
o
n1
Z
2
V
2
V
2
I
2
o
n2
84
We have quickly covered the calculation of
Positive and Negative sequence parameters for
3-phase lines. To determine the zero sequence
impedance we need to take the effect of the
earth into account. This is done by using
Carsons Method which treats the earth as an
equivalent conductor.
85
Rotating Machine Sequence Networks
A
B
C
Z
K
Z
K
Z
K
-
-
-
+
+
+
E
B
E
A
E
C
I
C
I
A
I
B
Z
n
Z
AB
Z
BC
Z
CA
Z
CB
Z
BA
Z
AC
e
A
= E
m
Cos t
e
B
= E
m
Cos(t 120
o
)
e
C
= E
m
Cos(t + 120
o
)
In phasor form:
E
A
= E
RMS
/ 0 = E
E
B
= E
RMS
/-120
o
= a
2
E
E
C
= E
RMS
/120
o
= a E
86
[ ]
=
aE
E a
E
E
Pg
2
E
A
= E
RMS
/ 0 = E
E
B
= E
RMS
/-120
o
= a
2
E
E
C
= E
RMS
/120
o
= a E
or
[ ]
= =

0
0
1
1
1 1 1
3
1
2
2
2
1
E
aE
E a
E
a a
a a E A E
Pg Sg
Therefore, only the positive sequence system has a
generator voltage source.
0
1
2
a
b
c
87
A
B
C
Z
K
Z
K
Z
K
-
-
-
+
+
+
E
B
E
A
E
C
I
C
I
A
I
B
Z
n
Z
AB
Z
BC
Z
CA
Z
CB
Z
BA
Z
AC
Machine is not passive:
Mutual Reactances: Z
AB
Z
BA ,
etc.
Z
AB
= Z
BC
= Z
CA
= Z
R
Z
BA
= Z
CB
= Z
AC
= Z
Q
88
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
=
C
B
A
N K N Q N R
N R N K N Q
N Q N R N K
C
B
A
I
I
I
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
E
E
E
[ ] [ ][ ]
P PG PG
I Z E =
[ ] [ ] [ ][ ]
= =

2
1
0
1
0 0
0 0
0 0
G
G
G
PG SG
Z
Z
Z
A Z A Z
From the machine diagram we can write:
Where: Z
G0
= Z
K
+ Z
R
+ Z
Q
Z
G1
= Z
K
+ a
2
Z
R
+ a Z
Q
Z
G2
= Z
K
+ a Z
R
+ a
2
Z
Q
uncoupled
0
1
2
0
1 2
89
Generator sequence circuits are uncoupled
3Z
n
Z
G0
I
0
V
0
E
G1
-
+
Z
G1
I
1
V
1
Z
G2 I
2
V
2
Generator
Terminal
Voltages
90
Sequence impedances are unequal
Z
G1
varies depending on the application
a) Steady state, power flow studies: Z
G1
= Z
S
(synchronous)
b) Stability studies Z
G1
= Z (transient)
c) Short circuit and transient studies: Z
G1
= Z (subtransient)
Motor circuits are similar but there is no voltage
source for an induction motor.
(Example 8.6)
91
Example 8.6
- [ E
P
] +
[ I
P
]
Z
L
= 1.0 / 85
o
Load
Z
= 30 / 40
o

Unbalanced Source
[ ]
=
o
o
o
P
E
115 / 295
120 / 260
0 / 277
a
b
c
Find phase Currents [ I
P
]
+ = = =

43 . 6 66 . 7 40 / 10
3
j
Z
Z
o
Y
+ = = 996 . 087 . 85 / 1 j Z
o
L
= + = + = = =
o
L Y
j Z Z Z Z Z 7 . 43 / 72 . 10 426 . 7 747 . 7
2 1 0
92
Example 8.6
- [ E
P
] +
[ I
P
] Z
L
= 1.0 / 85
o
Load
Z
= 30 / 40
o

