HIMALAYA, the Journal of the

Association for Nepal and

Himalayan Studies
Volume 37 | Number 1 Article 15

June 2017

Road Expansion and Urban Highways:

Consequences Outweigh Benefits in Kathmandu
Prashanta Khanal
theprashanta4us@gmail.com

Anobha Gurung
University of Texas at Austin, Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering; ICIMOD, Atmospheric
Initiative, anobha.gurung@gmail.com

Priyankar Bahadur Chand

Possible Health, chandpriyankar@gmail.com

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Khanal, Prashanta; Gurung, Anobha; and Chand, Priyankar Bahadur (2017) "Road Expansion and Urban Highways: Consequences
Outweigh Benefits in Kathmandu," HIMALAYA, the Journal of the Association for Nepal and Himalayan Studies: Vol. 37 : No. 1 , Article
15.
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Road Expansion and Urban Highways:
Consequences Outweigh Benefits in Kathmandu

Prashanta Khanal
Anobha Gurung
Priyankar Bahadur Chand

Rapid urbanization has transformed Kathmandu with road expansion, the government’s
Valley, Nepal, one of the fastest growing inability to regulate land use has contributed
metropolitan regions in South Asia. This to Kathmandu’s current urban sprawl. Road
urbanization, in turn, is leading to considerable expansion done without proper planning has
social, economic, and environmental stress. threatened traditional settlements, many
The region has seen unplanned growth with heritage sites, and led to loss of public
despite continued planning exercises. In 2011, spaces and temple courtyards to make space
in response to the rapid urbanization then for increasing demand for parking. Another
Prime Minster Baburam Bhattarai initiated major landscape change has been the building
road expansion throughout the city to reduce of concrete embankments and exclusive
traffic congestion. By mid 2015, it was clear that motor roads along the river corridors. The road
the road expansion induced greater demand expansion campaign is still ongoing and is a top
leading to further traffic congestion rather than priority of the government’s efforts to reduce
alleviating the problem. Today, non-motorized congestion and improve urban transportation.
(pedestrians and bicycle) road users are more It is high time the government of Nepal rethinks
unsafe on the roads than ever before, and the its vehicle-centric urban transport policy and
plight of public transport users has remained adopts policy where mobility of people is
the same. Traffic congestion has become a prioritized. Urban transport planning should
more serious problem. Air pollution associated work to build a more equitable and inclusive
with road construction and an increasing city while addressing accessibility, safety, and
number of vehicles has turned the Kathmandu environmental health risks of its growing urban
Valley into a dust bowl with potential for population.
serious human health consequences. Along Keywords: road expansion, traffic congestion, environment.

