ZDM 2001 Vol.

33 (3) Analyses

Ethnomathematics as a Fundamental Trentacosta 1997). Multicultural examples were

incorporated into the content of courses. Sometimes
of Instructional Methodology entire courses were developed on multiculturalism and it
even became an option for a degree major in some
universities.
Lawrence Shirley, Towson, MD (USA) The increased mobility of peoples around the world
have brought diverse populations into many previously
homogeneous societies with school children from many
Abstract: Over the past two or three decades, various political, cultures meeting together as an everyday part of many
cultural, and educational forces have brought ethnomathematics classrooms. North Africans and Turks are part of the
and multiculturalism in general into widespread use. Thus, it is European school scene; as well as Indonesians in the
important to include ethnomathematical studies in teaching Netherlands; and African, Caribbean, and South Asian
methodology and especially teacher education programs.
students filling desks in Britain. Intracontinental
Kurzreferat: Ethnomathematik als Grundlage der Unterrichts- migration brings newcomers to African schools; East
methodologie. In den letzten 20 – 30 Jahren haben verschiedene Asians are in Australia; and the US, long a “melting pot”
Kräfte aus Politik, Kultur sowie Bildung und Erziehung für eine of cultures, hosts increasing numbers of East Asians and
weitverbreitete Nutzung ethnomathematischer und multikul- Latinos, in schools where sometimes as many as twenty
tureller Ideen gesorgt. Es ist von daher wichtig, Ethnomathema-
tik in den Unterricht und insbesondere in Lehrerbil-
languages are spoken by the students. In addition, in
dungsprogramme zu integrieren. many countries where schooling had been a luxury for the
elite, education has begun to be considered as a right for
ZDM-Classification: D30 all, thus bringing a much wider range of students into the
classrooms. It has become very relevant to make sure the
When ethnomathematics was proposed in the 1970s and content of the mathematics curricula reflects these
1980s as an area of study in mathematics education, it diversities.
had the look of something new and exotic. The idea of The past two decades have seen ethnomathematics and
looking at mathematics in other cultures and using these multicultural approaches become much more widespread
findings in an ordinary classroom may have seemed – even commonplace – in the K-12 schools of America
strange to most teachers and, at best, considered as a and around the world. An interesting comparison can be
possible topic for enrichment. In many parts of the world, seen in Yearbooks of the National Council of Teachers of
mathematics instruction was based entirely upon a Mathematics (NCTM). In the years of the 1970s and
European model of content, structure, and algorithms. early 1980s, there was no mention of cultural groups. The
School curricula as well as instructional practice had 1990 Yearbook (Cooney 1990), which was intended as
gone through reforms such as the “New Math” programs general survey of mathematics education for the 1990s,
of the 1960s, but remained largely centered upon had separate chapters on mathematics education for
European (and later, American) patterns that had been various groups – girls, Hispanics, African-Americans.
established decades earlier. The 1995 volume (House 1995) included several chapters
The plenary address of D’Ambrosio, “Socio-Cultural with ethnomathematical themes, and in 1997, the entire
Basis of Mathematics Education”, at the Fifth yearbook (Trentacosta 1997) was devoted to diversity and
International Congress of Mathematical Education equity issues. By 2000, the yearbook (Burke 2000), again
(D’Ambrosio 1984) was considered somewhat surprising intended as a forward-looking survey, has a chapter on
in that social and cultural issues in mathematics education international connections via the Internet and another on
had not been extensively discussed beyond a few issues “mathematics equity pedagogy” where the cultural
of gender comparison or similar comparative studies. The diversity is assumed and incorporated into the pedagogy.
feeling was common that mathematics was mathematics, Multiculturalism has become a part of many curricula
(and that usually meant mathematics was European at national, state, and local jurisdictions. National
mathematics). There might be sociological issues in terms accreditation bodies (such as the National Council for
of applications of mathematics, but the teaching and Accreditation of Teacher Education, NCATE, in the
school content seemed constant and removed from issues United States) require teacher education programs to
of culture. History and culture of mathematics seemed to demonstrate diversity in curriculum, instructional
be little more than a frill of enrichment. approach, faculty, and student body.
However, that was before the wave of multicultural Mathematics textbooks at all grade levels now include
studies swept over the whole areas of curriculum and worldwide and multicultural themes in expositions,
instruction. It was before the recognition that populations examples, and regular exercises, in addition to
in many countries of the world were becoming enrichment sidebars. A sampling of instructional
increasingly diverse. Also, it came before most educators materials includes the Mimosa large-format materials for
noticed that mathematics education must reach out to young children, which show mathematical uses from
attract the underrepresented groups for broader diversity around the world (Irons, Burnett, and Hoo Foon 1993)
and equity in mathematics. The civil rights movement in and the many multicultural mathematics posters from
America, the new independence of many third world Swienciki (1981–), each with an artistic rendition of the
countries, and a more liberal view of education called for mathematics of a particular cultural group. Building
a wider curriculum. These concerns were to grow rapidly Bridges to Mathematics: Cultural Connections (1992)
in the 1980s and 1990s (National Research Council 1989; offered a set of problem and project cards for students to

