Antenna 8

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Transmission Lines and E.M.

Waves
Prof R.K. Shevgaonkar
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay

Lecture-52

Welcome, up till now we studied the radiation characteristics of Hertz Dipole and
following that the linear dipoles we saw that the Hertz Dipole has a very broad radiation
pattern and consequently it has a very low directivity. For making the directivity higher
that means for making the radiation pattern narrower we investigated dipole antennas
which are of finite length however while doing this we found that a terminal impedance
of antenna gets modified so as we increase the length of the dipole two things happen the
directivity of the antenna increases and beam width becomes narrower but the same time
we start getting multiple beams that means the radiation starts going in some undesired
directions.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:41 min)



We also develop some nulls that means is the directions in which there is no radiation and
at the same time the terminal impedance of the antenna also gets modified. So what we
find is that as we try to manipulate the radiation characteristics like radiation pattern the
terminal impedance automatically gets modified we do not have a independent control
over the terminal impedance against the radiation pattern. In many applications we would
like to modify the radiation pattern depending upon the need but the same time we want
that the impedance characteristics of the antenna should not get modified. We also saw
that for a dipole since the current distribution was sinusoidal we knew the current
distribution we could find out the radiation pattern, however, if we take some arbitrary
antenna then it is very difficult to find out the current distribution on that but once we get
the current distribution on that antenna then finding out the radiation pattern is a straight
forward problem but the reverse problem we mentioned earlier that somebody gives you
the radiation pattern and says tell us the physical structure which will give me this
radiation pattern or giving just the physical structure can we just say half hand what kind
of current distribution will be existing or for a given current distribution what should be
the physical structure these problems are extremely difficult or sometimes impossible
problems.

So what we want is we want to manipulate the current distribution because from our
Fourier transform relationship between the current distribution and the radiation pattern
we know that if you manipulate the current distribution we can get the desired radiation
pattern. So now our requirement is that we must have a mechanism of modifying the
current distribution without affecting the terminal characteristics of the antenna and that
kind of flexibility is provided by the antenna arrays. So as the name suggests the antenna
array is collection of basic antenna elements.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:04 min)



Now what we do is we essentially have a large number of antennas whose terminal
characteristics are decided by the pre designing this antenna and by placing this antenna
in the vicinity of each other and exciting them simultaneously we essentially get the
superposition of the fields due to each of the antennas and because of the phase space
which will be there because of the placement of these antennas the total radiation pattern
gets modified. So by the use of the antenna array essentially we decouple the terminal
characteristics of the antenna and the radiation pattern, of course when two antennas are
brought in the vicinity of each other the terminal character gets modified but this
modification is marginal if the spacing between two antennas which are kept in the
vicinity of each other are more than /2. So that means if the antenna elements are
separated by a distance more than /2 the terminal characteristics of the antenna
practically remain unchanged, however, the superposition of the field due to different
antennas can give you modification in he radiation pattern.

So in fact by using proper distribution and the excitation of the different antenna elements
one can achieve any current distribution and consequently we can realize any arbitrary
radiation patterns. So an antenna array essentially provides flexibility in designing the
radiation patterns without affecting the terminal or the impedance characteristics. The
idea is as follows, what ever frequency we want to work on we first find out a suitable
antenna with proper impedance bandwidth characteristics let us say we can take a dipole
antenna and match it to what ever data we want to make it to over the bandwidth so this
is now the basic element which is the radiating element. Now by reproducing the same
element at different locations in space essentially we create an antenna arrays so each
antenna now is a best behaved radiating element at that frequency for that bandwidth and
superposition of all the radiations from different antennas of the similar type we will get a
radiation pattern which will be the desired radiation pattern.

So when we talk about antenna arrays principally there is no necessity of having different
antenna elements which are identical you may have different elements one may be dipole
other may be parabolic dish third may be something else, however, it does not really give
an advantage of using different antenna elements in the array in fact it is more
advantageous to use identical antenna elements in the antenna array so that your analysis
becomes simpler and the final radiation pattern which we get for the antenna array is
essentially decided by the array characteristics rather than by the individual antenna
characteristics.

