TERETE SSE INCLUSIVE LITERACY FOR STUDENTS FROM OTHER LANGUAGE BACKGROUNDS Marion Milton ABSTRACT This chapter begins by identifying some of the difficulties experienced by stu- dents who speak English as an additional language or dialect (EAL|D), then discusses theories and research-based strategies for teaching. The implica- tions for teachers in regular classes in primary and secondary schools include recognising the academic language demands of the subject and the texts, including abstract concepts, technical terms, genres and grammar. Further, understanding the literacy and language skills the students bring to the clas: room and which strategies can be employed to assist student learning. Research and teaching strategies used internationally and Australian policies, curriculum documents and the Australian school context are discussed. Keywords: English as an additional language; inclusive literacy; EAL/D learning needs; Australian context; scaffolded literacy learning; explicit instruction Students speaking and learning English as another language are sometimes unintentionally excluded, or have their learning curtailed in regular classes, because teachers may not recognise those students’ language learning needs or how to support them (Milton, 2013). This chapter will discuss theories and Inclusive Principles and Practices in Literacy Education, International Perspectives on Inclusive Education, Volume 11, 249-265 Copyright © 2017 by Emerald Publishing, Limited All rights of reproduction form reserved ISSN: 1479-3636 /dok:10.1108/S1479-363620170000011016 249250 MARION MILTON research-based pedagogy, and inclusive literacy practices for English language learners in primary and secondary schools. It also includes information on understanding the literacy and language skills the students bring to the class- room, identifying the English language and literacy demands embedded in the subject and lesson, the use of explicit literacy goals and research-based literacy strategies. Theories, research and strategies relevant to EAL/D literacy interna- tionally are outlined, then some examples are given that relate to the Australian curriculum and practice in Australian schools. Some students from other language backgrounds have good oral language skills and speak with the local accent, so that teachers may not recognise that they could struggle with the more complex English language understandings required within the classroom (Peregoy & Boyle, 2017). Many students from other language backgrounds need support to develop the English language skills needed to fully understand the language. Additionally, it is not only in English classes that these students often need support. The demands of other curriculum subjects, including the language for abstract concepts, technical lerms, genres and grammar will be unfamiliar (Gibbons, 2014). Students who speak English as a second or other language have been known by many terms, however in this chapter they are referred to as ‘English as an additional language/dialect’ learners (EAL/D), a term which is becoming more common internationally, and is the term used in Australian National Curriculum documents (Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA), 2016). As there are many terms for English learners, there are also numerous theories related to how English as an additional lan- guage is learnt. THEORIES ON LEARNING ENGLISH AS AN ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE Second language theories that have developed specifically to account for learn- ing an additional language range from Krashen’s (1982) group of theories including the comprehensible input theory (students need to understand what they read and hear to learn a language) to more recent socio-cultural theories that posit that language learning occurs in social and cultural environments through interactions, that are internalised, known as the inieractive hypothesis (Lantolf & Thorne, 2007). A study of second language research articles to find those that conducted investigations under a stated theoretical framework found 77 such studies (Curci, Wolbers, Juzwik, & Pu, 2012). The analysis revealed a range of explicit theories, including socio-cultural, cognitive, socio-psychogenic, systemic functional linguistic, bilingual, input and output (pp. 825-827). It was concluded that because becoming literate in a second language is complex,Inclusive Literacy for Students from Other Language Backgrounds 251 depending on many variables, that ‘theoretical frameworks in the field should likewise be diverse’ (p. 828). Similarly, an analysis of nine theories of second language acquisition noted that each theory accounted for particular aspects of learning a second language, however, no one theory covered all of the aspects (Van Patten & Williams, 2007). There is some consensus, however, that learners need comprehensible input, and that it needs to be just above what they can currently produce (Li, 2013; Van Patten & Williams, 2007). There is also some agreement that the learner is not a passive receiver of information and the learner also needs to provide comprehensible output, so that they are understood (Swain, 2000; Swain, Kinnear, & Steinman, 2015). Further, the EAL/D student needs feed- back on whether the person they are speaking to has understood what was said. Language learning then occurs through the process of negotiating mean- ing. Li (2013) discussed theories and research related to affective factors in learning a second language. Included are: a positive classroom learning envi- ronment, in which students are encouraged, motivated and supported, and stu- dent self-confidence, comfort level, emotion and ability. As well as ensuring these factors are in place, Li (2013) notes that teachers can increase their efffec- tiveness by encouraging social collaboration and relating learning to the real world, and that a good way to do this is through student use of technology. ‘Theories are often related to the purpose of research. Research conducted in schools often uses socio-cultural and interactionist theories. For example, research found that the best opportunities for negotiating meaning occur when the students are working in pairs and discuss what they are doing or discuss an idea (Swain, 2005). Other research has examined how long it takes children to learn another language, as the length of time it takes to be competent is rele- vant for teaching (Cummins & Man Yee-Fun, 2007). The impact of the home language and socio-economic factors on language learning is also relevant in teaching (Curci et al., 2012). Other research has focused on attributes such as age, personality and aptitude that a learner brings to learning another language. The former factors are discussed, the latter are outside the scope of this chapter. For a detailed