HIMALAYA Volume 37, Number 1 | 107

Kathmandu’s Tale of Urbanization and Vehicle-Centric sion within and outside of the radial Ring Road took place
Transport Planning without proper planning turning fertile agriculture lands
to urban settlements lacking proper urban infrastructures
Over half of the world’s population was living in urban
such as drinking water, drainage system, service roads,
areas in 2008 with an expected rise to almost five billion by
public transport access, electricity, etc. The urban/built-up
2030 and with more than 90 percent of urban population
areas grew from 2.9 percent of the total land in 1967 to 4.9
growth occurring in developing countries (Obaid 2007).
percent in 1978, and most of the area within the Ring Road
In particular, Asia is predicted to contain more than half
was considered built-up by 1991 (Japan International Co-
of the world’s cities with populations of 500,000 or more
operation Agency and Ministry of Physical Planning 2012).
(Seto et al. 2010). Urban living thus forms the foundation
After the promulgation of Town Development Act in 1988,
of modern human ecology, acting as a main force towards
KVTDC introduced a land pooling scheme and Guided Land
determining our social, economic, and environmental
Development (GLD) program under which 475 kilometers
characteristics (Seto et al. 2010). In South Asia, Nepal is one
of roads were to be developed (International Centre for
of the least urbanized countries but the fastest urbanizing
Integrated Mountain Development 2007). Such a focus
country with about a five percent annual average urban
on expanding the kilometers of roads without integrated
population growth rate (Muzzini and Aparicio 2013).
urban and transport planning policies have contributed
Today, rapid urbanization has transformed Kathmandu to haphazard urbanization and an unprecedented rate of
Valley, Nepal, into one of the fastest-growing metropolitan motor vehicle use in Kathmandu. Increasing growth in
regions in South Asia (Muzzini and Aparicio 2013). The the Valley can also be attributed to increase in household
2011 census showed that the urban areas in the income largely due to influx of remittance and increasing
Kathmandu Valley have a population density of 14,355 population.
people per square kilometer with a nearly four percent av-
Starting in the late 1960s a Structural Plan of Kathmandu
erage annual population growth rate in the past between
Valley was created with help from the United Nations
2001-2011 (Central Bureau of Statistics 2012). This rapid
Development Program and the World Bank, which aimed
urbanization in the Kathmandu Valley is uncontrolled,
at guiding the urban development of Kathmandu for the
haphazard, and environmentally unsustainable. Accord-
next 50 years. The first Physical Development Plan for
ing to a World Bank report, if the urban expansion of the
the Kathmandu Valley was in fact prepared in 1969. But
Valley continues at the same pace, the Valley will face un-
due to democratic changes in the 1990s, this policy was
precedented stress on land resources and also significantly
abandoned for Kathmandu Valley Urban Development
increase vulnerability to disasters, including earthquakes
Plans and Programmes in 1991 (His Majesty’s Government
(Muzzini and Aparicio 2013). As aligned with Muzzini
of Nepal 1991). This plan focused on urbanization in the
and Aparicio 2013, many believe that the large death toll
peripheral regions of the Ring Road, while also aiming for
during the great earthquake in April 2015 can be attributed
a holistic urban development that considered environmen-
to haphazard urbanization.
tal, infrastructural, financial, and managerial concerns.
Kathmandu’s tale of modern urbanization can be traced to Stemming from this plan, a new Long Term Development
the end of the Rana era in the 1950s. The construction of Concept for Kathmandu Valley was formulated in 2002
the Tribhuvan Highway linking Kathmandu to India in the with the aim of guiding the developing the Kathmandu
1950s and subsequent building of the Arniko Highway link- metropolitan area until 2020 (Kathmandu Valley Town
ing the city to China in the 1960s promoted trade with Chi- Development Committee 2002). Even though this plan pro-
na (Thapa, Murayama, and Ale 2008). Such developments moted conservation of agricultural land, a new outer Ring
not only promoted trade, but also the movement of people Road, and regulation of environmentally sensitive areas,
into the capital. Kathmandu’s transformation from rural such plans have not had a life outside of their documentary
clusters into its current urban sprawl started in the 60’s as status in Kathmandu offices (Thapa and Murayama 2011).
well. The Kathmandu Valley Town Development Imple- After the first physical development plan in 1969, many
mentation Committee (KVTDC) was established in 1976 for such development plans for Kathmandu Valley were pre-
the three districts of the Valley to oversee the city’s urban pared but never implemented due to institutional, legal, or
planning and growth. In the 1970s the KVTDC oversaw the financial impediments (Department of Urban Development
construction of the 27-kilometer Ring Road around metro- and Building Construction. 2016).
politan areas of Kathmandu and Lalitpur with the financial
In response to the rapid urbanization and increase in
and technical assistance from Chinese government (His
motorization in the Kathmandu Valley, in late 2011, the
Majesty’s Government of Nepal 1969). Rapid urban expan-

