CC103 Engineering Surveying 1 Chapter 2
CC103 Engineering Surveying 1 Chapter 2
CC103 Engineering Surveying 1 Chapter 2
LEVELING
2.0
INTRODUCTION
Definition:-
Leveling is the art of determining relative altitudes of points on the surface of the earth to produce a
horizontal line of sight.
Purpose of Leveling:Leveling is being used for many different purposes. Among them are as listed below:i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
ii.
Datum
-
iii.
A line lying on the level surface is known as a level line. Every point of a level line
is equidistant from then centre of the earth. The cross section of still water of a
lake represents a level line.
Datum plane is an arbitrarily assumed level surface or line with reference to
which level of other line or surface are calculated.
The level surface is called datum surface. The heights of different points in
surveyed area are measured with reference to this level surface.
Reduced Level
-
The height or depth of a point above or below the assumed datum is called
reduced level. It is also known as elevation of the point. Elevation of the points
below the datum surface, are known as negative elevation.
Bench Mark
-
v.
vi.
Back sight
-
vii.
The fore sight taken on a leveling staff held at a point between two turning
points, to determine the elevation of that point, is known as intermediate sight.
It may be noted that for one setting of a level, there will be only a back sight and
fore sight but there can be a number of intermediate sight.
x.
Intermediate sight
-
ix.
The first sight taken on a leveling staff held at point of known elevation is called
back sight. It ascertains the amount by which the line of sight is above or below
the elevation of the point. Back sight enables the surveyor to obtain the height
of the instrument.
Fore sight
-
viii.
Temporary benchmark is fixed dots but behave less permanent and established
nearby to site survey to save works reference to benchmark which may too long.
It is the line joining the intersection of the cross hair and the optical center of
the objective and its extensions. This indicates the horizontal line at the station
of instrument at an elevation of instrument height.
Level
Dumpy Level
It is simple compact and stable.
The telescope is rigidly fixed to
its support therefore cannot be
rotated about its longitudinal
axis.
A long bubble tube is attached
to the top of telescope.
Dumpy literally means short
and thick.
Tilting Level
It consists of a telescope
attached with a level tube
which can be tilted within few
degrees in vertical plane by a
tilting screw.
The main peculiarity of this
level is that the vertical axis
need not be truly vertical, since
the line of collimation is not
perpendicular to it.
The line of collimation, is,
however, made horizontal for
each pointing of telescope by
means of tilting screw.
It is mainly designed for precise
levelling work.
Level
tube
Eye Piece
Telescop
e
Focusing
Screw
Horizontal
slow motion
Tilting
Screw
Foot screw
Tripod
Leveling Staff
Leveling rods are manufactured from wood, metal, or fiberglass and are graduated
in feet or meters. The length of rod is 4 m or 5 m, the rod continusly each other.
1.3
1.2
Metric rods
iv.
The rectangular sectioned rods are either the folding (hinged) or the sliding variety.
Newer fiberglass rods have oval or circular cross section and fit telescopically together for
heights of 3, 5 and 7 m. Benchmark leveling utilizes folding (one-piece) rods or invar rods,
both of which have built-in-handles and rod levels. When the bubble is centered, the rod is
plumb. All other rods can plumbed by using rod level.
v.
Measuring Tape
Tape or a graduated rod is used to measure the vertical distance between two
points. Only applicable when an unobstructed vertical line between the two points exists.
Rod
1.353
2.887
Difference = 1.543
A
RL A = 100.000m
B
Measurement Level / Difference High Drop between Two
Let the respective reading on staff A and staff B be 1.353m and 2.887m respectively. The difference
of level between A and C.= 1.357 - 2.887 = -1.543m
If Reduce level of A is 100.000m, the reduce level of B, may be calculated as under:
Reduce level of the point A = 100.00m
Reduce of the line of sight = 100.00 1.357 = 98.446m
Reduce level of the point B = 98.446 2.887 = 95.559m
Ooops??
BS
BRIDGE
FS
BA
Readable staff by upright (normal) or hold by upside-down (invert). It is customary staff hold
by upright, yet to get reduced level under floor something object, staff would be held by upsidedown.
Reading method is the same, only reading figures to staff will see upside-down. Therefore,
recitation staff must do by careful. To facilitate in work recording and calculation, reading take by
staff upside-down add on to with negative signal (-). Base in figure above, the reduced level bridge is
= RLBA + BS - FS.
Temporary Adjustment.
It involves to install, levelling instrument and focus the telescope. This adjustment should be
done each time before readings are taken. The adjustment can be done as follows.
Bubble tube
Foot screw
Step 1
These screws are used in pairs to center the
bubble in the tube below the telescope when
the telescope or sighting tube is aligned over a
pair of leveling screws. Using either or both of
these screws (2 & 3), bring the bubble into the
center of tube.
Step 2
The telescope is then rotated 90 in either
direction so that the telescope is directly over
the other pair of leveling. the bubble is brought
to the center of the tube by loosening one screw
while tightening the other with the thumb and
first finger of each hand.
3
2
Step 3
Care is taken not to over tighten the screws.
The telescope is then rotated 90 in either
direction so that the telescope is directly over
the other pair of leveling screws. The process
is repeated to bring the bubble to the center
of the tube.
Step 4
The telescope is turned back 90 so that the
level is over the original pair of leveling screws.
The bubble is checked to make sure that the
level is centered.
Step 6
If the bubble is no longer centered, then the
leveling screws are adjusted to bring the bubble
to center and the telescope rotated back over
the pair of leveling screws to check the bubble
again.