[ ]
=
o
o
o
P
E
115 / 295
120 / 260
0 / 277
[ ] [ ] [ ]
= =

o
o
o
o
o
o
P S
a a
a a E A E
6 . 216 / 22 . 9
77 . 1 / 1 . 277
1 . 62 / 91 . 15
115 / 295
120 / 260
0 / 277
1
1
1 1 1
3
1
2
2
1
0
1
2
93
Example 8.6
10.72
/43.7
o
-
+
15.91
/62.1
o
I
0
10.72
/43.7
o
-
+
277.1 /-
1.77
o
I
1
10.72
/43.7
o
-
+
9.22
/216.6
o
I
2
0
0
= I
o
o
I
7 . 43 / 72 . 10
77 . 1 / 277
1

=
A I
o
5 . 45 / 84 . 25
1
=
o
o
I
7 . 43 / 72 . 10
6 . 216 / 22 . 9
2
=
A I
o
9 . 172 / 86 . 0
2
=
94
Example 8.6
[ ] [ ][ ]

= =
o
o
o
S P
I A I
8 . 73 / 64 . 26
4 . 196 / 72 . 25
7 . 46 / 17 . 25
[ ]
=
o
o
S
I
9 . 172 / 86 . 0
5 . 45 / 84 . 25
0
0
1
2
a
b
c
Amps
Amps
How would you do problem without Symmetrical Components?
95
Transformer Connections for Zero Sequence
P
Q
I
c
I
a
I
b
I
C
I
A
I
B
P Q
I
a
+ I
b
+ I
c
is not necessarily 0 if we only
look at P circuit but I
a
= nI
A
I
b
= nI
B
and
I
c
= nI
C
Therefore since I
A
+ I
B
+ I
C
= 0 ,
I
a
+ I
b
+ I
c
= 0 and I
0
= 0
P
0
Q
0
Z
0
n
0
No zero sequence
current flow
through
transformer
96
P Q
I
c
I
a
I
b
I
C I
A
I
B
P Q
I
a
+ I
b
+ I
c
is not necessarily 0 and I
A
+ I
B
+ I
C
is not
necessarily.
P
0 Q
0
Z
0
n
0
I
0
can flow through the transformer.
Therefore I
0
is not necessarily 0,
I
0
97
P
Q
I
c
I
a
I
b
I
C
I
A
I
B
P Q
I
a
+ I
b
+ I
c
is not necessarily 0 and I
a
/n + I
b
/n + I
c
/n is
not necessarily 0
P
0
Q
0
Z
0
n
0
Provides a zero sequence
current source
I
b
/n
I
c
/n
I
c
/n
I
0
but I
A
+ I
B
+ I
C
= 0
98
P
Q
I
c
I
a
I
b
I
C
I
A
I
B
P Q
I
a
+ I
b
+ I
c
= 0 I
a
/n + I
b
/n + I
c
/n is not necessarily 0,
but I
A
+ I
B
+ I
C
= 0
P
0
Q
0
Z
0
n
0
No zero sequence current
flow
I
b
/n
I
c
/n
I
c
/
n
99
P
Q
I
C
I
A
I
B
P Q
I
a
+ I
b
+ I
c
= 0 I
A
+ I
B
+ I
C
= 0
P
0
Q
0
Z
0
n
0
No zero sequence current
flow