So once you have a basic antenna element we worry only about the terminal
characteristics and the radiation characteristics are decided by array and the basic
radiation pattern of the antenna elements does not play any role in the final radiation
pattern. So with that understanding then one can say we are essentially going to put
identical antenna elements in some special configurations excite them with some proper
pattern and this is going to create a radiation pattern which will be the desired radiation
pattern. So let us say antenna array as we say is collection of antennas so let us say we
have dipole antennas which could be like that they are located in different locations and
each of them might be excited with different currents which are complex currents so this
one may be having a current I
1
, this may have a current I
2
, this may have current I
3
, and
this is I
4
I
5
and so on.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:39 min)



Now, principally these antennas again need not be oriented in same direction, however, if
I do not do that then again we have to do the vector addition of the electric field when I
go very far away from the antenna it again does not give you any great advantage as far
as the radiation pattern is concerned so normally these elements are also oriented in same
direction so they have identical radiation characteristics as a function of and .

So in general we are having the quantities which can control the radiation pattern as
follows, one thing is the configuration of the antennas that means the pattern in which the
elements are distributed in the space so we say Spatial configuration which one can
choose to modify the radiation pattern, second thing is for a given configuration the
specific location of the antennas so let us say the configuration could be a line a Linear
configuration but the spacing between different elements might be different. Similarly, I
may have configuration which may look circular but the antenna which are located in
side the circle might have different location. So for a given special configuration the
location of the antenna could be again a parameter which is in the hand of the design the
location of antenna elements.

Once we get the configuration and the location decided for the antenna then for the
antenna excitation we have possibilities that is we can change the relative amplitude
between different antennas we have Relative Amplitude which is a controlling parameter
then the phase of different antennas so we have Phase of antenna elements and finally we
may have some control over the final radiation pattern due to the original radiation
pattern of the antenna. For example if I use the basic element of the antenna which is
dipole this will have a null along this axis so final radiation pattern will also be having a
null along this axis if all elements are oriented in same direction so primary radiation
pattern also would have some effect on the final radiation pattern so that radiation pattern
we call as the primary radiation pattern of the antenna so we say the radiation pattern of
basic element.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:06 min)



Now for a given configuration and location we have some given number of antennas
basic elements so let us say in an array we have total N elements. Now having fixed the
configuration and the location of these antennas and choosing the antenna the radiation
pattern of the basic element is fixed, special configuration is fixed and the location of the
antenna elements are also fixed so I have these two quantities essentially in control or
may be even the location i can keep as a free parameter. So let us say first I fix the
configuration I choose the basic element so the radiation pattern is fixed then I have got
these three quantities which are to be controlled for manipulating the radiation pattern. So
the location of the antenna we have essentially degrees of freedom which are (N 1) if
there are N elements the absolute location of the antenna element do not matter what
matters is the relative location between different antenna elements because superposition
of the electromagnetic waves from different antennas would simply be decided by the
contribution relatively getting from the different elements so from the location we get
degrees of freedom for choice this will give me a degree of freedom which is (N 1),
similarly, relative amplitude also will have degrees of freedom which is (N 1) and the
phase of the antenna elements also give me a degree of (N 1).

(Refer Slide Time: 15:00 min)



So for a given configuration and basic element chosen essentially in a array we have
three into N - 1 degrees of freedom that means we have three into N 1 parameters to be
controlled which can manipulate the final radiation pattern that means we can control
three into N 1 features in the radiation pattern by controlling these three into N 1
parameters.
In fact if you take an array for which N is reasonably large and typical arrays would have
a number which is large we have a very large number of degrees of freedom three N - 1
this number is extremely large. So in practice we do not require that large number of
degrees of freedom so essentially we will relax some of this requirements for example
when we go for uniform arrays we will say the location of the antenna is chosen so the
spacing between the adjacent element is same, the amplitude also is same and the
radiation characteristics is controlled only by the phase variation of the antenna elements.

As we go for more complex problem then we will say okay location is fixed but the
amplitude and the phase of the antenna are varied and the radiation pattern is manipulated
so slowly we can relax this condition but to understand how the antenna array works let
us first investigate the simplest possible array that is the array of two elements. In that
case we will have degrees of freedom there will be only 1, spacing between them there
will be amplitude which will be one and the phase variation will be one.