108 | HIMALAYA Spring 2017

then Prime Minster Baburam Bhattarai directed Metropol- improvement has been seen with these efforts, based on
itan Traffic Police Division and Kathmandu Valley Town our observation. The government is further upgrading
Development Committee, later established as Kathmandu the existing two-lane Ring Road to eight lanes along a ten-
Valley Development Authority (KVDA) in April 2012, to kilometer section of the Kalanki-Satodobato-Koteshwar
initiate road expansion throughout the city in order to passage, including an underpass in Kalanki Chowk, with the
reduce congestion by demolishing houses and structures. financial and technical assistance from Chinese govern-
The KVDA, which was formed to promote integrated ment. Flyovers are being planned by Department of Roads
urban planning, has subsequently primarily engaged in in fiver major intersections: Old Baneshwar Chowk, New
widening roads with no strategic plans formulated at Baneshwar Chowk, Thapathali Chowk, Tripureshwar Chowk
present. Subsequently, road expansion has become the and Kalimati Chowk, supposedly for improving conges-
prioritized intervention of recent governments seeking to tion in the intersections. This plan has been supported by
improve the transportation system of Kathmandu Valley. JICA (Japan International Cooperation Agency), which has
Hundreds of houses were demolished to make space for also provided technical and financial support to conduct
vehicles in 2011 and 2012. Prime Minster Bhattarai termed feasibility study of Tripureshwar-Maitighar flyover. Thus, it
the bulldozing and demolition of houses for widening the appears that the government efforts and priorities to allevi-
roads as ‘creative destruction.’ Road widening was said to ate traffic congestion are still following conventional ways
follow the standards set by Town Development Implemen- by widening or expanding roads, which are already proven
tation Act formulated in 1977 for Kathmandu Valley. The unsuccessful (Litman 2017), than to focus on integrated and
legal grounds established nearly 40 years ago during the sustainable urban transport planning.
Panchayat era are often contested being obsolete or con-
tentious basis for road expansion in post panchayat era. Al- Consequences of Car-Centric Transport Development in
though the Bhattarai government publicly announced that the Valley
they were demolishing structures that were encroaching
By July 2015, former Prime Minister Bhattarai, architect of
public lands, yet most tenants could show legal rights over
the road expansion drive, expressed on social media that
the buildings demolished by the government. These rash
despite the road expansion, traffic congestion remained a
decisions to demolishing houses created chaos as well as
problem and that Prime Minister Khadak Prasad Oli should
public protests, and delay in the payment of compensation
focus on improving public transport system. Widening
for structural demolition further hindered the plan. The
roads did not solve the traffic congestion as claimed but
government paid billions of rupees, as compensation but
rather aggravated it because it expanded the capacity for
there remains huge outcry about delayed and inadequate
motor traffic at the expense of other forms of mobility,
compensation (Kharel 2014).
thus largely benefiting a small fraction of wealth urban
According to the Development Commissioner of KVDA, population who can afford to ride in private vehicles. How-
nearly 330 kilometers of roads have been widened in the ever, road widening continues as the government priority
Kathmandu Valley since the road expansion drive in late for alleviating urban congestion, and has become the
2011, however only 100 kilometers of them are blacktopped single-most important factor in changing physical land-
by the end of fiscal year 2015/16 ( Kathmandu Valley Town scapes and the environment of the city.
Development Committee 2016). These roads were expanded
based on the standards set by KVTDC in 2007 in which the Increasing Motorization, Congestion and Unsafe Roads
Right of Way (ROW) of Ring Road, highway, arterial road,
The growth of private vehicles has reached an unprece-
sub-arterial or connect road and feeder road was set at 62
dented level. The sitting Director General of Department
meters, 50 meters, 22 meters, 14 meters and 11 meters re-
of Transport Management (DoTM) and General Secretary
spectively. Plans are afoot to further expand sections of the
of Nepal Automobile Dealers Association (NADA) acknowl-
9-km Jorpati-Sankhu road and the 12-kilometer Tripuresh-
edged road expansion as one of the major reasons for the
wor-Kalanki-Nagdhunga road (Thapa 2016). After the road
continuous rise in registration of new private vehicles,
expansion drive started in late 2011, the key roads that
specifically cars (Post Report 2014). It is evident from the
have been expanded are Lazimpat-Maharajgunj, Thirbum
cities around the world that road widening and building
road (Dillibazar-Baluwatar), Tinkune-Baneshwar-Maitighar
urban highways will invite and encourage more people
(section of Arnico highway), Kalimati-Kuleshwor-Balkhu,
to drive, which is termed as ‘induced demand’ (Litman
Kamalpokhari-Ratopul-Gaushala, Maharajgunj-Budhanil-
2007). According to data from the Department of Trans-
kantha, Naxal-Mitrapark as well as residential and small
port Management, the annual average growth of vehicle
connecting roads throughout the city. However no traffic