I
a
I
b
I
c
100
Power In Sequence Networks
For a single phase circuit we know that:
S = EI* = P + jQ
In a 3-phase system we can add the power in
each phase such that:
S
P
= E
A
I
A
* + E
B
I
B
* + E
C
I
C
*
Written in matrix form
[ ] [ ]
=
*
*
*
C
B
A
C B A P
I
I
I
E E E S
101
Power in Sequence Networks
If we want the apparent power in the
symmetrical component reference frame, we
can substitute the following:
[E
P
] = [A][E
S
] [I
P
] = [A][I
S
]
[E
P
]
T
=[E
S
]
T
[A]
T
[I
P
]* = [A]*[I
S
]*
Into (1) resulting in [S
P
] = [E
S
]
T
[A]
T
[A]*[I
S
]*
which results in: [S
P
] = 3[E
S
]
T
[I
S
]* = 3[S
S
]
Where: [S
S
] = E
0
I
0
*
+ E
1
I
1
* +
E
2
I
2
*
From our previous definitions:
[S
P
] = [E
P
]
T
[I
P
]* (1)
102
Class Problem 2
One line of a three-phase generator is open
circuited, while the other two are short-
circuited to ground. The line currents are:
Ia=0, Ib= 1500/90 and Ic=1500/-30
a. Find the symmetrical components of
these currents
b. Find the ground current
103
Class Problem 3
The currents in a delta load are:
Iab=10/0, Ibc= 20/-90 and Ica=15/90
Calculate:
a. The sequence components of the delta
load currents
b. The line currents Ia, Ib and Ic which feed
the delta load
c. The sequence components of the line
currents
104
Class Problem 4
The source voltages given below are applied
to the balanced-Y connected load of 6+j8
ohms per phase:
Vag=280/0, Vbg= 290/-130 and Vcg=260/110
The load neutral is solidly grounded.
a. Draw the sequence networks
b. Calculate I0, I1 and I2, the sequence
components of the line currents.
c. Calculate the line currents Ia, Ib and Ic
105
Unsymmetrical Faults
106
Phase and Symmetrical Component
Relationship
Phase Reference Frame
I
A
I
B
I
C
n
V
C
V
B
V
A
Symmetrical Components Reference Frame
I
0
I
1
I
2
V
0
V
1
V
2
n
0
n
1
n
2
107
Unsymmetrical Fault Analysis
For the study of unsymmetrical faults some, or
all, of the following assumptions are made:
Power system balanced prior to fault
Load current neglected
Transformers represented by leakage
reactance
Transmission lines represented by series
reactance
108
Assumptions Continued
Synchronous machines represented by constant
voltage behind reactance(x
0,
x
1.
x
2
)
Non-rotating loads neglected
Small machines neglected
Effect of Y transformers may be included
109
Faulted 3-Phase Systems
Sequence networks are uncoupled for normal system
conditions and for the total system we can represent 3
uncoupled systems: positive, negative and zero.
When a dissymmetry is applied to the system in the form
of a fault, we can connect the sequence networks
together to yield the correct sequence currents and
voltages in each sequence network.
From the sequence currents and voltages we can find the
corresponding phase currents and voltages by
transformation with the [A] matrix
110
Faulted 3-Phase Systems
To represent the dissymmetry we only need to
identify 2 points in the system: fault point
and neutral point:
Zero
System
Positive
System
Negative
System
f
0
f
1
f
2
n
0
n
1
n
2
I
F0
I
F1
I
F2
E
F0
E
F1 E
F2
The sequence networks are connected together from
knowledge of the type of fault and fault impedance
Example 9.1
111
.
AC
Bus 1
AC
Bus 2
X
1
=X
2
=20
.
.

