Signals and Systems

Classification of signals

Continuous-time signal

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Discrete-time signal

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Periodicity

Let x(t) be an expression of a signal. The signal x(t) is periodic if

x(t ) = x(t ± nT ), n ∈ℤ

Non-periodic signal
x(t ) ≠ x(t ± nT ), n ∈ℤ

Deterministic/random

A deterministic signal can be described explicitly using a

mathematical expression at any point of time in its domain.
x(t ) = cos(100π t )
e.g.
x(t ) = e−2t + e − t + cos(2π t )

A random signal cannot be predicted precisely at any point in time.

However, probabilistic and statistical methods are used to
understand its effects.

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Amplitude

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0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time

Figure: A random signal

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Causality

A signal x(t) is called causal if the signal assumes a value of zero for
all instances of t less than zero.

 x(t ), t≥0

x (t ) = 
0, t<0

A signal that does not satisfy the above definition is non-causal.

Even/Odd signals

Even Signal: x(t ) = x(−t )

Odd signal: x(t ) = − x(−t )

Also, a signal x(t) can be expressed as a combination of even and odd

signals, i.e.,

x (t ) = xeven (t ) + xodd (t )

where
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xeven (t ) = ( x(t ) + x(−t ) )
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xodd (t ) = ( x(t ) − x(−t ) )
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Energy/Power signals

A signal x(t) is called an energy type signal if the following integral is

defined and is finite.
∞ T

∫ ∫
2
2 2
E= x(t ) dt = lim x(t ) dt
T →∞
−∞ − T2

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Note that for some real signal x(t), x(t ) = x 2 (t )

A signal is classified as a power type if the following integral is

defined and is finite.

1 
T

∫
2
2
P = lim  x(t ) dt 

T →∞ T
− T2 

i.e. x(t) is a power type is signal if 0 < P < ∞ .

NB.

1. Most periodic signals are power-type and their power is

expressed as
T

∫
1 2
2
P= x(t ) dt
T − T2

2. The energy content of a periodic signal is infinite. Hence, a

signal cannot be a power-type and an energy-type, at the same
time.

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Some basic signals
The complex exponential signal

x(t ) = Aeα t , A,α ∈ℂ

Consider the case where A,α ∈ℝ , then the signal x(t) is called a real
exponential signal.

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Let x(t ) = Ae jωt , α = jω
x(t) is now called a complex exponential

Is x(t) periodic?
x(t ) = x(t ± nT )
= Ae jω ( t ±nT )
= Ae jωt e ± jωnT
= Ae jωt

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The unit step function

1, t ∈(0, ∞)

u (t ) =  12 , t =0
0, t < (−∞,0)

u (t )

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The signum signal

 1, t ∈ (0, ∞)

sgn(t ) = −1, t ∈ (−∞,0)
 0, t =0

sgn(t )

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The rectangular pulse signal

The rectangular pulse signal is defined by

1, t ∈(− 12 , 12 )

∏ (t ) =  12 , t = ± 12
0, elsewhere


∏ (t )

1
2

t
− 12 1
2

The triangular signal

1 − t , t ∈ (0, 1)

Λ(t ) = t + 1, t ∈ (−1, 0)
0, elsewhere

Λ (t )

t
−1 1

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The sinc signal

 sin(π t )
 , t ≠0
sinc(t ) =  π t
1, t =0

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The unit-impulse signal

δ (t )

∫δ τ
du (t )
δ (t ) = u (t ) = ( )dτ
dt
−∞

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Classification of systems

A signal x(t) can be transformed into another signal y(t) after passing
through some system.

x(t ) y (t )

One can use the following notation to indicate an input-output

relationship of the system

x(t ) → y (t )

A continuous-time system

x(t ) y (t )

A discrete-time system: x[ n] → y[ n]

x[n] y[n]

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Linearity

A system is linear if for some inputs x1 (t ) and x2 (t ) , and their

respective outputs of the system, y1 (t ) and y2 (t ) , a linear
combination of the inputs should give a linear combination of the
individual outputs. i.e.

if x1 (t ) → y1 (t )
x2 (t ) → y2 (t )
then α x1 (t ) + β x2 (t ) → α y1 (t ) + β y2 (t )

Example.

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Time invariance

A system is described as time-invariant if for some time translation of

the input signal, the output signal is also translated by the same
amount.

if x (t ) → y (t )
then x (t − to ) → y (t − to ) , for some to

Causality

A system is said to be causal if the output at any time to depends on

value of the input at t= to and t < to

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