Partitioning of oblique convergence in the northern Andes subduction zone: migration history

and present-day boundary of the North Andean Sliver in Ecuador

Running title: Eastern limit of the North Andean Sliver

Alvarado A1,2., Audin L2., Nocquet J.M3., Jaillard E2., Mothes P1., Jarrín P1., Segovia M.1,
Rolandone F.4 and Cisneros D.5

1
Instituto Geofísico, Escuela Politécnica Nacional, A. P. 17-2759, Quito, Ecuador
2
Institut des Sciences de la Terre (ISTerre), IRD : UR219 – Université Joseph Fourier -
Grenoble I – INSU – OSUG – France
3
Géoazur, CNRS, Université de Nice Sophia-Antipolis, IRD, Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur,
Valbonne, France
4
Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Université Paris 06, CNRS, Institut des Sciences de la Terre de
Paris (ISTeP), Paris, France
5
Instituto Geográfico Militar (IGM), Quito, Ecuador.

This article has been accepted for publication and undergone full peer review but has not
been through the copyediting, typesetting, pagination and proofreading process which may
lead to differences between this version and the Version of Record. Please cite this article as
doi: 10.1002/2016TC004117

©2016 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

ABSTRACT
Along the Ecuadorian margin, oblique subduction induces deformation of the overriding
continental plate. For the last 15 Ma, both exhumation and tectonic history of Ecuador suggest
that the northeastward motion of the North Andean Sliver (NAS) was accompanied by an
eastward migration of its eastern boundary and successive progressively narrowing restraining
bends. Here, we present geologic data, earthquake epicentres, focal mechanisms, GPS results
and a revised active fault map consistent with this new kinematic model. All data sets concur
to demonstrate that active continental deformation is presently localized along a single major
fault system, connecting fault segments from the Gulf of Guayaquil to the eastern Andean
Cordillera. Although secondary faults are recognized within the Cordillera, they accommodate
a negligible fraction of relative motion compared to the main fault system. The eastern limit is
then concentrated rather than distributed as first proposed, marking a sharp boundary between
the NAS, the Inca sliver and the Subandean domain overthrusting the South American craton.
The NAS limit follows a northeast-striking right-lateral transpressional strike-slip system from
the Gulf of Guayaquil (Isla Puná) to the Andean Cordillera and with the north-south-striking
transpressive faults along the eastern Andes. Eastward migration of the restraining belt since
the Pliocene, abandonment of the sutures and reactivation of north-south striking ancient fault
zones lead to the final development of a major tectonic boundary south and east of the NAS,
favouring its extrusion as a continental sliver, accommodating the oblique convergence of the
Nazca oceanic plate toward South America.

Key points
New tectonic and geodetic data unambiguously define the present-day boundary of the NAS
in Ecuador.
The present-day major boundary does not follow old sutures like the Dolores Guayaquil
Megashear.
Cenozoic partitioning of the deformation developed by successive narrowing restraining
bends.

©2016 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION

Geodynamic evolution of the Northern Andes departs from the classical Andean
subduction type [Uyeda and Kanamori, 1979; Lallemand, 1999]. Along the northwestern
margin of South America, subduction of the oceanic Farallón plate occurs since at least 190
Ma and interacted with the progressive development of the Caribbean domain to the North.
This plate interaction led to large-scale lithospheric deformation of northern South America
involving several individualized continental blocks (Figure 1) [Audemard and Audemard,
2002; Pindell and Kennan, 2009]. Furthermore, between 75 and 58 Ma, oceanic terranes have
been accreted to the Ecuadorian continental margin through successive episodes [Reynaud et
al., 1999; Spikings et al., 2001; Jaillard et al., 2004; 2008; 2009], before the main orogeny
phase started 23 Ma ago [Hey, 1977; Audemard and Audemard, 2002]. In the latest stage of
the Northern Andes evolution, an upper plate “sliver” in Ecuador and Colombia, trapped
between the trench and the South American craton (i.e. the Guyanese Shield) is “escaping”
NE-wards since the Mio-Pliocene [Pennington, 1981; Costa et al., 2009; Egbue and Kellog,
2010; Nocquet et al., 2014].

Since early observations by Fitch [1972], many studies have recognized that the
overriding plate in subduction zones experiences intense deformation, leading to the formation
of partly detached on board continental domains, wedged between the trench and the stable
part of the upper plate. The words “Forearc slivers” [Beck, 1991; McCaffrey, 1992], “blocks”
[Pennington, 1981], “micro-plate” [Brooks et al., 2003], “continental slivers” [Nocquet et al.,
2014] have interchangeably been used by the authors depending on the local context. In this
paper, we choose to use the term “North Andean Sliver” (NAS) for the following reasons: (1)
the mobile domain encompasses not only the fore-arc domain, but sometimes also comprises
part of the arc and back-arc domains (2) we believe that “blocks” or “micro-plate” refer to a
domain without any significant internal deformation, which is usually not the case [e.g.
Gordon, 1995]. The existence of internal deformation within the NAS has further been
demonstrated by Alvarado et al., [2014] for the Quito Fault System and by Lavenu et al. [1995]
for the Interandean Valley, precluding the use of “block” or “microplate” (3) the domain
showing coherent motion displays a large length/width ratio (here extending about 2200km

©2016 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

from the Gulf of Guayaquil to Venezuela with a width <450km, and is small compared to the
size of the South America plate).

Several models have described in general terms the escape of the NAS and proposed
the driving mechanisms but none have discussed its geographical boundaries or evolution
through time. So far, studies of the NAS fall into two different conceptual categories. On one
hand, some models propose the distribution of the deformation as taking place along several
fault strands equally active, but localizing the deformation at the scale of the lithosphere
(Figure 2a) [Soulas et al., 1991; Egbue and Kellog, 2010]. Consequently, the NAS would be
divided in a succession of N-S domains (Figure 2b) [White et al., 2003]. Conversely, other
models consider the eastern limit of the NAS as a restraining bend located along the
Interandean depression (Figure 2c) [Ego et al., 1996].

Here, we present an integrated view of the tectonic evolution of the Ecuadorian Andes over the
last 15 Ma, based on all available geodynamic data. The main goals of this review paper are:
(1) to address the Neogene geologic and tectonic history of a key part of the Northern Andes
through a critical review of previously published works (2) to provide new, high-quality GPS
and structural data in order to unambiguously define the present-day eastern limit of the NAS.
Based on these results, we propose an evolution model showing how oblique plate
convergence has been accommodated within the South American continent in Ecuador at least
since the Miocene. This model is used to discuss the role of tectonic heritage of continental
sutures.