100MVA
13.8kV
X=0.15pu
X
2
= 0.17pu
X
0
=0.05pu
100MVA
13.8:138kV
X = 0.1pu
100MVA
138:13.8kV
X = 0.1pu
100MVA
13.8kV
X=0.20pu
X
2
= 0.21pu
X
0
=0.05pu
X
n
= 0.05pu
Example 9.1
G M
Prefault Voltage = 1.05
pu
Draw the positive, negative and zero sequence
diagrams for the system on 100MVA, 13.8 kV base in
the zone of the generator
Line Model:
X
0
= 60
( )
= 4 . 190
100
138
2
B
Z pu j
j
Z Z 105 . 0
4 . 190
20
2 1
= = = pu j
j
Z 315 . 0
4 . 190
60
0
= =
112
AC AC
.
AC
AC
j.15
-
+
J0.1 J0.105 J0.1
J0.2 .
-
+
1 2
1.05 / 0
o
1.05 / 0
o
n
1
AC
AC
j.17
J0.1 J0.105 J0.1
J0.21 .
1 2
n
2
AC AC
.
AC AC
.
AC
j.05
J0.1
J0.315
J0.1
J0.1
.
1 2
j.15
n
0
Example 9.1
113
Example 9.1
Reduce the sequence networks to their
thevenin equivalents as viewed from Bus 2
AC AC
.
AC
j.05
J0.1
J0.315
J0.1
J0.1
.
1 2
j.15
n
0
Zero Sequence Thevenin Equivalent
from Bus 2
f
0
n
0
J0.25
114
Example 9.1
AC AC
.
AC
AC
j.15
-
+
J0.1 J0.105 J0.1
J0.2 .
-
+
1 2
1.05 / 0
o
1.05 / 0
o
n
1
Positive Sequence Thevenin Equivalent
from Bus 2
139 .
655 .
) 2 )(. 455 (.
j
j
Z
thev
= =
f
1
n
1
J0.139
+
-
1.05 / 0
o
115
Example 9.1
Negative Sequence Thevenin Equivalent
from Bus 2
146 .
685 .
) 21 )(. 475 (.
j
j
Z
thev
= =
f
2
n
2
J0.146
AC
AC
j.17
J0.1 J0.105 J0.1
J0.21 .
1 2
n
2
AC AC
.
116
Single Line-to-Ground Fault
[ ]
=
0
0
FA
FP
I
I
[ ] [ ] [ ]
= =

FA
FA
FA FA
FP FS
I
I
I I
a a
a a I A I
3
1
0
0
1
1
1 1 1
3
1
2
2
1
I
F0
= I
F1
= I
F2
E
FA
= I
FA
Z
F
E
F0
+ E
F1
+ E
F2
= (I
F0
+ I
F1
+ I
F2
) Z
F
E
F0
+ E
F1
+ E
F2
= 3I
F0
Z
F
A
B
C
I
F
A
E
F
A
I
F
B
I
FC
n
Z
F
117
Zero
System
Positive
System
Negative
System
f
0
f
1
f
2
n
0
n
1
n
2
I
F0
I
F1
I
F2
E
F
0
E
F1 E
F2
3Z
F
118
Zero
System
Positive
System
Negative
System
f
0
f
1
f
2
n
0
n
1
n
2
I
F0
I
F1
I
F2
E
F0
E
F1
E
F2
3 Z
F
119
Example 9.3
For the system of Example 9.1 there is a bolted Single-
Line-to-Ground fault at Bus 2.
Find the fault currents in each phase and the phase
voltages at the fault point.
f
0
n
0
J0.25
f
1
n
1
J0.139
+
-
1.05 / 0
o
f
2
n
2
J0.146
I
F0
I
F2
I
F1
96 . 1
146 . 139 . 25 .
0 / 05 . 1
2 1 0
j
j j j
I I I
o
F F F
=
+ +
= = =
120
Example 9.3
f
0
n
0
J0.25
f
1
n
1
J0.139
+
-
1.05 / 0
o
f
2
n
2
J0.146
I
F0
= I
F1
= I
F2
= -j1.96
E
F0
E
F2
E
F1
pu j j V
F
491 . ) 25 . )( 96 . 1 (
0
= =
pu j V
F
777 . ) 139 . )( 96 . 1 ( 05 . 1
1
= =
pu j j V
F
286 . ) 146 . )( 96 . 1 (
2
= =
121
Example 9.3
[ ] [ ][ ]
FS FP
I A I =
0
0
88 . 5
96 . 1
96 . 1
96 . 1
1
1
1 1 1
2
2
pu j
j
j
j
a a
a a
I
I
I
FC
FB
FA
[ ] [ ][ ]
FS FP
E A E =
pu
pu
a a
a a
E
E
E
o
o
FC
FB
FA
7 . 128 / 179 . 1
231 / 179 . 1
0
286 .
777 .
491 .
1
1
1 1 1
2
2
Note: Unfaulted phase voltages are higher
than the source voltage.
a
b
c
a
b
c
122
.
Example 9.3a
Find fault current in the transmission line, I
L
1) Find I
LS
2) Find I
LP
0
0
88 . 5 pu j
I
I
I
FC
FB
FA
96 . 1
96 . 1
96 . 1
2
1
0
j
j
j
I
I
I
F
F
F
.
.
AC
Bus 1
AC
Bus 2

