Rock Mechanics

Geomechanics
Peter Fokker

Elasticity Flow
A matter of perspective
Phrase from the Song of Deborah
The mountains flowed from before the Lord
(the Bible, Judges 4:5)

Why geomechanics?
Rocks are the home of Oil and Gas
Flow through the porous medium is not the
complete story
Deformation, Forces
Temperature
Chemistry

Ignoring these may lead to expensive

mistakes

Coupled Processes

H
Flow

T
Thermal

M
Mechanics

C
Chemical

H
Flow

P Q. Mobility;
porosity. Diffusion;
Darcy flow

Convection.
Adiabatic
processes

Clay swelling.
Poro-elasticity
Compaction
hydraulic fracturing

P-dependent
reactions
Concentration
changes

T
Thermal

Thermal stimulation
(viscosity) Gas out of
solution

T; thermal
conduction
coefficient;
Heat capacity

Thermoelasticity /
Plasticity.
Thermal fracturing

T-dependent
reactions

M
Mechanics

Compaction-driven
production
Permeability change
Induced fractures

Frictional
sliding.
Geodynamics.
Faulting

. (non) Linear
Elasticity, Placticity,
Seismicity
Subsidence

Grain solution.
Geodynamics.
Diagenesis

C
Chemical

Precipitation /
Dissolution
Permeability
Volume / Pressure

Reaction heat

Diagenesis.
Gips / Anhydrite.

Reaction
Kinetics

What is geomechanics?
The study of the mechanical behavior of the
earth
How does the rock mass react on force
fields of the external environment
Shallow subsurface: Soil mechanics

Key features of rock

Heterogeneity
Lithological types
Faults, joints
Matrix blocks

Porosity
Response to pressured fluids
Response to fluid flow

Issues in practical investigations

Geological characterization
Static model
Lithologies, boundaries
Look broader than the reservoir!
Mechanical interaction extends further than fluid
pressure!

Properties
Rock mass
Joints and faults

Virgin in-situ stresses

And then start the geomechanical analysis
7

Applications of Geomechanics
Geology
Fracture properties

Geophysics
Seismic wave propagation

Drilling
Rock-bit interaction
Wellbore stability
The process of excavating a hole disturbs the stresses in the
system
Drilling problems related to geomechanics cost the industry
billions of Euros each year

Applications of Geomechanics
Geology
Fracture properties

Geophysics
Seismic wave propagation

Drilling
Rock-bit interaction
Wellbore stability

Production engineering
Sand production
Hydraulic fracturing

Reservoir engineering
Compaction
Surface subsidence
Induced seismicity
9

TODAY
STRESS and STRAIN
FRICTION and FAILURE
ELASTICITY, CONTINUITY EQUATION,
PORO-ELASTICITY

10

NEXT TIME
COMPACTION
SUBSIDENCE
INDUCED SEISMICITY
HYDRAULIC FRACTURING

11

STRESS
The state of equilibrium forces in the
subsurface
Forces do not act in single points
Traction = Force / area (vector)
Independent tractions for every independent
direction => TENSOR
Symbol for stress: or

12

Stress: The origin

Tectonic stresses geological history

Gravitational stresses depth of burial
Thermal stresses
Poro-elastic stresses pressure changes

Stresses different in different directions

13

STRESS: Definition (2D)

Stress = Traction = Force / Area for
each direction (unit Pa = N/m2 or psi)
22
Fnormal = A
Normal stress:
11

11
22

Sign convention: Compressive

stresses are positive
14

STRESS: Definition (2D)

Stress = Traction = Force / Area for
each direction (unit Pa = N/m2 or psi)
Fparallel = A
Shear stress:
=21
=12

=12
=21

15

STRESS: Definition (2D)

Stress = Force / Area
Total stress:
Traction on a plane with
normal vector n
Balance of angular momentum

21

= 11

12
22

F = n

21 = 12

16

Properties of STRESS
Algebra: Every
symmetric tensor has
eigenvalues (1, 2)
corresponding to an
orthogonal set of
eigenvectors (e1,e2)
Principal stresses
In three dimensions:
three principal
stresses

x nx
nx

n = n
y y

y
= 1; n = e1

= 2 ; n = e 2
1 0

=
0 2

1, 2 = 12 ( x + y )

1
4

y ) + 2
2

17

Demonstration of principal stresses

18

Transformation of Stress
x ' x ' x ' y ' cos

x ' y ' y ' y ' sin

' = L LT

sin xx xy cos

cos xy yy sin

sin

cos

= 12 ( xx + yy ) + 12 ( xx yy )cos 2 + xy sin 2
= 12 ( yy xx )sin 2 + xy cos 2

tan 2 =

Zero shear stress:

tan 2 =

Maximum shear stress:

2 xy

yy xx

yy xx
2 xy
19

Mohrs circle
Starting from the principle stress directions,
calculate the traction on a certain plane:
xy = 0; xx = h; yy = H

= 12 ( h + H ) + 12 ( H h ) cos 2
= 12 ( H h )sin 2
Graphical representation in Mohrs circle

(,
,)
,
2

0.5(
h+
H)

20

10

Use of Mohrs circle

Determine state of stress in any direction

Assess principal stresses at any point
Assess maximum shear stress
Failure

(,
,)
,
2

0.5(
h+
H)

21

Use of Mohrs circle

Determine stress on any plane with
Mohrs circle and transformation
equation = 12 ( 1 + 2 ) + 12 ( 2 1 )cos 2
= 12 ( 1 2 ) sin 2
n
2

1
2

22

11


max

(
x,)
,
2

0.5(
h+
H)

(
y,)

23

Stress in 3D
xx

= xy

xz
1

'= 0
0

Symmetric tensor, 6
independent stresses
Three principal stresses are
orthogonal, and usually one of
them is vertical: v
v = overburden weight 5%
The other two principal stresses
are horizontal: hmin and HMAX
(or h and H) and have
perpendicular orientation

xy xz

yy yz
yz zz
0

2
0

0
3

h
24

12

Stress decomposition
m = 13 ( 1 + 2 + 3 )
Mean normal stress:
s dev = iso = dev m I
Deviatoric stress

The principal values of the deviatoric stress

equal those of the total stress minus the
mean stress
Mean stress: Controls volumetric change
Deviatoric stress: Controls the distortion
25

Mohr circle in 3D
The state of stress at a point is represented
by Mohrs circle
max

0.5(
h+
H)

26

13

Stress versus Pressure

Pressures refer to fluid: No equilibrium shear
stresses in fluid
Pressures are identical in all directions
scalar
Differences in pressure lead to flow = rate of
deformation described by viscosity
Stresses are tensor
Stresses lead to deformation described by
elasticity
Similarity pressure mean stress
27

Stress Example 1
Find the principal stresses and the
orientation
Mohr circle
Equations

xx = 23 MPa
yy = 11 MPa
xy = 8 MPa

28

14

Stress Example 2

Rock at 3 km depth
v = 70 MPa
h = H = 50 MPa
What is the maximum shear stress?
What is the shear stress at angle 30?
Equations
Mohrs circle

29

STRAIN
Strain is connected to deformation
Not rotation
Not translation

Longitudinal strain
Shear strain

x+x

x-u(x)

x+x-u(x+x)

L L' x {x + x u ( x + x ) [x u ( x )]} u ( x + x ) u ( x ) du
=
=
=
L
x
x
dx
30

15

STRAIN
In 2D and 3D, other possibilities for
deformation: Shear strain
u

dy
x u
y

y + y v y dy

y + y

x
y

x + x
y

x u
y v

dx
x + x u
x

y v v dx

31

STRAIN
Shear strain: The change in
angle of axes
Total shear tensor:
This tensor is symmetric
3 principal strains in 3 principal
directions
Strain can also be represented
by Mohr circle

xx xy xz

= xy yy yz

xz yz zz
u
xx =
x
1 u v
xy = +
2 y x

32

16

Decomposition of Strain
Same treatment as for
stress
Volumetric strain
describes volume
change

Change in Pore
volume
Deviatoric strain
describes distortion

= iso + dev
iso = 13 v I = 13 ( xx + yy + zz )I
e = dev = 13 v I
V V '
= xx + yy + zz
V 0
V

v = lim

33

STRESS and STRAIN summarizing

Importance of Stress
Definition of Stress
Principal Stresses
Transformations
Mohrs circle
Definition of Strain
Decomposition of Stress and Strain

34

17

FRICTION and FAILURE

Very old experiments: Amontons, 1699
Sliding if T = N
= (: coefficient of friction)
N

For rocks (Coulomb, 1785):

= S0 + (S0: cohesion)
35

Friction in Rock
6
Gosford sandstone
5
Shear stress [MPa]

Examples of two rock

materials (from Jaeger,
Cook & Zimmermann:
Fundamentals of Rock
mechanics)

Wombeyan marble

4
3
2
1
0
0

Normal stress [MPa]

36

18

Friction
Sliding on a plane of weakness e.g. an
existing fault plane
Calculate normal and shear stress with
equations / Mohr circle
Importance: Fault reactivation, induced
seismicity

37

Failure
Importance of failure
Wellbore stability
Sand production
Hydraulic fracturing

38

19

Deformation and Failure

Triaxial testing: measure 11 vs 1 for
constant 2 = 3:
Linear elastic behavior: = E
Elastic behavior = f()
Elastic Ductile Brittle: = f(,t)
1

2
El

3=
2

Du

Br

39

Exercise: What happens to the Mohr circle

during triaxial testing??