HIMALAYA Volume 37, Number 1 | 109

ownership in the Kathmandu Valley has been more than 12 been killed each year since its inception, mainly pedestri-
percent for the last ten years. Following the road expan- ans. In September 2013, an elderly woman and her twelve
sion campaign, the annual growth rate of registered cars year-old grandson killed by a speeding motorbike while
in the last few years has nearly tripled, from 7.5 percent crossing the highway made news headlines, which criti-
in fiscal year 2011/12 to 21 percent in fiscal year 2015/16. cized the unsafe design of the highway (Lamichane 2013).
About 92 percent of total vehicles registered in Kathman- Who is responsible? The driver for speeding the vehicle?
du Valley until fiscal year 2015/16 were private vehicles, The elderly woman crossing the road without care? Or is
largely motorbikes (78 percent). The ratio of cars to the it the government’s fault for building a highway through
total number of vehicles is likely to increase significantly, dense settlements thereby encouraging high speed motor
which will further worsen the traffic situation and has the traffic without establishing parallel provisions for proper
potential to gridlock urban core areas in a few years if no pedestrian crossings? Often the blame falls on road users
car-restraints measures are adopted. According to a JICA rather than the infrastructural challenges presented by
and MoPIT report, the percentage of trips using private poorly designed urban road development, and institutional
vehicles (cars and motorbikes) in Kathmandu Valley in incompetency in designing safer roads for all road users.
2010 was about 30 percent, but it likely even greater now
owing to increasing traffic and urban expansion (2012). Changing Urban Landscape and Heritages
Other than the induced demand, increase in private motor
Road expansion has also threatened traditional Newari
vehicle use has been facilitated by factors such as easy
settlements. These few holistically planned settlements in
auto loans/financing, increase in purchasing capacity of
the Valley, were mapped out much before the invention of
the growing middle class population, and intangible value
motor vehicles. Local Newars, along with heritage conser-
(social status) in owning cars.
vationists, have shown concern about the government’s
Today, traffic congestion has become a daily ordeal for plan to widen the roads in Sunakothi and Handigaon,
people living in the capital and it is now common even which are traditional Newari settlements consisting of
in non-peak hours on widened roads. The investment of heritage sites that date back to the past century and some
billions of rupees in public funding to make more space archeological monuments and structures that date back
for vehicles did not go hand in hand with investments in to the Licchavi (5th-8th C) and Malla (13-18th C) eras. The
safer infrastructures for pedestrians and bicycle users, removal of the Sorhakhutte patti (communal space built
and improving public transportation systems. Pedestrians for resting) during the expansion of the Lainchour-Balaju
and bicycle users are more unsafe on the roads than ever road generated uproar within the heritage conservation
before, and the plight of public transport users has re- communities. Rather than accounting for the conservation
mained the same. Widened roads and increasing number of of these heritage sites, the roads were to be expanded to
vehicles have thus made urban roads more unsafe for both cater to the mobility demands of new housing and settle-
motorized and non-motorized users. Pedestrians are the ment expansion that are haphazardly built in the urban
most negatively effected by road expansion due to the lack fringes of Kathmandu. On 4th Jan 2017, a group named
of proper sidewalks, crossings and pedestrian facilities. Ac- Kathmandu Valley Road Expansion Affected Struggle Com-
cording to Metropolitan Traffic Police Division, 40 percent mittee organized general strike (bandh) in the
of those killed in road accidents in fiscal year 2015/16 were Kathmandu Valley protesting unplanned expansion of
pedestrians (Republica 2016). The total road fatalities in roads and demolition of houses despite the Supreme
the Kathmandu Valley for the FY 2015/16 were 166, which Courts’ stay order, and demanding compensation for those
is the highest in the last five years. affected by the road expansion drive.

The six-lane Koteshwar-Suryabinayak highway, built in As motorization continuously grows at an unprecedented

2011 with the support from Japanese government is an rate, parking is another challenge faced by Kathmandu.
example of vehicle-centric road design. Although the Min- The public spaces and temple courtyards that were used as
istry of Physical Infrastructure and Transport hailed the communal space are now seen completely occupied by car
highway as world class, it lacks sidewalks, proper crossings and motorbike parking. It is not uncommon to see peo-
and cycle lanes, and is exclusively designed for vehicular ple parking on sidewalks; little has been done to enforce
speed. This highway connecting Kathmandu Metropoli- the illegality of such actions. In an attempt to supposedly
tan City and Bhaktapur Municipality runs through dense solve the parking woes, the Kathmandu Metropolitan City
urban settlements causing division of communities as well is planning to build underground and multistory parking
as making them unsafe. Around two dozen people have in a few open public spaces available in urban core areas.

110 | HIMALAYA Spring 2017

 Figure 1. Concrete embankments
and roads built along the Bagmati
River.