G M
SLG
Fault
I
F
I
L
123
Zero Sequence
AC AC
.
AC
j.05
J0.1
J0.315
J0.1
J0.1
.
1
2(f
0
)
j.15
n
0
-j1.96
I
L0
= 0
I
L0
=0
124
Positive Sequence
AC AC
.
AC
AC
j.15
-
+
J0.1 J0.105 J0.1
J0.2 .
-
+
1 2
1.05 / 0
o
1.05 / 0
o
n
1
e
j30
: 1
SLG
e
j30
: 1
n
1
-j1.96
I
T1
I
L1
6 .
655 .
2 .
) 96 . 1 (
1
j j I
T
= =
o
L
I 60 / 6 . 0
1
=
n
1
j.455 j .2
2
I
T1
-j1.96
f
1 f
1
125
Negative Sequence
e
-j30
: 1
n
2
-j1.96
I
T2
I
L2
n
2
j.475
j .2 2
I
T2
-j1.96
6 .
685 .
21 .
) 96 . 1 (
2
j j I
T
= =
o
L
I 120 / 6 . 0
2
=
AC AC
.
AC
j.17
J0.1 J0.105 J0.1
J0.21 .
1 2
n
2
e
-j30
: 1
SLG
f
2 f
2
126
Example 9.3a
[ ] [ ][ ]
= =
pu j
pu j
a a
a a I A I
o
o
PS PL
039 . 1
0
039 . 1
120 / 6 .
60 / 6 .
0
1
1
1 1 1
2
2
[ ]
=
o
o
LS
I
120 / 6 .
60 / 6 .
0
0
1
2
a
b
c
.
.
AC
Bus 1
AC
Bus 2

G M
SLG
Fault
I
F
I
L
127
Line to Line Fault
[ ]
=
FB
FB FP
I
I I
0
[ ] [ ] [ ]
= =

FB
FB
FB
FB FP FS
I j
I j
I
I
a a
a a I A I
3
3
0
3
1
0
1
1
1 1 1
3
1
2
2
1
[ ]
=
F FB FB
FB
FA
FP
Z I E
E
E
E
n
A
B
C
I
FA
E
F
A
I
FB
I
FC
E
F
B
E
F
C
Z
F
I
F0
= 0 I
F1
= I
F2
( )
F F F FB F FB F FB F F
Z I Z I j Z I j Z I
a a
E E
1
2
2 1
3 3
3
= = =
=
FB F
I j I 3
1
=
so
3
1
j
I
I
F
FB
=
E
F1
= E
F2
+ I
F1
Z
F
0
1
2
[ ]