Now we have three degrees of freedom for a two element array and let us see what the
effect of each of this parameter on the radiation pattern of this array is. So our basic array
we will investigate is a two element array as the name suggests this consists of two
elements that means two basic radiating elements without loosing generality let us say
these radiating elements are isotropic that means their basic radiation pattern is like a
sphere that is uniform in all direction. Of course, this kind of radiator we will not find in
practice because as we have seen even the simplest current element gives us the radiation
pattern which is a sin radiation pattern which is like an apple. So this isotropic radiation
pattern which is same in all directions is an imaginary source this source will never
realize in practice.

However, there are sources which can definitely have a radiation pattern which is
isotropic in certain planes. For example if I take a Hertz Dipole the radiation pattern is
isotropic in H plane, similar is true for the half wave dipole and the other dipoles that
means if I consider let us say Hertz Dipole which is perpendicular to the plane of the
paper then in the plane of the paper the radiation pattern will be isotropic. So in general
of course we do not have radiation pattern which are isotropic but radiation patterns
which are isotropic in a plane are certainly realizable in practice. So here without
worrying about that let us say we have the two radiators which are having isotropic
radiation patterns that means their radiation goes symmetrically in all directions so these
are essentially telling you the phase fronts which are originated by these two antennas
and as we said there are three degrees of freedom now one is the separation between the
antennas the amplitude ratio of the excitation of this two antennas and the phase
difference between these two antennas.

So let us say this one is having a current I
1
, this one has current I
2
with a phase difference
let us say this one is having a phase delta one this one phase delta two, separation
between the antennas let it be given by d so I have a degree of freedom which is phase
difference between these two which is delta two minus delta one I have a degree of
freedom for amplitude relative amplitude which is the ratio of I
2
and I
1
and the distance
between the two elements.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:14 min)



So I have got three parameters to control here the one is d other one is delta two minus
delta one and third one is the ratio of the current amplitude I
2
and I
1
.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:47 min)



Now the radiation field as we know is proportional to the current of different elements so
it will have a phase term which is e to the power -j r which is a distance from the
elements and it will be varying inversely proportional to r. So if I take the field due to this
element then in certain direction I will get let us say take some direction which is very far
away from this antenna array and let us say we measure the angles with respect to the
axis of the array which is this so the axis of the array is the line joining these two
elements so this we have axis of the array and let us say the angle we had measured for
this direction at which we are measuring the field is given by .
(Refer Slide Time: 21:53 min)



So this is going to some observation point. Since the observation point for radiation field
is very far away from the antenna then these angles are almost equal to and let us say
the distance from this element is given by r so distance of this point from this will be
short by this which is d cos so r - d cos so this distance will be r - d cos so the field
which you will get because of this will be having a phase e to the power -j r and it will
be varying as 1/r the field because of this we will be having a phase of e to the power -j
r - d cos and it will be varying 1 over r - d cos and the fields will be proportional to
their respective currents.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:14 min)



So essentially we can write down the field due to the two antennas let us say these two
antennas is one let us say this antenna we call as 1, this antenna we call as 2 so the field
due to antenna 1 and 2 can be written E
1
that will be some constant proportional to
current I
1
e to the power j delta one as the complex excitation current inversely
proportional to r into e to the power -j r and the field due to second element E
2
will be
K I
2
e to the power j delta two into e to the power -j (r - d cos) upon r - d cos.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:35 min)



Now as we have done earlier when you are analyzing the dipole if r is very very large this
term can be approximated by r in the amplitude term and this term which is phase term
we retain this because here this quantity is with respect to the so this cannot be
neglected however in amplitude terms d is much much smaller compared to r this
quantity can be neglected so E
2
as we have said can be approximately written as KI
2
e to
the power j delta two e to the power -j r upon r into e to the power j d cos.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:28 min)