(,
,)
,

40

20

Types of Failure

Unconfined compression: uniaxial tension

Triaxial testing: Shear failure
Triaxial testing: Ductile failure, multiple shear
fractures
Extension
41

Failure dependence on confining stress

Larger failure stress 1
for larger confining
stress 2

42

21

Coulomb Failure Criterion

Coulombs idea (1773): failure when the
friction threshold is exceeded: = S0 +
Angle of internal friction = atan()
Angle of shear plane with 1: = 45+

0
=S

1
43

More complicated criteria

E.g. Hoek & Brown

44

22

Effect of Fluid Pressure Net Stress

The sand grains in the
' = pI
rock feel the net stress:
Question: What happens to the Mohr circle
and the failure criterion?
Effects the horizontal position
p

(
,
,)
,

(,
,)
,

h 0.5(
h+
H)

0.5(
h+
H)

,
,
45

FRICTION and FAILURE summarizing

Friction law shear stress and normal stress
Failure: Wellbore stability, Sand production,
Hydraulic fracturing
Triaxial testing
Types of failure
Failure criterion, Failure envelope
Net stress

46

23

Linear Elasticity
Linear elasticity: A linear relationship
between stress and strain
ij = Cijkl kl
k ,l

6 independent stresses, 6 independent

strains: 36 elastic constants reduced by
symmetry to 21
Isotropic material (same response for every
direction of applied force): 2 independent
elastic constants HOOKES LAW

47

Linear Elasticity
2 independent elastic moduli for isotropic
materials
Youngs modulus
Poisson ratio
Lam constants
Bulk modulus
Shear modulus

48

24

Linear Elasticity Youngs mudulus

Force on the edges reduces the length
described by Youngs modulus E
F
l

33 =

l-dl

F
dl
= E = E 33
A
l

Measures the stiffness of the material i.e.

resistance to compression by uniaxial stress
49

Linear Elasticity Poissons ratio

Compression in the direction of the force is
accompanied by increase of radius
described by Poissons ratio
= 0: No expansion (e.g. weak porous rock)
= 0.5: No volume change (e.g.
unconsolidated sand)
Directly measured in triaxial testing
F

11 = 22 =
D

D+D

D
D

= 33
50

25

Linear Elasticity Bulk modulus

Total volumetric strain is related to mean
stress described by bulk modulus K
Bulk compressibility c = 1 / K
Relevance: Compaction
m = 13 ( 11 + 22 + 33 ) = 13 ( v + h + H ) = 13 K (11 + 22 + 33 )
= 13 K v

51

Linear Elasticity Shear modulus

Shear strain will result in shear stress
described by shear modulus G
Relevance: Fault reactivation

ij = 2G ij (i j )

52

26

Linear Elasticity General form

Lam constants , :
xx = ( + 2G ) xx + yy + zz

= ( xx + yy + zz )I + 2G

yy = xx + ( + 2G ) yy + zz

= trace( ) I + 2G

zz = xx + yy + ( + 2G ) zz
xy = 2G xy ; yz = 2G yz ; xz = 2G xz

Inverse:
E xx = xx ( yy + zz )
E yy = yy ( xx + zz )
E zz = zz ( xx + yy )
2G xy = xy ;2G yz = yz ;2G xz = xz
53

Linear Elasticity
Correlations between moduli
If you know 2 moduli, you can calculate the
others
K = + 23 G
E
=
(1 + )(1 2 )
2G
=
(1 2 )

= K 23 G

G (3 + 2G )
+G
E
G=
2(1 + )

E=

E = 2G (1 + )
E=

9 KG
3K + G

2( + G )
E
K=
3(1 2 )
2G (1 + )
K=
3(1 2 )
3K 2G
=
6 K + 2G

54

27

Linear Elasticity Special Cases

A material that can not maintain shear:
G = 0; = 0.5 (compressible fluid)
Incompressible solid: K; ; E 3G;
0.5
Hydrostatic stress; 1 = 2 = 3 = P;
1 = 2 = 3 = P / 3K
Plane stress 3 = 0 (e.g. free surface)
Plane strain 3 = 0 (e.g. around boreholes)
Beware: 3 0
55