1-Sutures and inherited tectonic structures

In major active mountain ranges, suture zones are considered as fundamental inherited
lithospheric structures. In Tibet for example, sutures usually indicate the contact of margin
rocks with exotic terrains and control the further evolution of the orogeny and the location of
deformation [Guillot and Replumaz, 2013]. Sutures can thus be re-activated or abandoned
through time at the favour of compatible convergence directions, especially as strike-slip fault
systems. For instance in Tibet, it has been proposed that boundary forces resulted in stresses
sufficient to reactivate weakly welded sutures [Tapponnier et al., 2001]. Similarly to Tibet,

©2016 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

rocks on either side of inherited suture zones of Ecuador belong to fundamentally different
tectonic or metamorphic regions: oceanic plateaus and island arcs dominate to the West or NW
and the Brazilian shield is found to the East and SE (Figure 1).

Ecuador is subdivided into tectono-stratigraphic zones that extend parallel to the

length of the Northern Andean range (Figure 1). The Coastal region and the Western Cordillera
comprise the various accreted oceanic terranes, separated from each other by Cretaceous fault
systems (Figure 1) [Luzieux et al., 2006; Jaillard et al., 2009]. The Interandean Valley
comprises the Plio-Quaternary Volcanic zone, the main volcanic centres being distributed in
the Western and Real Cordilleras [Hall et al., 2008]. Their products overlay part of the
accreted terrains and mask the eastern contact with the continental crystalline rocks to the east
(Figure 1) [Aspden and Litherland, 1992]. Although the eastern Cordillera Real and Subandean
ranges are covered by dense tropical vegetation, most of these regions exhibit metamorphic
rocks and sedimentary cover [Zamora and Litherland, 1993]. The review paper by Jaillard et
al. (2009) suggests that the lateral escape of the NAS might have been active since the late
Cretaceous and has been accommodated along several suture zones [Pennington, 1981;
Kellogg and Vega, 1995; Egbue and Kellogg, 2010]. We compiled the information on a
comprehensive map of the sutures and limits of the oceanic accreted terranes for all Ecuador
(Figure 1). It shows that the terrain slivers extend laterally for several hundreds of kilometres
in a roughly north-northeast direction along the northern Andes (Figure 1). These are only a
few tens of kilometres wide, and are separated by deep crustal suture zones, sometimes
seismically reactivated at depth [Guillier et al., 2001].

Two different kinds of suture zones and fault systems summarized in this compilation
have been previously identified (Figure 1) [Feininger, 1987; Lebras et al., 1987; Aguirre, 1992;
Van Thournout et al., 1992; Reynaud et al., 1999; Hughes and Pilatasig, 2002; Kerr et al.,
2002; Mamberti et al., 2003; Jaillard et al., 2009]. The first one illustrates the major phases of
deformation recorded by the continental metamorphic domains, while the second marks the
geographic eastern limit of the accreted oceanic terranes (Figures 3 and 4). Southern Ecuador
marks the transition from the Central Andes of Peru to the Northern Andes of Ecuador and
Colombia [Zamora and Litherland, 1993]. On Figure 3, our new geologic map of the
Pallatanga region, in SW Ecuador, reflects the structural evolution of this area during the
Cretaceous. While most inherited and inactive major fault systems strike parallel to the orogen

©2016 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

and are roughly perpendicular to the direction of convergence (Figure 3), there are several
deviations from this system, including transpressional shear zones that bound the Northern
Andean Sliver. Strong structuration of the topography and geological formations by east-
striking fault systems, northeast-striking fault systems and sutures, are seen for example in the
Jubones fault zone (Figures 1 and 3). The Cosanga and Méndez Faults are part of the same
ancient tectonic system (Figure 4). First active during the Jurassic, the Cosanga-Méndez Fault
System marks the limit between the metamorphic rocks of the Cordillera Real and non-
deformed domains of the Subandean zone [Aspden and Litherland, 1992]. The Peltetec Suture
zone marks the boundary between the pre-Jurassic continental crystalline rocks and Jurassic
island arc rocks, as described by Aspden and Litherland (1992) near Riobamba (Figure 4). To
the South, the Jubones suture zone marks another limit between continental and oceanic
domains and corresponds to the southern extension of the Peltetec Suture zone. The Pujilí
Melange and it suture zone, first defined by Hughes and Pilatasig (2002), show a dextral strike-
slip displacement that carried the oceanic terranes, forming the basement of the Western
Cordillera (Figure 4). Rather narrow, this suture zone presents highly deformed outcrops of
mainly ophiolitic rocks [Hughes and Pilatasig, 2002]. The last accretion is dated from the
Paleocene when the Piñón terrain was accreted onto the continent [Jaillard et al., 2009]. The
eastern limit of this terrain approximately coincides with a tectonic boundary, the Toachi shear
zone [Hughes and Pilatasig, 2002; Jaillard et al., 2009] (Figure 4). Note that some authors
proposed the above listed tectonic sutures to be nowadays reactivated [Guillier et al., 2001].

2- Kinematic evolution of large-scale deformation in Ecuador since the Late Cretaceous

and its paleogeographic interpretation

The history of the large-scale deformation in Ecuador involves a succession of discrete

and intense tectonic events rather than deformation continuous through time. Accretion of
oceanic terranes to the Ecuadorian continental margin occurred between 75 and 58 Ma
[Reynaud et al., 1999; Spikings et al., 2001; Jaillard et al., 2004; 2008; 2009). Since then, NE-
ward oceanic convergence led to the activation of the former sutures bounding the oceanic
terranes as dextral strike-slip faults and flower structures [Jaillard et al., 2004; 2009;
Amórtegui et al., 2011], according to a sequence of events. During the Cretaceous – Eocene
time span, a series of pull-apart basins formed in the Western Cordillera in relation to strike
slip movement along the suture zones [Toro, 2007]. The formation of these basins concluded