So the total field now which we get is superposition of these two so essentially we are
seeing the interference phenomena of the waves which are originated by these two
antennas so these phase fronts move essentially they give the interference and that is what
is the resultant which you are going to get at any point in the space. Since we are again
interested in radiation pattern which is the relative variation of the electric field as a
function of angle we can absorb this quantity K upon r into e to the power -j r into
some another constant so you can call that some constant K
0
so we can define K e to the
power -j r upon r is equal to some constant let us say K
0
. Now the fields can be written
as E
1
that will be K
0
I
1
e to the power j delta one and E
2
will be equal to K
0
I
2
e to the
power j delta two into e to the power j d cos.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:10 min)



So the total electric field which will be sum of these two superposition of this electric
field which is just sum of these two terms so I get the resultant field the total field E that
will be E
1
+E
2
that is equal to K
0
into I
1
e to the power j delta one plus I
2
e to the power j
d cos phi plus delta two.

As you have seen we are not interested in again the absolute quantity we are only
interested in relative distribution of the electric field so we can take his I
1
e to the power j
delta one common so we get the field which is K
0
I
1
e to the power j delta one into one
plus the ratio of the two currents I
2
/I
1
e to the power j delta two minus delta one and the
phase term e to the power j d cos.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:11 min)



So as we mentioned earlier we are having three parameters to control one is this
parameter which is ratio I
2
/I
1
, another one is the phase difference between the two
elements and third one is this quantity d which is the spacing between the two elements.
Let us now investigate the effect of each of this quantities the ratio the phase difference
and the spacing between the elements on the radiation pattern. So let us say first we want
to investigate what is the effect of spacing d on the radiation pattern so without loosing
generality let us choose this quantity I
2
/I
1
something phase difference delta two minus
delta one something I will just ask if I vary d what way the radiation pattern is going to
get affected so let us say now we want to find out the effect of variation in d the inter
element spacing. So without loosing generality let us say we take two elements which are
identically excited that means I
2
/I
1
is equal to one and delta two minus delta one will be
equal to zero.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:46 min)



So let us say we excite these two elements by identical currents and now ask a question if
I simply change the spacing between the antenna elements what way the radiation pattern
is going to get modified. So if I substitute this into this the total electric field or radiation
pattern will be this quantity which is K
0
and again without loosing generality I can say I
1

one is one delta one is zero so this quantity will become one so this will be K
0
into one
plus e to the power j d cos we can take e to the power jd by two cos common from
here so this is K
0
e to the power j beta d by two cos so this gives me e to the power -j
beta d by two into cos plus e to the power j d by two into cos.
(Refer Slide Time: 32:23 min)



And this quantity is nothing but two times the cosine of this quantity so we can write the
final radiation pattern for this that is E equal to K
0
e to the power j d by two into cos
into two times cosine of d by two into cos

(Refer Slide Time: 32:50 min)



Now K
0
is constant this is the only phase term so the radiation pattern which is the
variation of the amplitude as a function of angle phi essentially is given by this quantity
even this 2 is a constant which can be absorbed into this so the radiation pattern of a two
element array with equal excitation that means I
2
/I
1
is one and the phase difference is
zero essentially this is given by that. So we can say the radiation pattern and we can say
this is maximum value of this is going to be one so we can even say this is normalized
radiation pattern that will be equal to cosine of d by two into cos.

(Refer Slide Time: 33:58 min)



Now one can note here when is ninety degrees that means when I go to a direction
perpendicular to the axis of the array that time this quantity will be zero and the cosine of
zero will be one so you will get a maximum in the radiation when is equal to ninety
degrees so if I consider this two element array from here the maximum will be in this
direction for this case which will correspond to equal to ninety degrees because is
measured from this direction so this angle is /2 this is the axis.
(Refer Slide Time: 34:54 min)



However what we note is that when this quantity is multiples of /2 at that time this
function will be zero and you will have the nulls in the radiation pattern. So you will get
from here nulls which will correspond to when d upon two into cos is equal to odd
multiples of /2 so /2 3/2 5/2 7/2 that is the time when this quantity will become
zero and you will get the nulls. So we can write down here that this is /2 /2 and you can
put plus or minus on this, if this condition is satisfied then we get the null in radiation
pattern.
(Refer Slide Time: 35:59 min)