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Analyses ZDM 2001 Vol. 33 (3)

practice mathematics from various cultures. Zaslavsky, Two of the key processes of mathematics described in
who had written one of the earliest books to focus on the NCTM Standards (NCTM 1989, NCTM 2000), are
African mathematics (Zaslavsky 1973), returned with “communication” and “connection”. Both of these relate
several books of multicultural activities, games, and to ethnomathematics:
puzzles in mathematics (Zaslavsky 1993; Zaslavsky Communication means students expressing their
1996). Catalogs and conference exhibitions now show thinking and exchanging their ideas amongst themselves.
many others with suggestions for classroom application The Principles and Standards (NCTM 2000) document
of ethnomathematical examples and ideas. Histories of says instructional programs should enable students to
mathematics have broadened their scope to include “communicate their mathematical thinking coherently
mathematics from non-European sources. Examples and clearly to peers, teachers, and others”. The teacher
include Boyer and Merzbach (1989) and Katz (1998), as must encourage the participation of all and emphasize the
well as Joseph (1992), which focuses entirely on non- value of everyone's contribution to the learning process.
European mathematics. Others, more theoretical or Students learn by trying out their ideas, so there must be
philosophical, e.g., Ascher (1991); Bishop (1988); Eglash an atmosphere of trust where “students will feel free to
(1999); Gerdes (1988); Nelson, Joseph, Williams (1993); express their ideas” (NCTM 2000, p.60). These student
and Powell and Frankenstein (1997); have now appeared ideas may be challenged and defended without
to deepen teacher’s understanding of the issues of criticizing, and the concepts can be molded until all agree
ethnomathematics and give further examples of and understand. More direct to the multicultural
mathematical contributions from world cultures. experience, student should become able to “analyze and
Conferences of mathematics teacher organizations evaluate the mathematical thinking and strategies of
often now have regular sections devoted to cultural others”. Thus, students are learning from each other and
issues. The Sixth International Congress of Mathematical recognizing the contributions everyone can make. Also,
Education, following from D’Ambrosio’s address at the they are assessing each other’s ideas and gaining from
fifth ICME, offered one entire day for societal and multiple perspectives on a mathematical situation. This is
cultural issues in mathematics education, and since then, really just good instruction, but in a diverse classroom, it
there have regularly been Topic Study Groups on requires cross-cultural communication and multicultural
ethnomathematics. Similarly, in the US, the National values.
Council of Teachers of Mathematics has included more Another “process standard” from NCTM, Connections,
and more sessions related to ethnomathematical themes. is even more closely tied to ethnomathematics.
The International Study Group on Ethnomathematics has “Connections” means finding links within mathematics,
grown from its 1985 start and has flourished to the extent between mathematics and other subject areas, and for
of organizing its own international congress in 1998 in mathematics as a part of the learners’ everyday
Spain, with plans for another in 2002 in Brazil. A variety experience. As suggested in Shirley (1995) and Masingila
of other conferences and teacher workshops on local, (1995), ethnomathematics is a key to finding those
national, and international levels have been organized. connections – within mathematics as cultural groups
No longer is ethnomathematics an add-on, a frill, or an blend two or more mathematical areas to meet their
enrichment topic. Rather it is at the heart of instructional needs; to other subject areas such as art, geography,
methodology. Teachers see their diverse classrooms and economics, etc., as one looks at other cultures; and to the
must reach out to their entire class. Beyond boosting local culture of the learners by incorporating local
minority interests and self-esteem, it is necessary to mathematics. Students need to be able to “recognize and
prepare majority students to work in a diverse, apply mathematics in contexts outside of mathematics”
multicultural world, with recognition that the majority is (NCTM 2000, p. 64). This might include the mathematics
not the only group which has made or can make involved in their cultural heritage – religion, art, textiles,
contributions to mathematics. Teacher education music, or festivals. It might also relate to mathematical
programs have incorporated study of multicultural studies of the economics and business of traditional daily
classrooms into the pre-service preparation of teachers. life, the statistics of modern social concerns, or the
Teachers must learn special instructional skills to politics of international issues.
accommodate different backgrounds and different With all of these considerations, it becomes clear that
learning strategies. It has now been recognized that ethnomathematics is central to the process of teaching, to
culture can determine the student’s feeling toward the methodology of instruction. It needs to be included
participation in class discussion, initiating questions, throughout pre-service mathematics education programs.
acceptance of authority, memorization of facts, seeking Elsewhere (Shirley 1998), I have suggested ways of
innovative ways of understanding, and many other incorporating ethnomathematics in teacher education.
aspects of classroom education. Misreading the cultural This might be as straightforward as broadening the
signs can cause teachers to misunderstand the student’s content of courses to include worldwide history of
learning process or even mistake a natural response for mathematics and international and multicultural
unwillingness to learn. Hence, as spelled out in the applications of mathematical content. It should also
“teaching standards” (NCTM 1991, p. 25), a key to include discussions of multicultural views of the learning
successful instruction is the teacher’s “knowledge of process in psychology and methodology courses. If
students’ understandings, interests, and experiences” and possible, preservice or graduate programs might include
“knowledge of the range of ways that diverse students specific ethnomathematics courses or modules, such as
learn mathematics.” the course described by Presmeg (1998). These also have