©2016 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

in the Eocene [Toro, 2007] and was coeval with the exhumation of the whole Western
Cordillera [Spikings et al., 2010; Hoorn et al., 2010] (Figure 3). Here N-S striking flower
structures crosscut Oligocene volcanic deposits, showing that they were active until Late
Oligocene to Miocene times (Figure 3). These transpressional structures were subsequently cut
and offset by NE trending dextral faults, whose activity can be dated as Late Miocene, since
they crosscut the Oligocene volcanic pile (Figure 3). However, these faults were not
reactivated in the Quaternary and do not affect recent volcanic rocks of Chimborazo volcano
further to the north (Figure 3). During the Miocene, fore-arc marine basins developed in the
present day coastal region (Progreso, Manabí and Borbón basins) [Benítez, 1985; Deniaud et
al., 1999, Witt et al., 2006]. The corresponding marine sediments were uplifted during the
Pliocene and the forearc basins were finally filled up with continental deposits during the
Pleistocene. During the Mio-Pliocene, the Gulf of Guayaquil basin opened as a consequence of
the NAS escape to the north and was characterized by moderate subsidence and sedimentation
rates [Benítez, 1985; Deniaud et al, 1999]. However, for the Pleistocene, the Guayaquil
submarine basins exhibit up to 4 km of sediment that accumulated during the past 1Ma. They
are testimony of an increase of subsidence and a high deposition rate varying between 700
m/Ma and 8600 m/Ma. [Deniaud et al, 1999]. The offshore Pliocene series shows no
significant variations in thickness throughout the Gulf of Guayaquil area suggesting that no
significant vertical tectonic deformation occurred between 5.2 to 1.8–1.6 Ma [Benítez, 1985;
Witt et al., 2006].

Thermochronological studies reveal variable exhumation rates for each Andean domain
and several distinct cooling events since the Cretaceous [Spikings et al., 2001; 2010]. These
exhumation phases were coeval with transpressive deformations recorded on the continent and
are recorded between 75 and 30 Ma, and most importantly for our study during the last 15-
10 Ma [Spikings et al., 2005]. Although spatially variable, even in a single region, the general
exhumation pattern for the last 15 Ma is presented on Figure 4 [Steinmann et al., 1999; Spiking
et al., 2000; 2001; 2010; Winkler et al., 2005]. Distinct periods of cooling during the late
Miocene-Recent in the northern Eastern Cordillera and the Western Cordillera temporally
correlate with giant alluvial fan sedimentation along the edges of the Andean massif, west or
east in the Amazon foreland basin, attesting that cooling was a result of surface uplift and
erosion. However rock uplift was a result of continental deformation, although not necessarily

©2016 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

controlled by terrain bounding faults or sutures [Spikings et al., 2001; 2010]. Since the Middle
to Late Miocene (15 to 10 Ma), most of the domain comprising the present-day Western
Cordillera, Cordillera Real and Interandean Valley has been exhumed from southern Ecuador
to Colombia (Figures 1 and 4) [Steinmann et al., 1999; Spikings et al., 2000; 2001; Spikings
and Crowhurst, 2004]. Miocene and younger exhumation of both the Western Cordillera and
the Cordillera Real has been constrained by Apatite Fission Track (AFT) analysis (Figure 4)
and tectonic studies (Figure 3). For example, highly deformed rocks from the Toachi shear
zone (Western Cordillera) were rapidly cooled and exhumed at 5 Ma, and Jurassic basement
rocks located close to the Chingual Fault in northernmost Ecuador cooled rapidly since 6 to 4
Ma [Spikings et al., 2000, 2005].

Between 9 Ma and 5 Ma, the eastward migration of the uplifted and deformed areas
was coeval with the initiation of the deformation of the Subandean zone (Figure 4). AFT ages
from the igneous basement rocks from the Subandean Zone suggest that they were rapidly
cooled during the Late Miocene [Ruiz, 2002; Spiking et al., 2010]. The entire extent of the
Western Cordillera located west of the Pujilí Suture exhumed rapidly at 15 Ma (Figure 4).
Apatite (UeTh)/He data reveals rapid cooling and exhumation (from 2.3 km to the present
surface; Spikings and Crowhurst, [2004]) in the northern part of the Eastern Cordillera,
commencing around 5 to 3 Ma, although this has not been detected south of S1°30’. In parallel,
the eastern Western Cordillera also started exhuming in the Late Miocene. This spatial
variation in exhumation is attributed to dextral transcurrent reactivation of the favourably
oriented and mechanically weak sutures, leading to exhumation in the Western Cordillera. This
microblock played the role of an indenting buttressing block and Spikings et al., [2010]
attribute the driving force to pulses of compressive stress during the collision of the Carnegie
Ridge with the upper plate, starting at 15 Ma.

3- Neotectonic homogeneous map and new data: major fault systems description

Here, we compile individual and local tectonic studies from the literature and present
them on a new comprehensive map based on an analysis of tectonic geomorphology (Figure 5).
The faulting patterns observed across Ecuador appear to preserve different stages in

©2016 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

the development of these oblique-slip fault systems and thus it is important to describe their
evolution through time. On this new tectonic map of Ecuador, we present here the complete
data set of active faults in Ecuador (Figure 5, neotec-opendata.com). It is compiled from our
analysis of a range of Quaternary markers: alluvial terraces, scarps, moraines and volcanic
formations, as well as detailed local field surveys and paleoseismic trenches [Ego, 1995;
Lavenu et al, 1995; Audin et al., 2003; Eguez et al, 2003; Tibaldi et al., 2007; PMA, 2009;
Baize et al., 2014; Alvarado et al., 2014]. Figure 5a displays major active fault systems on the
shaded topographic map of Ecuador (SRTM 90m). In the following, we summarize the
different major active systems from north to south, together with their main characteristics in
terms of kinematics.

The Chingual fault system

In northern Ecuador, the Chingual fault runs along the Eastern Cordillera northeastward
[Tibaldi and Ferrari, 1992; Ego et al., 1996] and connects to the La Sofia and Río Cofanes
14
faults. Morphological and geodetic evidence of transpression combined with C radiometric
dating provide reliable slip rate measurements for the Quaternary time period [Ego, 1995]. Slip
rates along the Chingual system range from 7 – 10 mm/yr. [Ego, 1995; Tibaldi et al., 2007].
Using the Euler pole from Nocquet et al. (2014) (long. -83.40°E, lat. 15.21°N, angular velocity
0.287°/Ma), the motion predicted for the NAS with respect to Stable South America suggests
movement of 8.5mm/yr. in a N65°E direction (at long. 76.79°W, lat. 1.24°N), and is in
agreement with the Quaternary slip rates. This rate of movement indicates that the Chingual
fault is the major fault accommodating the motion of the NAS, the contribution of all other
faults being negligible in terms of kinematics. The Chingual fault system extends to Colombia
through the Afiladores-Sibundoy-Algeciras Fault System [Paris et al., 2000; Velandia et al.,
2005] (Figures 1 and 5a).