Linear Elasticity Anisotropy

Anisotropy: Different responses in different
directions in the material.
Origin: small-scale heterogeneities
Connected to the geological history:
deposition of sediments is not random
Rivers with direction of flow
Alternating higher perms and lower perms

Stress-induced anisotropy: Fissures

56

28

Non-Linear Elasticity
Non-linearity: The relation between stress
and strain is not linear but depends on their
magnitude
Example: Naturally fractured rock
hardening when fractures close

57

Elasticity and Failure

S0

r = 1
1 = E 1

58

29

Equilibrium of Stress
Newtons second law: Ftotal = m a
Components of Ftotal

gdV + ndA

Body force (gravity)

Tractions on a piece of rock:

Divergence theorem

Ftotal = gdV + dV
V

Ftotal ,i = g i + ij dV
j x j

Equilibrium:
Ftotal = m a = 0

ij
g i +
=0
j x j

59

Equilibrium of Stress

xy + xy x y xy y
x

yy

+ yy +
y x yy x = 0
y

xy yy

xy = 0
+
y
x

yy + yy y x
y

(x,y+y)

(x+x,y+y)

xy + xy x y
x

xy y
(x,y)

(x+x,y)

yy x

60

30

In cylindrical coordinates
(assuming gravity in z-direction)
rr = ( + 2G ) rr + + zz
= rr + ( + 2G ) + zz
zz = rr + + ( + 2G ) zz
r = 2G r ; rz = 2G rz ; z = 2G z
rr 1 r zr rr
+
+
+
=0
r r
z
r

1 r z
+
+
+ 2 r = 0
r
r
z
r
zz rz 1 z rz
+
+
+
+ g = 0
z
r r
r
61

Step aside
What is necessary to
describe static flow in a
reservoir?
Continuity
v = 0
equation:
Darcy
v = p
equation

Differential equation for
p
Boundary conditions
(flow in well, pressure
at infinity)

What is necessary to
describe
geomechanics?
Equilibrium + g = 0
of forces
Hookes
= C
law

3 Differential equations
for u1, u2, u3
Boundary conditions
(external forces,
displacements at
infinity)
62

31

PORO-ELASTICITY
Fluids in he pores and mechanical behavior
interact

Deformation around a borehole

Hydraulic fracturing
Slip along active fault
Compaction driven production

Coupling: Poro-elasticity (Biot, Terzaghi)

Temperature and mechanics are also
coupled

Thermo-elasticity
63

Hydrostatic Poro-Elasticity
Hydrostatic loading of
Pores: Pp
Bulk = Matrix + Pores: Pc
(confining pressure)

dPc=dPp=dP: Additional P
c
hydrostatic stress dP
Different compressibilities:

Pc
Pc
Pp
Pp

Pc

C p = 1 V p
V p Pp

pore compressibility

Cb = 1 Vb
Vb Pc

bulk compressibility
C p = [Cb (1 + )Cm ] /
matrix material compressibility

Cm

64

32

Undrained compaction
Compress the rock with no flow allowed:
Fluid is trapped in the pores and increases in
pressure
Skempton coefficient describes magnitude of
pore pressure increase wrt confining
pressure
C p + Cm
Cp
Pp
B=
=

Pc undrained C p + C f C p + C f

B 0 for gas (Cf Cp)

Application: Seismic wave propagation
65

General Poro-Elasticity
Pore pressure causes additional stress
Pp I = 2G + trace() I
g + = 0
Equilibrium equation
Gives differential equations for
displacements and pressure (summation
2u j
Pp
2 ui
over j)
(
)
G

x 2j

+ +G

x j xi

= g i

xi

G 2u + ( + G )( u ) = g Pp

66

33

General Poro-Elasticity
Combine with flow in the porous medium:
Continuity equation but now is not constant!
Darcys law

v=

( v ) =

( )
t

So, there is coupling:

Pressure induces stress
Stress induces porosity changes and thus
pressure changes (Skempton coefficient)

Importance: Compaction drive, Subsidence,

Fault reactivation, Induced seismicity
67

ELASTICTITY summarizing

Linear Elasticity, Hookes law

Elastic moduli
Anisotropy, non-linearity
Elasticity & Failure
Equilibrium equations
Poro-elasticity: hydrostatic and general

68

34

How many legs does this elephant have?

69

35