(Khanal, 2017)

Rather than regulating existing parking (currently free for ful incidents are likely to cause more damage, including
on-street parking) through an effective pricing system, fatalities. These riverbanks also have religious and cultural
providing better public transportation system, or investing significance to people living in the Kathmandu Valley, with
in sustainable mobility solutions, the decision to provide many monuments situated along the corridors. Building
more parking will only encourage more motorization and exclusive motor roads along the river corridor will disturb
inefficient use of scarce urban spaces. Parking is often the relationship people share with religious and cultural
perceived as a ‘right’ of motorists, as if it should be pro- sites, and will likely affect the plans and efforts to curb
vided on every site. When there are no accessible places river pollution. However, officials who were responsible
for children to play and a reduction in shared community for designing and planning the corridors haven’t taken
space, investing public funds in providing more parking consideration of the impact associated with the construc-
for cars and turning scarce public spaces into parking lots tion of these roads.
is inequitable.
Despite the major flaws of Kathmandu Valley’s road expan-
Another major landscape change in the Kathmandu Valley sion drive, proper research on the consequences of road
is the building of concrete embankments and exclusive expansion on urban land use has yet to be carried out. One
motor roads along the river corridors. All the major rivers can generally observe that there has been a rapid expan-
corridors (Bagmati, Bishnumati, and Dhobikhola) have sion of urban and suburban spaces within the Kathmandu
been changed in the last few years. Valley, and road expansion has likely accelerated this hor-
izontal expansion of urban spaces impacting agricultural
The construction of these river corridors is ongoing and
lands and watersheds. This expansion can also be attribut-
one of the key strategic plans to build more road networks.
ed to real estate costs, increasing air pollution, lack of open
The construction of roads on both sides of the Dhobikhola
green spaces, and decreasing livability in central urban
was started almost five years ago, but the roads are yet to
areas. Areas where there was open space and agricultural
be paved. The government is further planning to build an
lands five years ago are now nearly covered with poorly
inner Ring Road along these river corridors. Poorly de-
planned settlements without access to proper transport
signed road infrastructure, poor drainage and construction
networks. Increasing ownership of private vehicles has ac-
of narrow, concrete embankments along the river have
celerated the urban expansion, but without proper public
resulted in the flooding of settlements during the monsoon
transportation services, there has been an increase in own-
almost every year. This is also aggravated by increasing
ership of private vehicles, creating a vicious cycle of motor
population density in the Valley and black topping roads
use and urban sprawl. Altogether, the government’s inabil-
without considering the need for seepage of rainwater
ity to regulate land-use and road expansion has immensely
and proper drainage systems. If no corrective measures
contributed to Kathmandu’s current urban sprawl. The
are taken to make river corridors and new infrastructure
rapid unplanned urbanization of the Kathmandu Valley
and settlements resilient to such weather events, harm-
caused by the informal process of settlement planning