The Cosanga - Salado fault system

The Cosanga segment (Figure 1 and 5a) follows the entrenched valley of the Río
Cosanga and trends N-S, showing compressive components of movement during the
Quaternary period. The successive active fault segments can be followed northward in the Río
Quijos valley. The Cosanga segment shows a mainly reverse offset with a dextral secondary

©2016 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

component and connects northward to the Salado fault segments. The Salado reverse fault is
associated to crustal earthquakes and among them the Mw 7.0 event in 1987 [Gajardo et al.,
2001, Kawakatsu and Proaño, 1991]. The active Cosanga segment is located close to the
ancient Cretaceous-age Cosanga fault, defined by Aspden and Litherland [1992], and
considered to represent the western limit of the cratonic front, probably active during the
Middle to Late Jurassic. Pratt et al, [2005] suggest that this fault had a reverse dip-slip
movement, during the Tertiary (Miocene-Pliocene?).

The Pallatanga fault system

The Pallatanga segment (Figure 1 and 5a) is the southern extension of the Pujilí Fault
[Hughes and Pilatasig, 2002]. It crosscuts the Western Cordillera and several sutures are shown
in Figure 3. This fault system extends east of the Gulf of Guayaquil [Winter et al., 1993] and
about 200 km to the NE across the Interandean Valley, up to the foot of Chimborazo volcano,
following the entrenched valley of the Río Pangor. Holocene slip rates have been proposed to
be 2.5-4.6 mm/yr. [Winter et al., 1993, Baize et al., 2014]. This value is 30% of the prediction
(7.1 mm/yr., N47E) derived from GPS for the relative motion of the NAS with respect to the
Inca Sliver, using the Euler poles from Nocquet et al. [2014]. To the Southwest, the Pallatanga
fault system can be traced down toward the coastal plain. It forms at least two restraining
bends and then connects to the Puná active fault segments on the Puná Island [Dumont et al.,
2005].

The Puná fault system

The Puná fault system [which can be traced to the Miocene Dumont et al., 2005]
represents a segment of the southern boundary of the NAS. This system includes several active
segments: the Zambapala flower structure [Lions, 1995] and the Santa Clara fault [Dumont et
al., 2005]. Farther to the south, the Amistad flower structure in the Gulf of Guayaquil [Benítez,
1985; Deniaud, 1999] is considered to represent the offshore continuation of the main
Pallatanga-Puná fault system (Figure 5a). The Gulf of Guayaquil itself is a complex pull-apart
structure, bordered by secondary NW-SE normal faults and a very thick sedimentary package
of Pleistocene age. Witt and Bourgois [2010] suggest that the opening of the Gulf of Guayaquil
marks the onset of a northward drift of the NAS, in agreement with the development of local

©2016 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

extensional tectonics bounding this basin. Dumont et al. [2005] proposed a Holocene minimal
mean slip rate of 5.8-8 mm/yr. for the Zambapala segment (at long. 80.23°W, lat. 3°S), in
agreement with the prediction of 7.1 mm/yr. in a N52°E direction, derived from our GPS data.

Macas fault system (MFS)

In Southeastern Ecuador, the Macas fault system bounds the Cordillera Real on its
western flank. Its northern prolongation was probably part of the Méndez fault (Figures 1 and
5a) [Aspden and Litherland, 1992]. Morphological evidence suggests a compressional
deformation toward the Sub Andean domain to the east [Bès de Berc et al., 2005], although no
significant instrumental or historical crustal seismicity (M > 4) appears to be related to this
structure (Figure 5b).

Napo-Cutucú fault system (Eastern Subandean Belt (ESB))

Mesozoic to Cenozoic strata is involved in the fold-and-thrust belt of the Subandean

region (Figures 1 and 5a). The Cutucú-Napo Fault System represents the easternmost belt of
deformation in Ecuador. Mostly involving thin-skinned tectonics, the Cutucú-Napo Fault
System is active from its northern part in the Napo region to the Puyo and Pastaza regions,
affecting the Quaternary drainage network [Bès de Berc, 2003]. The Subandean region
deformation is likely related to the presence of a local-scale thrust ramp underlying the
Subandean Zone and emerging locally in front of the Cutucú-Napo Fault System [Bès de Berc,
2003; Legrand et al., 2005]. The easternmost thrusts characterize here the eastward
propagation of a continental accretionary wedge as observed to the South in the Peruvian
Andes [Gil et al., 2001]. This structure is associated with the Macas Mw 7.1 reverse crustal
earthquake in 1995 [Legrand et al., 2005].

Quito – Latacunga Fault system QL

This fault system combines the Quito Fault System (QFS, Figure 1 and 5a) and the
Latacunga Fault System defined after Lavenu et al. [1995], Ego [1995], and Fiorini and Tibaldi
[2011]. These fault segments affect the whole pile of Quaternary to Holocene layers that fill
the Interandean Valley, attesting to the on-going blind thrusting in this region. The QFS
exhibits evidence for a slip rate of 4-5 mm/yr. shortening estimated from GPS, whereas the

©2016 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

Latacunga fault system shows a slower rate of ≈ 1 mm/yr. [Alvarado et al., 2014] (Figure 7).
The QFS is expressed by parallel strands of folds located above major west dipping, blind, en
échelon thrust faults. To the South, the Latacunga fault system eventually terminates along the
Pallatanga Fault [Baize et al., 2014]. To the west, the mean N-S strike of the Quito and
Latacunga faults rotates to a more NNE-SSW azimuth, and the faults are apparently rooted in
the deeper Pujilí Suture zone.