Expanding for which is 2/ we can write that means 2/ into d upon two into cos
that is equal to /2, 3/2 and so on we get the nulls or by doing this I can this thing
will get cancelled so I can get the angles for a given d so the direction of the nulls cos
will be cancels with this two will cancel with that so you will get /2d, 3/2d and so
on.
(Refer Slide Time: 37:17 min)

Now when ever this modulus of this quantity will be less than one then we will have
physical angle in which the radiation will be zero or we will have physical null. If this
quantity is greater than one then there will not be any physical angle in which the
radiation will go to zero that means the radiation pattern will not have null. However
what we see here is as we increase the d for a given value of essentially we can have
now many more directions at which the field can go to zero, for example suppose I take d
less than /2 then this quantity will always be greater than one so I will not have any
physical null in the radiation pattern, however, if I take let us say d = then this is also
permissible this is also permissible next one will also be permissible and so on so if I take
d < /2 then we have no nulls in the radiation pattern if I take d = then this will get
cancelled this will be so you will get two nulls, d this is 3/2 this will not be
possible so we will get two nulls so if d = then we get two nulls if I take d = 2 then
these two nulls are possible by putting this d = 2 these two nulls are possible but the
next one which will be 2 so that will become d = 2 if I substitute into this the next one
will be four five /2d and d if I put 2 then this will become 5/4 which is greater than
one so these nulls are not possible so that will give us four nulls and so on.

(Refer Slide Time: 39:57 min)



So what we find now is that for given current excitation that means for given amplitude
ratio for the currents and the phase difference between the antenna elements as the
separation between the elements increases the number of nulls go on increasing so larger
the spacing between the antenna elements more will be the nulls in the radiation pattern.
So this is the direction of maximum you will get nulls which will be somewhere here here
here here and so on and as we argued as earlier when we were discussing the dipole
antenna that between two nulls the field must have gone locally maximum so that means
between these two nulls the field is maximum which is this again between these two nulls
it would have gone maximum and so on, or in other words, now the radiation is not going
in the direction in which let us say we wanted to send which was maximum but these
zones also the radiation is going because field will going to be locally maximum and in
this case the value of the maximum will be exactly same as this maximum which is unity.
So as the spacing between the antenna elements increases the radiation pattern sectorised
in zones and the radiation now starts going in sectors which are separated by this nulls so
the number of nulls increase in the radiation pattern and the radiation starts going into
different zones in the space.

(Refer Slide Time: 41:51 min)



If we want the maximum in the radiation pattern then the spacing between the elements
should be /2 so that there are no nulls, however, we will see later on that this choice is
may not be very desirable you may get some other constraints from the radiation pattern
but as it looks that if we did not want any null in the radiation pattern then the spacing
should be less than /2 if the current elements are equally excited.

The second quantity of which we can find out the effect of the radiation pattern is this
quantity which is the ratio of the two currents so the second thing is effect of variation in
I
2
/I
1
. Now in this case we can fix some antenna spacing so let us say we fix d = , let us
say the phase difference between the two elements is zero let us say delta two minus delta
one is equal to zero so for d = we have d cos which is equal to 2/ into cos that
is 2 cos.

(Refer Slide Time: 43:43 min)



I can substitute into the general expression for the radiation pattern so we get E that is K
0
and again you can assume delta one is equal to zero and I
1
is equal to one without loosing
generality. So this quantity then I
1
e to the power j delta one will be one so this is K
0
into
one plus this ratio I
2
/I
1
where I
1
is one so e to the power j d cos will be 2 cos.
(Refer Slide Time: 44:40 min)



Now as the angle varies essentially total phase of this quantity varies and the electric
field essentially is the sum of these two vectors one is one other one is having ratio
amplitude which is I
2
/I
1
and its phase is changing as the angle changes. So when is
equal to zero these two terms will be in phase so this is equal to 2 when this quantity
will be /2 this will become zero again this will be in phase but if this quantity is one by
two then this will be if this quantity is 1/4 it will be /2 and then this will be zero you
will have a radiation which is coming because of this plus a ninety degree phase shift
between these two. So when this quantity is that time this is e to the power j which is
equal to -1 so these two terms will cancel out each other whereas when =0 that time
this is e to the power j 2 that means these two terms will add in phase. So what we now
see from here is for =0, two terms add to give the electric field which E equal to K
0

one plus I
2
/I
1
for = /3 if I put = /3 this quantity will be n by two so this will be
then the two terms cancel each other and we get electric field that will be equal to K
0
into
one minus I
2
/I
1
.
(Refer Slide Time: 47:16 min)