+
=
=
F FB FB FA
F FB FB FA
F FB FB FA
F FB FB
FB
FA
FS
Z aI E E
Z I a E E
Z I E E
Z I E
E
E
a a
a a E
2
2
2
2
3
1
1
1
1 1 1
3
1
128
Line to Line Fault
Zero
System
Positive
System
Negative
System
f
0
f
1
f
2
n
0 n
1
n
2
I
F0
I
F1
I
F2
E
F0
E
F1 E
F
2
Z
F
129
Example 9.4
For the system of Example 9.1 there is a bolted
Line-to-Line fault at Bus 2.
Find the fault currents in each phase and the phase
voltages at the fault point.
f
0
n
0
J0.25
f
1
n
1
J0.139
+
-
1.05 / 0
o
f
2
n
2
J0.146
I
F1
I
F1
I
F0
pu j
j j
I I
o
F F
69 . 3
146 . 139 .
0 / 05 . 1
2 1
=
+
= =
0
0
=
F
I
( ) ( )( ) pu j j j I E E
F F F
537 . 0 146 . 69 . 3 146 .
2 2 1
= = = =
E
F1
=E
F2 E
F0
0
0
=
F
E
130
Example 9.4
pu
pu
j j
j j
j
j
a a
a a
I
I
I
FC
FB
FA
39 . 6
39 . 6
0
) 69 . 3 ( 3
) 69 . 3 ( 3
0
69 . 3
69 . 3
0
1
1
1 1 1
2
2
a
b
c
pu
pu
pu
a a
a a
E
E
E
FC
FB
FA
537 .
537 .
07 . 1
537 .
537 .
0
1
1
1 1 1
2
2
a
b
c
131
2 Line to Ground Fault
[ ] ( )
( )
+
+ =
=
F FC FB
F FC FB
FA
FC
FB
FA
FP
Z I I
Z I I
E
E
E
E
E
A
B
C
I
FA
E
F
A
I
FB I
FC
n
E
F
B
E
F
C
Z
F
I
FA
= 0 = I
F0
+ I
F1
+ I
F2
Since I
FA
= 0, I
FB
+ I
FC
= 3I
F0
[ ]
+
=
=
F F FA
F F FA
F F FA
F F
F F
FA
FS
Z I E
Z I E
Z I E
Z I
Z I
E
a a
a a E
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
3 /
3 /
2 3 /
3
3
1
1
1 1 1
3
1
E
F0
E
F1
= 3 I
F0
Z
F
so
E
F0
= E
F1
+ 3I
F0
Z
F
and E
F1
= E
F2
0
1
2
132
2 Line to Ground Fault
Zero
System
Positive
System
Negative
System
f
0
f
1
f
2
n
0 n
1
n
2
I
F0
I
F1
I
F2
E
F0
E
F1 E
F2
3Z
F
133
For the system of Example 9.1 there is a 2-line-to-
ground bolted fault at Bus 2.
a) Find the fault currents in each phase
b) Find the neutral current
c) Fault current contribution from motor and generator
Neglect delta-wye transformers
Example 9.5
.
.
AC
Bus 1
AC
Bus 2

G M
2LG
Fault
I
F
I
L
134
Example 9.5
f
0
n
0
J0.25
f
1
n
1
J0.139
+
-
1.05 / 0
o
f
2
n
2
J0.146
I
F0
I
F2
I
F1
pu j
j j
I
F
547 . 4
25 . 146 .
) 25 )(. 146 (.
139 .
05 . 1
1
=
+
+
=
pu j I I
F F
674 . 1
25 . 146 .
146 .
) (
1 0
=
+
=
pu j j j I I I
F F F
873 . 2 ) 547 . 4 ( 674 . 1
1 0 2
= = =
135
Example 9.5
This imagecannot currently be displayed.
[ ]
=
pu
pu
j
j
j
a a
a a I
o
o
FP
3 . 21 / 9 . 6
7 . 158 / 9 . 6
0
873 . 2
547 . 4
674 . 1
1
1
1 1 1
2
2
a
b
c
pu j j I I
F Fn
02 . 5 ) 674 . 1 )( 3 ( 3
0
= = =
136
Example 9.5
n
1
j.455 j .2
2
I
T1
-j4.547
n
2
j.475 j .2
2
I
T2
J2.87
3
0
0
=
GF
I
pu j j I I I
GF F MFO
674 . 1 0 674 . 1
0 0
= = =
39 . 1
655 .
2 .
) 547 . 4 (
!
j j I
GF
= =
pu j j j I I I
GF F MF
16 . 3 ) 39 . 1 ( 547 . 4
1 1 1
= = =
88 .
685 .
21 .
) 8773 . 2 (
2
j j I
GF
= =
pu j j j I I I
GF F MF
993 . 1 88 . 873 . 2
2 2 2
= = =
f
1
f
2
137
Example 9.5
[ ]
=
pu
pu
pu j
j
j
a a
a a I
o
o
GFP
4 . 7 / 98 . 1
6 . 172 / 98 . 1
51 .
88 .
39 . 1
0
1
1
1 1 1
2
2
[ ]
=
pu
pu
pu j
j
j
j
a a
a a I
o
o
MFP
9 . 26 / 0 . 5
1 . 153 / 0 . 5
504 .
99 . 1
16 . 3
674 . 1
1
1
1 1 1
2
2
138
Example 9.5 results
AC AC
.
AC
j.05
J0.1
J0.315
J0.1
J0.1
.
1 2
j.1
5
n
0
I
L0
= 0
2LG
J1.674
X
AC AC
.
AC
AC
j.15
-
+
J0.1
J0.105
J0.1
J0.2
.
-
+
1 2
1.05 / 0
o
1.05 /
0
o
n
1
e
-j30
: 1
2LG
e
j30
: 1
-j3.16 X
-j1.39
Find the fault current contribution from the generator
considering the delta-wye transformer phase shift.
Example 9.6
1.39/ -60
o
-j1.39
139
Example 9.6
Example 9.5 results
J1.99
AC AC
.
AC
j.17
J0.1
J0.105
J0.1
J0.21 .
1 2
n
2
e
-j30
: 1
2LG
e
j30
: 1
X
j.88 .88/ 60
o
j.88
.
.
AC
Bus 1
AC
Bus 2