HIMALAYA Volume 37, Number 1 | 111

has brought several physical, social, and environmental reduction measures, have been adopted during the road ex-
problems in the Kathmandu Valley. The fragile Kathmandu pansion and demolition process. With only 30 percent of the
Valley eco-system is severely affected by rapidly expand- expanded roads being paved, there are several cases in which
ing urban development and unsuitable economic activities the demolished roads will likely remain unpaved for several
(Japan International Cooperation Agency and Ministry of years, subjecting communities nearby to high levels of dust
Physical Planning 2012). pollution. A recent example can be seen on the Ring Road
and Tripureshwar-Kalanki-Nagdhunga road expansion drive.
Choking on Air Pollution The expansion work of the Ring Road that started in 2012 is
still unfinished with construction likely to take a few more
One of the major environmental consequences of increas-
years. However the biggest concern for residents may be the
ing numbers of motor vehicles and road construction
more toxic emissions in coming days from rapidly increasing
has been the deteriorating air quality in the Valley. The
private vehicle numbers induced by widening roads, more
pertinent of air hazardous pollution level can also be seen
than the existing dust pollution and nuisances. Motor vehicle
from significant recent media coverage. Motor vehicles, fu-
emissions need to be minimized by development of better
gitive soil dust, brick kilns, and biomass/garbage burning
public transport infrastructure, improvement in fuel quality,
have been identified as the primary sources of particulate
compliance with standards, and establishment of emission
carbon in the Kathmandu Valley (Kim et al. 2015). The
check points. The government should take on a significant
Valley’s bowl-like topography, low wind speeds limiting
role in improving air quality, with clear definition of respon-
air pollution dispersion, and frequent thermal inversions
sibilities and collaborative work among various agencies for
also factor into the high levels of pollution. The Valley has
effective air quality management. The importance of public
become a dust bowl leading to high exposure to air pollu-
awareness needs to be emphasized. Only with consciousness
tion for residents. Traffic police who spend long hours on
of the rising vehicular pollution and the resulting effects can
the road were observed to have a mean on-road exposure
lead to compliance with standards and new regulations by the
ranging from 34 to 193µg/m3 and 12 to 28µgC/m3 for
public. Overall innovative solutions, cost-effective interven-
particles with aerodynamic diameter less than or equal
tions, efforts to put policies into practice, and good gover-
to two-and-a-half micrometers (PM2.5) and black carbon
nance are needed to deal with the deteriorating air quality.
(BC) respectively. This exposure is associated with an acute
decline in lung function (Shakya et al. 2016).
Continued Car-centric Development and Transport Policy
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), air
The road expansion drive initiated by former Prime Min-
pollution is now the world’s largest single environmen-
ister Bhattarai is still ongoing and has continued to be the
tal health risk. Air pollution has been linked to a range
most prioritized agenda in the transportation sector. Bhat-
of human health problems ranging from eye irritation to
tarai started off on the wrong foot when he directed and
mortality. In South Asia, household air pollution from the
gave responsibility to Metropolitan Traffic Police Division
burning of solid fuels was determined to be the leading
for the road expansion, which had neither the jurisdiction,
mortality risk in 2010, with ambient particulate matter
nor the capacity for designing urban roads. After the initial
pollution ranked as the sixth highest contributor to mor-
plan received criticism from concerned governmental in-
tality (Lim et al. 2012). Despite the high pollution levels
stitutions and public, the task was later handed to the De-
present and potential for serious human health conse-
partment of Roads and the Kathmandu Valley Development
quences in the Kathmandu Valley, there is very limited
Authority (then the Kathmandu Valley Town Development
understanding of air pollution in the city. The few existing
Committee). It was then decided that the roads were to
studies showcase the high pollution level and suggest large
be expanded using the ‘complete streets’ concept, but it
human health impact (Gurung and Bell 2013).
was never implemented. Complete Streets is a transpor-
Several steps can be taken to minimize air pollution. Dust pol- tation policy and design approach that requires streets to
lution can be minimized by taking simple steps like spraying be planned, designed, operated, and maintained to enable
water in construction and demolition sites, paving roads to safe, convenient and comfortable travel and access for
reduce dust clouds, and enforcing use of screens for buildings users of all ages and abilities regardless of their mode of
under construction. Movement of vehicles over demolition transportation (Laplante and McCann 2008). In many cases
material and unpaved roads contribute to road dust, thus roads were expanded at the expense of the sidewalks, and
choking the residents living in surrounding areas. But no in many places sidewalks are less than minimum width of
environmental management plans, specifically air pollution 1.5 meters prescribed in the Nepal Road Standard (2013).
The six-lane roads were designed to handle two-way traffic