Neotectonic Summary

Assessment of the geometry and location of active structures in the region has proven
challenging to date in Ecuador, primarily because of the dense vegetal cover and the low
crustal instrumental seismicity registered since 1960 [Beauval et al., 2010]. However,
systematic analysis of fault size, geometry and geomorphic displacement reveals a hierarchy of
tectonic features [PMA, neotec-opendata.com]. The Chingual-Cosanga-Pallatanga-Puná fault
system (CCPP) represents the best developed fault system in Ecuador (Figure 5a). It
constitutes the eastern tectonic boundary of the North Andean Sliver and connects three
different transpressive and reverse subsystems. It was first suggested by Ego et al. [1996] to be
associated with a major restraining bend in Ecuador or to secondary active faults, lying east of
a main transfer zone described by Winkler et al. [2005]. The CCPP is about 800 km long, from
the Gulf of Guayaquil in southwestern Ecuador, to the eastern side of Cordillera Real at the
Ecuador-Colombia border (Figure 1). Its geomorphology is expressed by one or more parallel
fault segments striking N-S to NE-SW. The North-South trending segments localize the
hypocenters of several major historical earthquakes as well as instrumental seismicity as
described below. However, the active tectonic synthesis presented above suggests the existence
of an additional microblock: the Quito-Latacunga Microblock (Figure 5a), which extends from
east to west between the Cosanga and Quito-Latacunga fault systems. The Quito-Latacunga
Microblock southern limit coincides with the Pisayambo fault zone (Figure 5a) and its northern
limit with the SW tips of the Chingual fault. Indeed, several branches of the Algeciras-
Sibundoy-Chingual Fault system display evidences of a southwest-ward continuation into the
Interandean Valley, with NNE-SSW trending individual faults, such as the Santa Barbara and
San Gabriel segments. We discuss the potential existence of this microblock using seismicity
and GPS data and its role in terms of the evolution of the upper plate deformation through
time.

©2016 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

4- Seismotectonics and Focal Mechanisms

Ecuador has experienced numerous earthquakes in the historical and instrumental

periods [Beauval et al., 2013] (Figure 5b). Many of the faults documented in this paper
constitute hazards for local populations, including the cities of Quito and Guayaquil (Figures
5a and 5b). In Ecuador, local seismic station coverage is dense enough to allow for
determination of hypocentral depths [Figure 5b, e.g. RENSIG, Segovia and Alvarado, 2009;
Beauval et al., 2010]. The RENSIG provides instrumental locations, magnitudes and focal
mechanisms (Instituto Geofísico, Escuela Politécnica Nacional, EPN). We compiled and
revised published fault plane solutions [Calahorrano, 2001; Alvarez, 2003; Troncoso, 2009;
Segovia and Alvarado, 2009; Manchuel et al., 2011; Instituto Geofísico-EPN, 2012; CMT]
(Figure 6).

Since 1988, the local seismic network (RENSIG) has detected more than 44,000
tectonic events, 14 % of them with magnitudes ≥ 4, with about 300 focal mechanisms (Figure
5b). Focal mechanisms of shallow crustal earthquakes (M > 4 and less than 40 km deep, Depth
error ± 10km), which occurred in Ecuador in the last 25 years, define distinct zones of seismic
activity and stress regime (Figure 6). Strike-slip faulting dominates within and near the Gulf of
Guayaquil in agreement with the right-lateral motion of the Puná segment of the CCPP.
Predominant reverse faulting occurs along the Cosanga-Chingual segment, in agreement with
the fault style observed in this area and the large-scale kinematics derived from GPS. Finally, a
few significant earthquakes have occurred in the Interandean valley, including the recent
August 12, 2014, Mw 5.1 Quito earthquake.

The location of the focal mechanisms and large historical earthquakes enlightens the
CCPP as a major boundary. The change in earthquake focal mechanisms is coherent with the
relative motion of the NAS with respect to its surrounding domains: pure right-lateral strike-
slip motion occurs between the NAS and the Inca sliver from the Gulf of Guayaquil to the
eastern Cordillera, and a mainly transpressive motion occurs between the NAS and the
Subandean domain. As secondary features, active faults and their focal mechanisms are found
west and south of the Interandean valley, along the Quito-Latacunga fault system. There,
Quaternary and on-going movements are mainly compressive with a right lateral component
compatible with longer term data documented through previous geomorphic analysis [Lavenu
et al., 1995; Fiorini and Tibaldi, 2011]. The Pisayambo area marks the tectonic transition zone

©2016 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

between the NS Cosanga and NE-SW Pallatanga segments and the southern tip of the
Latacunga fault system. The Pisayambo area is characterized by a high level of background
seismicity, and swarms of distributed crustal micro-seismicity, account for 2 - 5% of the
number of >4 magnitude earthquakes registered in Ecuador [Troncoso, 2009, Guillier et al.,
2001]. However, geomorphic analysis based on DEM or precise aerial images does not show
major outcropping tectonic structures, but rather show several diffuse active second-order fault
segments [Alvarado, 2012; neotec-opendata.com; Audin et al., 2013], associated with the
activity of a NE-SW strike-slip fault system involving numerous km-scale fault segments.
Finally, the level of significant earthquake is mild in the Subandean domain, a feature that
contrasts with results observed in other parts of the Andes. We suggest that (1) the significant
seismicity is clearly associated with faults having clear geomorphological expressions, aside
from the Pisayambo area (2) focal mechanism support the hypothesis of an additional
secondary Quito-Latacunga micro-block (3) the Interandean valley fault system, the strike-slip
Pallatanga fault segment and Cosanga reverse fault meet in the Pisayambo area, showing a
high level of micro-seismicity, probably associated with a diffuse deformation mode.

5- GPS results

Nocquet et al. [2014] show that at the regional scale, the present-day kinematics of the Andes
and its western margin is dominated by the diverging motion of the NAS and the Inca Sliver,
the latter encompassing southern Ecuadorian and Peruvian Andes and their margin. Here, we
present new GPS data along the Cosanga segment (Figure 7) and the Pallatanga-Puná segment
(Figure 8), together with data used in Alvarado et al. [2014]. The results are based on
campaigns data, first measured in the 1990’s by the Instituto Geográfico Militar (IGM), which
we re-measured in 2009 and 2011. All campaign sites have a minimum observation period of
10 years, leading to velocity determined at the 1 mm/yr. level, or less. The full description of
the GPS processing is provided in Nocquet et al. [2014, supplementary information]. With
respect to a Stable South America Reference Frame (Figure 7a), a clear gradient is seen in the
eastern component of the velocity field from ~12.5 mm/yr. in the western Cordillera, 8 mm/yr.
in the Interandean valley east of Quito, and finally 3-4 mm/yr. for sites located on the
Subandean fold-and-thrust belt. Furthermore, the overall shortening is accommodated over
short distances that correlate spatially with the active faults. About 4-5 mm/yr. are
accommodated across the Quito Fault System (QFS, Figure 7B, Alvarado et al., 2014) and a

©2016 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

large gradient occurs between sites PAPA (7.5 mm/yr.) located in the eastern Cordillera and
ELCH (4.2 mm/yr.) located just east of the Cosanga fault trace. In order to better visualize the
motion accommodated by the Cosanga fault, we show in Figure 7C the same velocity field
now expressed with respect to the Interandean Valley, as defined using the PAM1, PAPA,
PINT, REDO, SALV, SBAR stations, which shows little internal deformation (wrms = 0.6
mm/yr.). In that reference frame, clear relative motion is seen between the Subandean Fold
Belt and the Interandean Valley. About 7 mm/yr. of SW-ward, right-lateral transpressive
motion is clearly seen. The lower velocities found for site ELCH probably reflects inter-
seismic strain accumulation close to the fault. Therefore, relative motion between the East
Subandean Belt and the Inter-Andean Valley appears to be highly localized. This relative
motion derived from GPS is further consistent with the focal mechanism derived for the 1987
Mw = 7.0 earthquake, the largest event that occurred during the instrumental period in Ecuador
[Kawakatsu and Proaño, 1991].