Permanent Adjustment
All instruments are subject to errors of calibration and adjustment. In the case of levelling
instruments the main source of instrumental error is where the line of sight, produced by the
cross hairs in the telescope, is not parallel to the horizontal line of collimation produced by the
manufacture of the instrument. This error is known as collimation error as it effects the line of
collimation. The test that we undertake in order to determine the amount of errror and then
eliminate it from our measurement is known as the two peg test.
TWO-PEG TEST
a2
staff
3e
b2
level
e
a1
b1
Level
20m
A
20m
C
20m
B
The two peg test is used to determine if the line of sight of the telescope is exactly parallel to the
bubble tube. This is one of the most important properties of a level and is required to be
checked periodically. Below are the steps to carry out two peg-test.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
The elevation difference of the second set-up is computed (a2 b2). If the plane of sight
is truly horizontal, the elevation difference of the second set is equal to the true
difference in elevation (a1 b1) = (a2 b2).
Instrument at
station
a1 = 3.75
b1 = 4.25
a2 = 7.86
b2 = 6.36
Note:
Difference
So
With instrument at D,
Actual reading at A (a2) = 7.86 3 = 4.86
Actual reading at B (b2) = 6.36 1 = 5.36
BS
IS
FS
RISE
FALL
2.191
2.505
2.325
3.019
0.314
1.496
2.513
1.752
6.962
2.811
3.824
8.131
0.180
0.829
0.506
1.515
0.298
2.072
2.684
REDUCE
LEVEL
ADJ.
49.87
49.556
49.736
50.565
51.071
50.733
48.701
+0.003
+0.003
+0.003
+0.006
+0.006
+0.009
CORR
RED
LEVEL
49.87
49.56
49.74
50.57
51.08
50.78
48.71
REMARK
BM 49.87
A
B
C(CP)
D
E(CP)
TBM 48.71
= (Rises) - (Falls)
= 1.515 - 2.684
=
1.169
And alternative method for short linesE = 5n mm ; Where n is the number of stations.
The permissible closing error is distributed pro-rationally over the R.L-'s of the change
points, the R.L.'s of the intermediate sights being corrected by the same amount as the
change point immediately preceding it.
IS
FS
2.191
52.061
2.505
2.325
3.019
1.496
53.584
2.811
3.824
8.131
52.252
2.513
1.752
6.962
RED
LEVEL
ADJ.
49.87
49.556
49.736
50.565
51.071
50.733
48.701
49.87
+0.003
+0.003
+0.003
+0.006
+0.006
+0.009
CORR
RED
LEVEL
49.87
49.56
49.74
50.57
51.08
50.78
48.71
REMARK
BM 49.87
A
B
C(TP)
D
E(TP)
TBM 48.71
In this method, the reduced levels of points are obtained by calculating the reduced levels of
the plane of collimation for each set up of the instrument. The height of collimation is obtained by
adding the staff reading, which must be a Backsight, to the known R.L. All other readings are
deducted from the height of collimation, until the instrument setting is changed. Where upon the
new height of collimation is determined by adding the backsight to the R-L. at the change point.
There are two Arithmetic checks in H.l. method:
(Backsights) - (Foresights)
6.962 - 8.131
1.169
= LastR.L. - FirstR.L.
= 48.701 - 49.87
=
1.169
Cross Section
Cross sections are sections set out normal to the longitudinal section. The aim of cross section
leveling is the reproduction of an accurate section of the ground which is to be covered by the
construction works.
Cross sections provide data for the following:
i.
Deciding the most suitable and economic levels in the traverse direction;
ii.
Supplying details for locating the position, height and slope of embankments or cuttings;
iii.
2.6 CONTOURING
A contour or contour lines define as a line joint the points having the same elevation above
the datum surface. The process of tracing contour lines on the surface of the earth is called
contouring and the maps upon which these lines are drawn are called contour maps.
The constant vertical distance between any two consecutive contours is called the contour
interval and the horizontal distance between any two adjacent counters is termed as the horizontal
equivalent and depends upon the slope of the ground. The contour interval depends upon the
nature of the ground, scale of the map, purpose and extent of the survey. The contour interval of
any survey in inversely proportional to the scale of the map and it should be constant throughout
the survey.
The following are important characteristics of contour:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
Method of Contouring
The commonly used methods for contouring are:
i.
Direct Contouring
In the Direct method, the contours to be located are directly traced out in the field by
locating and making a number of points on each contour. The direct method by radial lines is
suitable for small areas where a single point in the center can command the whole area.
ii.
Indirect Contouring: Gridding. Spot Heights, Cross Sections and Radiating lines.
In the indirect method, the points located and surveyed are not necessarily on the
contour lines, but the spot levels are taken along the series of lines laid out over the area.
This method of contouring is also known as contouring by spot levels. This method is
cheaper, quicker and less tedious as compare with direct method.
Interpolation of Contour
The process of spacing the contours proportionally between the plotted ground points is
termed as interpolation of contours. There are three methods of interpolation such as
mathematical, graphical and scale method.
i.
A (37.2m)
(35.8m) B
37.2m
36.0m
H
20m
20m
35.8m
A and B are two plotted point at 20 m apart and their ground reduced levels are 37.2 and
35.8m respectively. It is required to draw contours at 36m
H = 37.2 35.8 = 1.4m
h = 36.0 35.8 = 0.2m
x = 20
h H
x = h X 20
H
= 0.2 X 20
1.4
= 2.86m
ii.
37.2m
37.0m
36.0m
35.8m
14 unit
Figure 2.8: Graphical Method Interpolation