G M
2LG
Fault
I
L
X
[ ]
=
pu
pu
pu j
j
j
a a
a a I
o
o
GP
7 / 98 . 1
173 / 98 . 1
51 .
88 .
39 . 1
0
1
1
1 1 1
2
2
a
b
c
I
GP
140
Class Problem 5
The system data in p.u. based on S
B
= 100MVA, V
B
= 765kV for the lines are:
G1: X1=X2=.18, X0=.07 T1: X=.1 LINE 1-3: X1=X2=.4 X0=.17
G2: X1=X2=.2, X0=.10 T2: X=.1 LINE 1-2: X1=X2=.085 X0=.256
G3: X1=X2=.25, X0=.085 T3: X=.24 LINE 2-3: X1=X2=.4 X0=.17
G4: X1=.34, X2=.45, X0=.085 T4: X=.15
a) From the perspective of Bus 1, draw the zero, positive and negative sequence networks.
b) Determine the fault current for a 1 L-G bolted fault on Bus 1.
AC
Bus 1
AC
Bus 3
G1 G3
G4
G2
Bus 2
LINE 1-3
LINE 1-2 LINE 2-3
T1
T2
T3
T4
141
Modern Fault Analysis
Methods
142
Modern Fault Analysis Tools
Power Quality Meters (Power Quality Alerts)
Operations Event Recorder (ELV, Electronic
Log Viewer)
Schweitzer Relay Event Capture
Schweitzer Relay SER (Sequential Events
Record)
143
Modern Fault Analysis Example:
Line current diff with step distance
First indication of an event - Power Quality
alert email notifying On-Call Engineer that
there was a voltage sag in the area. This event
was a crane contacting a 69kv line. Time of
event identified.
144
Modern Fault Analysis Example
Event Log Viewer stores breaker operation
events. Search done in ELV using time from
PQ Alert and breakers identified where trip
occurred.
Ferris and Miller breakers
operated.
145
Next the line relays (SEL-311L) at the two
substations are interrogated for a possible event
at this time.
Use command EVE C 1 to capture the event you desire. The C
gives you the digital elements as well as the analog quantities.
Ferris and Miller triggered an
event record at this time (HIS
command used in SEL relay)
Reclosing enabled at Miller,
additional record is the uncleared
fault after reclosing.
146
If the fault distance is not reasonable from the
relays, i.e. the fault distances from each end is
longer then the line length, the fault magnitude
can be modeled in Aspen to determine fault
distance by running interim faults. This
discrepancy in distance can result from tapped
load or large infeed sources.
147
Event capture file is opened in SEL-5601 to
view waveforms and digital elements of event.
Miller initial fault:
148
Ferris initial fault:
Unknown
source voltage
149
Miller reclose operation:
150
This SEL-311L setup is a current differential
with step distance protection.
Analysis from line relay SER to ensure proper
relaying operation:
Question, why didnt Z1G pickup?
151
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What are symmetrical components and how are they used in fault analysis?

How are sequence networks used to model faults?

1

Hands-On Relay School

d =.15pu Td = .035 Sec.

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