Figure 7D shows the velocity field for the area located east of the Gulf of Guayaquil, expressed
in the NAS reference frame as defined in Nocquet et al. [2014]. The area encompasses the
Puná and Pallatanga segments of the CCPP. The velocity field shows a clear pure right-lateral
strike-slip motion of the Inca sliver with respect to the NAS. Although, there is no clear
geomorphologic trace of the fault between the Pallatanga and the Puná segments, GPS predicts
that ~8 mm/yr. of relative motion over a distance less than 50 km is accommodated there,
providing evidence that the CCPP is the major tectonic structure delimiting the southern limit
of the NAS.

DISCUSSION

Sutures are not systematically reactivated as continental slivers boundaries.

Early studies of the northern Andes and the southern Caribbean proposed the Dolores-
Guayaquil Megashear as a major boundary decoupling crystalline rocks from accreted oceanic
crust [Campbell, 1968, Case et al., 1968, Case et al., 1971]. In Ecuador, the major limit was
first proposed to follow the foothill of the western Cordillera [Campbell, 1968]. Further
detailed studies showed that the main suture zone was actually following the eastern side of the
western Cordillera [Kerr et al., 2002] and that the correct definition of this suture corresponds

©2016 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

to Pujilí Melange [Hugues and Pilatasig, 2002]. Audemard and Audemard [2002] suggested
that this limit merge with the Romeral in Colombia and Bocono faults in Venezuela, further
attested by Molnar and Dayem, [2010]. This limit is still widely used and for instance, the
Dolores-Guayaquil Megashear zone following the western Cordillera is the limit included in
the global compilation of tectonic plates and micro-plates from Bird [2003]. While the segment
from the Gulf of Guayaquil to the Cordillera remains correct, our study clearly demonstrates
that the currently active major boundary should be ~80km east of the former accepted limit for
central-northern Ecuador and southern Colombia. The location of present-day boundary of the
NAS demonstrates that sutures are not always reactivated and that other factors control the
localization of deformation.

The influence of the volcanic arc on localizing the oblique deformation

An alternative explanation for the current location of deformation is the thermal

softening of the underlying crust associated with Quaternary volcanism. This process has been
invoked for instance in Chile for the Chiloe forearc sliver [Wang et al., 2007] or Central
America [La Femina et al., 2009] where the major fault system accommodating the oblique
convergence runs along the volcanic arc. Unlike other subduction volcanic settings, Ecuador
has a volcanic arc width that exceeds 90km from the western Cordillera to the subandean
domain. Most of the active volcanic arc in Ecuador lies west of the narrow CCPP tectonic
limit. The two closest volcanic centres are a recently discovered cluster of small Quaternary
volcanoes closed to the Cosanga segment [Mothes and Hall, 2013] and the active Reventador
and Sumaco volcanoes that lies immediately north and east of Cosanga respectively. Although
there might be some control of the location of the major fault system, the volcanic activity is
not as localized as in others Andean sectors [e.g. Melnick et al, 2009].

Update of the tectonic and geodynamic models for Ecuador

During the last two decades, several models have been proposed to explain the tectonic activity
observed in Ecuador [e.g. Tibaldi and Ferrari, 1992; Lavenu et al., 1995; Ego et al., 1996 ;
White et al., 2003; Dumont et al., 2005 ; Winkler et al., 2005 ; Witt and Bourgois, 2010].
Previously proposed models fall into two conceptual classes. According to the first category of
models, the tectonic activity is distributed along four major fault types: reverse, parallel, N-S-

©2016 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

trending fault systems, active in the higher Andes between the western Cordillera and the
Subandean region, which accommodate diffuse deformation in the Northern Andean Sliver
during its northward ’escape’ [e.g. White et al., 2003]. A second category of models considers
a single restraining belt model proposed by Ego et al. [1996], with a present-day active
restraining belt cutting through the Interandean Depression, next to Quito. Strike-slip faults are
a frequent component of active tectonic regions undergoing continental shortening [e.g.
Tapponnier and Molnar, 1979; Jackson and McKenzie, 1984]. They accommodate shortening
by translation of continental slivers, by partitioning of dip-slip and strike-slip components, or
through a combination of strike-slip faulting and rotations of microblocks around vertical axis
[e.g. Cunningham and Mann, 2007]. Consequently, restraining bends occur where a localized
component of shortening is introduced due to changes in fault strike. The faulting within these
restraining bends is often diffuse and may evolve rapidly [e.g. Cunningham and Mann, 2007].
At both crustal and regional scales, previously published models rely on partial geological
and/or geophysical data, thus having only local or short-term temporal significance, if
considered independently. The model proposed by Ego et al. [1996] would imply NNE-SSW
extension in the Interandean depression north of Quito. This extension is neither observed in
the morphology, the focal mechanisms nor is it seen in the GPS data (Figures 2 and 7a).
Similarly, the horse-tail termination model of Soulas et al. [1991] would imply N-S extension
on faults, which, however, do not show any geomorphic signature or Quaternary tectonic
activity. Besides, both categories of models failed to predict the high and localized motion that
we observe along the CCPP, which defines the present day major boundary of the NAS. Our
new kinematic model (Figure 8) is based on multidisciplinary observations of geologic,
geomorphic, seismic and geodetic data that provide a new coherent and integrated
interpretation at imbricated spatial and time scales. It is compatible with the idea of a
restraining bend whose eastern boundary would accommodate 80-90% of the relative motion.