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ZDM 2001 Vol. 33 (3) Analyses

become more common in recent years. As more National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
professors and students become familiar with National Research Council (Mathematical Sciences Education
ethnomathematical ideas, they will be seen as a natural Board, Board on Mathematical Science, Committee on the
part of any mathematics teacher education program. Mathematical Science in the Year 2000) (1989): Everybody
counts. – Washington DC: National Academy Press
That is the important idea: Ethnomathematics is no Nelson, D.; Joseph, G.G.; Williams, J. (1993): Multicultural
longer an exotic frill to enrich mathematics classes. mathematics. – Oxford: Oxford University Press
Rather, it is central to a broad view of mathematics – to Powell, A.B.; Frankenstein, M. (Eds.) (1997): Ethnomathe-
demonstrate that mathematics is not the property of the matics: Challenging Eurocentrism in mathematics education.
West and that mathematics values – and even requires – – Albany, New York: State University of New York Press
the contributions of all for its continued progress. To Presmeg, N. (1998): Ethnomathematics in teacher education. –
make sure this message is carried to the new generations, In: Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education Vol. 1, No. 3,
ethnomathematics is crucial to mathematics teacher p. 317-39
preparation. New teachers must be open-minded and Shirley, L. (1995): Using ethnomathematics to find
multicultural mathematical connections. – In: P.A. House
ready to show this attitude to their classes. (Ed.), Connecting mathematics across the curriculum (1995
Ethnomathematics has come of age. Yearbook). Reston, Virginia: National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics
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