112 | HIMALAYA Spring 2017

but the necessity for bicycle lanes for the safety of cyclists fringes of the Kathmandu Valley and of more new roads,
was never considered during planning and designing. The instead of prioritizing urban development infill and an
Department of Roads, which was charged with preparing efficient mass transit system, will likely fuel urban sprawl
road designs, made plans that reflected complete streets and motorization in unprecedented scale. In its draft plan
principle, however such designs never made it past their presented to the stakeholders, it has proposed only couple
paper idealization. In practice, the urban transport policies of corridors of mass transit and no plans for a cycle track
and plans of the government prioritize mobility of vehicles networks in the existing road. At one of the stakeholder
over the mobility of people. consultation events on the Plan, the JICA consultant team
proposed to build six-lanes of inner Ring Road above the
In mid-2011 the Department of Roads started cutting down
Dhobikhola river which the then secretary of the Ministry
decades-old trees to make way for widening the two-lane
of Physical Infrastructure and Transport criticized, using
Kalanki-Satdobato-Koteshwar Ring Road to eight-lanes.
Seoul’s Cheonggyecheon River Restoration Project as a
When the Chief of the Lalitpur Road Division Office was
counter-example. This project by the Seoul city govern-
questioned about the need for an eight-lane road, he said
ment demolished an elevated freeway, thus uncovering a
that the government should have planned to build six-
section of the historic Cheonggyecheon and creating both
teen-lane roads to account for the future growth of motor
ecological and recreational opportunities along a 3.6-mile
vehicles. The current chief of KVDA thinks that the govern-
corridor in the center of Seoul.
ment needs to plan flyovers and underpasses along with
further widening of roads to reduce traffic congestion. The Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transport has
These are just typical examples how conventional policy recently formulated a Five-year Strategic Transport Plan
makers and planners see the urban mobility issue and the (2016-2021). The cover page of the document includes
solutions through the perspective of car-centric mobility. a rendered image of wide multilane highways passing
Moreover, wide roads and flyovers are perceived as symbols through dense urban settlements, which suggests that wid-
of development and prosperity. Pictures and illustrations ening and expanding roads are some of the key elements
of wide roads and flyovers full of cars often are published of this strategic plan. It aims to expand 157 kilometers of
in newspapers depicting development. The growing car roads in the Valley and complete the expansion of 81 kilo-
culture among the elites and middle class urban society has meters of roads along with 27 kilometers of the Ring Road.
established the notion that owning a car is a sign of social It also aims to prepare a detailed project report and initiate
status. Riding public transport, walking, and cycling are construction of a 76 kilometer-long Outer Ring Road. The
generally looked down upon. The great earthquakes in April only plans in this document that supports sustainable
2015 further strengthened this notion of the necessity of urban mobility are restructuring of public transport routes
wider roads throughout the city supposedly for the access and development of a Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system in 16
of ambulances and other emergency vehicles. The building kilometers Inner Ring Road that is yet to be built. However,
standard formulated in response to the earthquake states just building a few kilometers of the BRT system in a single
that the minimum width of new public roads shall not be corridor and without planning a network of BRTs will not
less than eight meters. Even though it may be formulated be sufficient to address the urban transport challenges
with good intentions, this requirement will have repercus- faced by the city.
sions through encouraging more motorization and making
streets unsafe for people to walk. Conclusion and Policy Recommendations

As a technical support to Government of Nepal, the Japa- Despite claims to the contrary, the road expansion drive
nese International Cooperation Agency (JICA) is preparing has not solved the traffic congestion woes of the city but
a Transport Master Plan for Kathmandu Valley (Japan rather aggravated them including increasing air pollution.
International Cooperation Agency 2015). Although the Simply widening the roads without giving heed to develop-
initial plan (2015) include some provisions on improving ing a sustainable urban transport system integrated with
public transportation, it is largely based on widening roads urban land-use will have great social, economic and envi-
and strengthening road infrastructures. In its initial plan, ronmental repercussions. It is high time the government of
the JICA team has proposed the government of Nepal Nepal rethinks its car-centric urban transport policy, and
build more roads, including the expansion of the existing adopts policy where mobility of people is prioritized over
Ring Road, construction of inner and outer Ring Road, and cars. Non-motorized transport and mass transit systems
development of satellite cities that will be connected by should be prioritized in its policies and plans. The Govern-
four-lane roads. The development of satellite cities at the ment needs to ensure that the principle of equitable alloca-

HIMALAYA Volume 37, Number 1 | 113

tion road space for all users is followed while planning and coverage, and the height and grade of buildings (United
designing any roads, and creating a more equitable and Nations Habitat 2016).
inclusive city. The rapid urban population growth of the
Transport is vital to the social and economic well being of
Kathmandu Valley can only be decelerated through decen-
the city. Considering all the socio-economic and environ-
tralized urban development in the country by investing
mental damages of a car-centric development model, it
infrastructures and services in other cities.
is time to stop spending public funds on building urban
The priorities and commitments of the government are highways and widening urban roads. Public funds should
reflected in its budget not its plans. A transformative be spent on infrastructure and services that benefit every-
approach would be to devise a mandatory budget code one, not just the fraction of the population with private
in which at least 50 percent of the urban transportation vehicles. Urban transport should be planned in a way that
budget be allocated to sustainable transportation modes. it not only contributes to economic development, but also
A recent report by UNEP (United Nations Environment addresses issues such as inequality, accessibility, safety,
Programme) recommends national and city policy makers climate risks and environmental health risks faced by the
to allocate at least 20 percent of the total transport budget increasing urban population. What the Kathmandu Valley
to fund NMT (non-motorized transport) to save lives, requires is a political will, inclusive-sustainable-integrated
reduce pollution and gridlock ( United Nations Environ- urban and transport policies, allocation of resources for
ment Programme 2016). Improving surface transit through sustainable plans and institutional reform of key govern-
building electric Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) or surface Light ment departments and agencies to transform the
Rail Transit (LRT) systems are cost-effective, sustainable Kathmandu Valley into a livable city for everyone.
and the quickest solutions to the public transport woes of
the Kathmandu Valley, rather than planning for an expen-
sive metro system. In addition, they would significantly
contributing to road safety and improve the air quality of
the city. Rather than developing river corridors as exclu-
sive motor roads, the government should consider making
them public green spaces, which will contribute towards
sustainable mobility and make Kathmandu livable and
climate resilient—including protecting urban settlements
threatened by monsoon flooding.