Narrowing restraining bend, localized tectonics and surface uplift timing

The cordilleran exhumation as well as the observed horizontal deformation in Ecuador appears
also to be intimately linked with the development of evolving tectonic configurations through
time. We propose here a coherent interpretation, which involves successively narrowing
restraining bends rather than a single one. Also, the principal tectonic shortening or
transpression between the former trench location and the stable craton appears to have

©2016 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

migrated eastward from the Western Cordillera to the Cordillera Real since 15 Ma. Hence, the
transpressional style described for most of the CCPP should represent the dominant
deformation style for the Quaternary. Our model does not fit with previous hypothesis of a
Pliocene restraining belt [Ego et al., 1996], nor with a compressive graben [Lavenu et al.,
1996; Winkler et al., 2005] but rather with a major unique fault system, bounding rigid blocks,
and localizing most of the deformation. Within this interpretation, the existence of the Quito-
Latacunga block would correspond to a residual of the previous stages of the evolution, with
the deformation now being transferred along its eastern boundary.

We postulate that dextral transpressional deformation is the dominant process in the structural
development and uplift of the Northern Andes in Ecuador for more than 15 Ma, as opposed to
the mainly compressive deformation style recorded in Northern Peru [Naeser et al., 1991].
Modelling the structure of the northern Andes as a dextral transpressional margin requires a
temporal evolution of the NAS´s southeastern boundary, and associated restraining bends, into
a more mature fault system, which suggests the establishment of a localized continental plate
boundary. This plate boundary developed and localized since the Quaternary [Benitez, 1975].
The opening of the Gulf of Guayaquil attests for its activity during the past 1.8 - 1.6 Ma
[Deniaud et al., 1999].

Seismicity distribution at depth indicate that the allochtonous terrains are dipping eastward;
constituting a crustal accretionary prism, which indeed forms the crustal root of the Western
Ecuadorian Andes [Guillier et al., 2001; Jaillard et al. 2002]. Following the accretions, the last
tectonic episodes of activity are associated with the rapid uplift of the Cordilleras (15-0 Ma)
and correspond to the initiation of continental deformation. As on-going subduction yielded
compression to the upper plate, the overthickened prism becomes rigid and is no longer able to
accommodate additional compression as proposed by Bonnardot [2003]. As a consequence, at
3 – 0 Ma, most of the strain is transferred eastward to the Cordillera Real’s inherited fault
zones. Previously, from 40 to 15 Ma, deformation was concentrated along sutures and faults
[Jaillard et al., 2009; Spikings et al., 2010]. However, as structures were reorganized with the
migration of the deformation, compression involving the Interandean Valley, resulted in its
rapid uplift of the Interandean Valley and that of the Cordilleras as observed between 15 and 0
Ma (see Figure 3). This rapid exhumation concluded with the coastal plain and the marine

©2016 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

 basins uplift during the Quaternary. Later on, active structures began to develop across and
within the Interandean Valley, as exemplified by the activation of the Puná-Pallatanga Fault
System. This NE-SW fault system, co-joined also activity of the Afiladores-Sibundoy-
Algeciras Fault System, and began to act together with the CCPP, resulting in the progressive
vanishing of the wider restraining bend. The initial restraining belt finally tended to vanish and
narrow while maturing, in order to form a unique fault system as demonstrated by seismic and
geodetic data. Indeed, without complete GPS and seismic data sets covering the whole length
of the CCPP Fault system, the remaining active segments and the Quito-Latacunga microblock
would suggest the distribution of continental deformation in and east of the Interandean
Valley, as proposed by White et al. [2003]. These findings do not exclude the possibility that
other active faults exist away from the main fault zone, but suggest that their contribution to
the general tectonics of Ecuador must be relatively minor. Finally, most of the continental
shortening and strike-slip deformation is now demonstrated to be well localized on a single,
newly defined large-scale fault system: the Chingual-Cosanga-Pallatanga-Puná Fault System.

CONCLUSION

We propose a new interpretation of the tectonic evolution of the northern Andes in

Ecuador in the light of an extensive data set. We could constrain the present-day kinematics
and discuss only the inherited geological imprint. In contrast to former studies, our compiled
and new data set demonstrates the existence of a very localized, rather than distributed,
intraplate continental boundary showing slip rates of ~ 8 to 10 mm/yr. and defined as the
Chingual-Cosanga-Pallatanga-Puná fault system (CCPP). The following key results arise from
this study: most active faults do not coincide with pre-existing suture zones. More generally,
sutures are not reactivated during the recent evolution of the deformation system. As a
consequence, the accretion process does not have a strong imprint on the current deformation.

 NAS extrusion occurs rapidly as the Nazca plate moves eastward relative to the Brazilian
Shield at ~ 56 mm/yr. GPS results indicate 8-10 mm/yr of northeastward motion with respect
to the stable South American plate and indicate a quasi-rigid continental sliver.

 Crustal seismic activity is high in the Northern Andes and the occurrence of large earthquakes

©2016 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

 indicates that active transpression occurs in this region, mostly along the NE-SW striking fault
systems.

 Contrasting with others segments in the Andes, the deformation in the Subandean domain is
small compared to the relative motion accommodated by the CCPP.

Acknowledgements
This publication was made possible thanks to the Institut de Recherche pour le Développement
(IRD), which provided support to UMS 2572 LMC14 (CNRS-CEA-IRD-IRSN-Min. Culture et
Comm.) and to the PhD grant of the author. ADN project (ANR-07-BLAN-143) and LMI
“Séismes et Volcans dans les Andes du Nord”. The data for this paper are available by
contacting the first author and on the following opendatabase, Website : http://neotec-
opendata.com/webgis-e/. Constructive reviews of a previous version helped to improve the
manuscript. This contribution is part of an Ecuadorian–French cooperation program between
the Instituto Geofisico, Escuela Politécnica Nacional (IG-EPN), Quito, Ecuador; Institut de
Recherche pour le Développement and the UMR ISTerre in France (LMI SVAN).

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Tables
Table 1: Crustal earthquakes, historical and instrumental associated with important damages. MI ~ Mw
magnitude after, Beauval et al., [2010]. * Southern Colombia crustal historical earthquakes, data after
Calvache, [2007], Espinosa, [2010]. Ms surface wave magnitude, Mw seismic moment magnitud, Mb
body-waves magnitude.