So this is the maximum value I will get for the electric field as I vary the angle phi and
this is the minimum value of the electric field which I get in the radiation pattern but the
important thing to note here is if the two currents are not equal that means I
2
/I
1
is not one
then there is no complete cancellation of the two fields that means we do not have
completely constructive or completely destructive interference so when the ratio I
2
/I
1
is
not equal to one that time you will never have a null in the radiation pattern you have
maximum in the radiation pattern will die down to some lower value but there will be no
direction in which there will be null in the radiation pattern so this thing essentially tells
you no null in the pattern.
(Refer Slide Time: 48:20 min)



So in general then we can say that the ratio of the current amplitudes essentially control
the depth of the nulls in the radiation pattern as I
1
approaches to I
2
and this two become
equal the depth is full that means we have a zero field for the null when I
2
approaches I
1

that time it is null when any of these quantities go to zero there is no null rather the
radiation pattern becomes isotropic because if I
1
is zero only I
2
radiates for which the
radiation pattern is isotropic when I
2
is zero only I
1
radiates for which the radiation
pattern is again isotropic which do not have any nulls. So, essentially the depth of the
nulls is controlled by this parameter which is the ratio of the two current amplitudes.

Finally we can see the effect of the phase difference delta two minus delta one and let us
say that is given by delta. So again without loosing generality let us say we have some
distance d and the amplitude ratio now is taken as one so let us say we take a case where
there is a full interference so this is equal to one so the electric field for this case E will be
given as K
0
into again I can take I
1
equal to one and delta one equal to zero so this will be
I
2
/I
1
is one, this quantity delta two minus delta one is so we can write here this is e to
the power j d cos plus delta.

(Refer Slide Time: 50:29 min)



Now as we did in the previous case by taking this quantity common here this term
essentially becomes cosine of half of this quantity so on the same lines we can say now
that the radiation pattern in this case will be cosine of d cos plus delta upon two. Now
the maximum radiation you get when ever this quantity is zero that is the angle for which
this will become equal to one so we get maximum in the radiation pattern that
corresponds to d cos plus delta upon two that is equal to zero or it can be multiples of
because when this quantity is again the magnitude of this will be equal to one so you
will get a maximum so this is 0, , 2 and so on.

Let us say we concentrate only on first condition which is zero so this gives for the
maximum radiation your d cos plus delta which is equal to zero so the direction for
maximum radiation cos of that will be equal to minus delta upon d so for maximum
radiation let us say if we call this angle as max the cosine of max is given by minus
delta upon d.
(Refer Slide Time: 52:34 min)



So as we change the value of delta essentially this angle changes for given inter element
spacing which is d so direction of the maxima can be changed by changing the phase
difference between the two elements so if I put let us say delta equal to zero then cos of
max that will be equal to zero so the max will correspond to /2 so for delta is equal to
zero you get max equal to /2. If I put delta is equal to let us say d then we can get
this quantity as 1 and max would correspond to zero or . So for delta equal to d
will give me the max which is equal to or 0.
(Refer Slide Time: 52:34 min)



So what we note here is as we change the value of delta the beam maximum direction is
changes from zero to /2 to . So as the angle changes from -d it corresponds to zero to
/2 when delta is zero and when delta becomes equal to +d the maximum direction is
going to .

So essentially if this was the array as the phase difference changes from delta equal to -d
to delta is equal to +d the beam maximum direction essentially changes from this
direction this we can say the beam direction so the phase difference between the elements
essentially has effect of rotating the radiation pattern for changing the beam direction of
the antenna array so what we now see is each of these three parameters ratio of the
currents the phase difference and the inter element spacing have a unique signature in the
radiation pattern and precisely that is what we make us of when we talk about the general
arrays which is not of only two elements and for N elements and we adjust these three
parameters to get the desired radiation patterns.

Thank you.

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