Integrated urban land-use and transport planning are

often overlooked when devising transportation policies.
Transit Oriented Development (TOD), an approach to
compact, higher density, mixed-use and walkable devel-
opment that is centered around the high-quality mass
transit, is absolutely necessary for the capital to correct
itself from car-dependent transit-poor urban sprawl and
move towards sustainable urban development approach
(Institution for Trasnportation and Policy Development
2013). In order to discourage urban sprawl, planned city
infill is very powerful lever for change, which, by ‘filling
up space gaps’ achieves an urban structure that reduces
transport and service delivery costs, optimizes land use
and helps preserve and organize open spaces, as well as
providing benefits in terms of improved street life, eco-
nomic viability, proximity and walkability (United Nations
Habitat 2016). Local authorities can implement urban infill
projects at relatively low costs through a fresh look at the
rules, regulations and ordinances affecting urban develop-
ment in these areas, such as targeted code changes, land
readjustment protocols, zoning bylaws that govern lot

114 | HIMALAYA Spring 2017

 Central Bureau of Statistics. 2014. National Population and
Prashanta Khanal completed a Master’s in Environment
Housing Census 2011 (Population Projection 2011–2031).
Management from Pokhara University. He is currently
Kathmandu, Nepal.
working with the ADB Modernized Pedicabs Vehicles
project, promoting socially sustainable transport through Department of Urban Development and Building
improving non-motorized transport. He previously worked Construction. 2016. Expression of Interest Document
as Program Coordinator in Clean Energy Nepal and as for Short Listing of Consulting Firms, Preparation of
Country Network Coordinator in Clean Air Network Nepal. Integrated Urban Development Plan of 14 Municipalities
His work focuses mainly on research and policy advocacy on (Package I). Kathmandu, Nepal.
urban transportation, air quality management, low-carbon
Gurung, Anobha and Bell, Michelle L. 2012. Exposure to
development and sustainable cities agendas. He worked on
Airborne Particulate Matter in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal.
various projects commissioned by national and international
Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology 22:
organizations such as UN-Habitat, Clean Air Asia, World
235-242.
Bank, ADB, ICIMOD etc., and some government agencies.
Gurung, Anobha and Bell, Michelle. 2013. The State of
Anobha Gurung is a postdoctoral research scientist
Scientific Evidence on Air Pollution and Human Health in
at University of Texas at Austin, Department of Civil,
Nepal. Environmental Research 124: 54-64.
Architectural, and Environmental Engineering and at the
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Heinrich, Joachim and Wichmann, Heinz-Erich. 2004.
Atmospheric Initiative. She holds a Master’s in Environmental Traffic Related Pollutants in Europe and their Effect on
Science and Ph.D. in Environmental Health from Yale Allergic Disease. Current Opinion Allergy Clinical Immunology
University, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. 4: 341-348.
Her research focuses on exposure assessment and human
His Majesty’s Government of Nepal 1969. Physical
health burden associated with air pollution in growing cities
Development Plan for the Kathmandu Valley. Kathmandu,
in South Asia like Kathmandu, Nepal. Her research is designed
Nepal.
to be policy-relevant, increase awareness, and contribute to
well-informed decisions to protect human health. His Majesty’s Government of Nepal 1991. Kathmandu
Valley Urban Development Plans and Programmes.
Priyankar Bahadur Chand recently graduated from Yale
Kathmandu, Nepal.
University with a dual B.A. in Anthropology and Global
Affairs. He is currently collaborating with the Department Institution for Transportation and Policy Development.
of Health Services in Nepal to conduct sickle cell disease 2013. TOD Standard Version 2.0. Kathmandu, Nepal.
research and awareness projects in the Tarai region. He is
also currently working for Possible Health as a Government
International Centre for Integrated Mountain
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Development 2007. Kathmandu Valley Environment
His academic interests include public health, the history of
Outlook. Kathmandu, Nepal.
medicine, and medical anthropology. Japan International Cooperation Agency, and Ministry of
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Japan International Cooperation Agency. 2015. The Project

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