Code Y/M/D Event name Magnitude Code Y/M/D Event name Magnitude
Figure Figure 5
5
1 1587/08/31 Guayllabamba 6.4 MI 12 1955/7/20 Atahualpa 6.1 MI

2 1698/6/20 Ambato 7.3 MI 13 1960/7/30 Pasa 5.7 MI

3 1797/2/4 Riobamba 7.6 MI 14 1962/11/16 Cusubamba 5.9 MI

4 1868/8/16 Ibarra 7.3 MI 15 1976/10/6 Pastocalle 5.7 Mb

5 1868/8/15 El Angel 6.6 MI 16 1987/3/6 Salado- 7.1 Mw

Reventador

6 1911/9/23 Cajabamba 6.2 MI 17 1990/8/11 Pomasqui 5.3 Mw

7 1914/5/31 Antisana 6.4 MI 18 1996/3/28 Pujilí 5.9 Mw

8 1929/7/25 Murco 5.9 MI 19 1834/1/20 Sibundoy* 7.7 Ms

9 1938/8/10 Sangolqui 5.8 MI 20 1923/12/14 Cumbal* 7.0 Ms

10 1944/9/15 Toacazo 5.7 MI 21 1947/7/14 Guaitara* 7.0 Ms

11 1949/8/5 Pelileo 6.8 Ms

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Figure 1: New active Tectonic map of Ecuador. Major fault segments and their kinematics are reported
in continuous red lines. The principal sutures zones are drawn in black dotted lines; after Zamora and
Litherland, [1993]; Aspden and Litherland, [1995]; Hughes and Pilatasig, [2002]; Jaillard et al., [2009].
The regional geodynamic setting is represented in inset, after Audemard and Audemard [2002]. Active
volcanic centers are also reported on the topographic map. North Andean Sliver: NAS; Cosanga-
Méndez Fault, as defined by Aspden and Litherland, [1995]: Cosanga-MF; Peltetec suture: Peltetec;
Pujilí Melange Suture: Pujili; Jubones Fault: Jubones; Toachi shear zone: Toachi; Pisayambo zone: Py.
QFS: Quito active Fault System. Cities: Quito: Q; Latacunga: L; Cuenca: C; Riobamba: R; Guyayaquil: G.

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Figure 2: Previously published tectonic models: a) After Soulas et al., [1991] implicating the following
fault systems: “Sistema Senestral Cauca-Patía-San Isidro” SSCPSI, “Sistema Mayor Dextral” SMD,
Pallatanga fault PF, Machachi fault MF. b) After White et al., [2003] implicating the following fault
systems: Pallatanga fault P, Río Chingual-La Sofía RCLS, Oriente Fault OF. c) After Ego et al, [1996],
implicating the following fault systems: “Cauca Patia and Romeral Fault System” CPRFS and
“Pallatanga Fault” PF and the Cretaceous suture zone, “Sub Andean Front Fault Zone” SAFFZ and
“Chingual – La Sofía fault” CSF.

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Figure 3: New geological map of the southern Western Cordillera, in Pallatanga region (1°30’ – 2° S).
Note the systematic right lateral NE offset, dated as Late Miocene and the systematic offset of older
(Late Oligocene to Miocene) NS sutures and terranes north of Juan de Velasco village. These NE faults
do not affect the Quaternary to recent volcanic outcrops in the Interandean Valley, contrasting with
the Pallatanga Fault system that does offset Quaternary formations [Baize et al., 2014].

©2016 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

Figure 4: Compiled thermochronological data (<15 Ma) superimposed on suture and fault map,
illustrating the overall evolution of exhumation as described in the literature. Apatite fission-track
ages are from Steinmann et al., [1999], Spiking et al., [2000], Spiking et al., [2001], Winkler et al
[2005], Spiking et al., [2010]. The inset cartoon illustrates the large scale evolution and eastward
migration of the deformation through times. Fore-arc basin localization after Deniaud [1999].
Progreso Basin: Po; Manabí Basin: M; Borbón Basin: B; Naranjal Fault: N; Western Andean Belt: WB;
Pujilí Melange; Peltetec fault: Pe; Naranjal fault: N; Toachi shear zone: T; Cities: Quito: Q; Riobamba:
R; Cuenca: C; Guayaquil: G, Latacunga: L; Jubones: Ju; Cosanga and Mendez faults: Co-MF.

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Figure 5: a) Active fault map of Ecuador: Major active fault systems and their Quaternary kinematics.
b) Instrumental and historical crustal seismicity in Ecuador (>40km deep, and Magnitude >5). Active
fault segments [Alvarado, 2012] are reported on 30m DEM developed by Souris, 2005. Historical data
compiled after Beauval et al., [2010] for Ecuador and after Calvache, [2007] and Espinosa [2010] for
Colombia (see Table 1). Riobamba: R; Quito: Q; Bucay: B.; Chimborazo volcano: Ch; Pisayambo Faults:
Py; Pallatanga: Pa; Puna: Pu.

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Figure 6: Earthquake Focal Mechanisms in Ecuador (Magnitude>4 and depth<40km), reported on the
active fault map (this study) of Ecuador. Time period: 1976-2012 for instrumental CMTs and Beauval
et al., [2010] for historic data sets; Data sources: Global Centroid-Moment Tensor (CMT), Suarez et al.,
[1983]; Mendoza and Dewey [1984]; Calahorrano [2000], Segovia and Alvarado [2009], Alvarez [2003];
Manchuel et al., [2011], Troncoso [2008]; Instituto Geofísico-EPN Database [2012]. First stress tensor,
for crustal earthquakes after Segovia and Alvarado [2009]. Chingual-Cosanga-Pallatanga-Puná fault
system CCPP.

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Figure 7: a) GPS horizontal velocity field with respect to Stable South America [Nocquet et al., 2014].
b) GPS horizontal velocity field with respect to the Interandean Valley (see text for details), together
with the Focal Mechanism derived by Kawakatsu and Proaño [1991] for the 1987 (Mw 7.0)
Earthquake. c) GPS horizontal velocity field with respect to the NAS. Chingual-Cosanga-Pallatanga-
Puná Fault System: CCPP; Quito Fault System: QFS; Py: Pisayambo zone; Eastern Subandean Belt: ESB.

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Figure 8: Final model proposed in this study, showing the present day eastern limit of the North
Andean Sliver. In light blue the Quito Latacunga micro block. New model for the extrusion of the NAS.
The velocities correspond to GPS measurements. Puná: P; Pallatanga: Pa; Chingual-La Sofia: CHL;
Sibundoy-Algeciras: S-A; Eastern Subandean Belt: ESB; Guayaquil: G; Loja: L. Convergence Nazca-South
American Plates: NZP/SAP.

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