analysis of learner attributes sce Breen (2001). For information on classroom factors see Senior (2010). THE TIME TAKEN TO LEARN ANOTHER LANGUAGE Developing the English language skills needed in the classroom, alongside sub- ject knowledge and understanding, is complex Lotherington (2007). In historic research, Cummins (2001) found that whereas students learn social, everyday language within | to 2 years, it takes EAL/D students at least 5 to 7 years to learn academic literacy. Academic literacy is the language required to under- stand subject area vocabulary and the complex language used in many written252 MARION MILTON texts. Once students become competent orally it is often assumed that their understanding of written forms of English will be sufficient for learning. Teachers are often not aware of the time needed to develop academic literacy (Milton, Robl, & House, 2007). For students who have had interrupted school- ing, it can take longer than this (Brown, Miller, & Mitchell, 2006). It is impor- tant, then, to accurately assess students’ current understandings, and use of English across the curriculum. Research into the language of EAL/D primary students found that they used little descriptive language, confused tenses, their sentences lacked complexity and they had difficulties with auxiliaries, articles and pronouns, In reading they over- relied on visual cues, missed key words and comprehension was literal and incom- plete. Prediction and inference were also difficult (Hook, 2009, p. 1), Secondary EAL/D students had lower levels of vocabulary knowledge, expressions lacked precision and they misunderstood cultural references. Also, their writing had grammatical errors and lacked cohesion (McKay, 2000, p. 188). All of these fac- tors can lead to low literacy levels and miscommunication in the classroom. THE IMPACT OF HOME LANGUAGE Students from other cultural backgrounds may speak another language and/or a dialect of English. Even if they were born in an English speaking country, they may speak a different version or dialect of English, which could be mar- ginally or markedly different from the standard form, Collectively the different types of English can be referred to as Englishes (Crystal, 2012), each of which has its own set of grammatical rules and vocabulary meanings that differ from the standard forms of English. Recognising which aspects of the home language impact on literacy develop- ment in English, can be helpful for teachers, For example, there are differences in sentence constructions, pronouns (he, if, them), verbs (to catch, running, thought) and prepositions (in, above, around) and the way they are used in different languages. The impact can be recognised by looking carefully at an EAL/D student’s writing and noting unusual sentences that a monolingual student would not use. Other clues include trouble following directions and using words incorrectly when speaking during classroom tasks. EAL/D students can usually understand more aurally than they can speak, and read at a more complex level than they can write (Allen & Rubin, 2012), They understand and use the content words — nouns (circus, history), verbs (jump, drive), adjectives (big, colourful) and adverbs (slowly, playfully) more easily than function words (prepositions, con- junctions, articles) as most of the meaning is contained in the content words, however the function words are often critical to elucidate meaning, The difficulty experienced by students from another language or dialect background may be increased if the teacher frequently uses idioms, such as it’s a piece of cake and col- loquialisms, for example, no drama that the student does not comprehend.Inclusive Literacy for Students from Other Language Backgrounds 253 SOCIO-ECONOMIC INFLUENCES, The life circumstances of students coming from different language or dialect backgrounds will differ. Those with professional parents, whose work requires high degrees of literacy, usually value education and children see expert reading and writing practices modelled in their home. These parents have similar expec- tations of their children and are able to create a bridge between home literacy practices and their children’s formal learning. Students come to school well prepared for schooling and usually find the transition to the literacy demands of schooling within their capabilities (ONeill & Gish, 2008). The children from families in which schooling is not so highly regarded, or with parents who did not undertake secondary schooling, or who are living in poverty will be less prepared to take advantage of schooling, especially at the secondary level. Whilst these factors also apply to monolingual English students, it is amplified for students who are undertaking their schooling in another language (Gibbons, 2009) With the diversity of the student population, socio-economic influences, the variety of Englishes they speak and the range of second language backgrounds, developing English language skills needed in the classroom is complex (Allen & Rubin, 2012). Added to that is the technical knowledge and vocabulary in different subject areas. THE COMPLEXITY OF SUBJECT AREA LANGUAGE To understand the content of a subject, it is necessary to understand the associ- ated vocabulary (Hirsh & Coxhead, 2010; Schmitt, 2007, 2010). Subjects such as mathematics and science not only have distinct vocabularies but also use words in different ways to provide different meanings. In an examination of the language in secondary tests in mathematics it was noted that the words face, die, mean and product, have completely different meanings to those in their everyday usage. Some of these words can have more than one meaning within the subject and one word can have different functions, such as square, used as a noun, a verb or an adjective. Often several different words can be used to denote the same thing. such as multiply, times and product. In mathematics students also need to understand the meaning of a number of prefixes such as bi, di, sex and hex as in bisect, diagonal, sextet and hexagon, all of which add to the complexity of the language they need to understand to successfully complete mathematical problems (Quinnell & Carter, 2010, p. 50). In science, many high-frequency technical words are common across different fields such as biology, chemistry and geology, so learning those words, their meanings and applications would be beneficial as there is not enough class time to teach all of the new terms needed by students (Hirsh & Coxhead, 2010; Nation & Gu, 2007).254 MARION MILTON The vocabulary students need to learn in the subject areas has an important role, as ‘using the appropriate terminology is integral to the concepts being learned’ and enables students ‘to express concisely and precisely the complex ideas and concepts that are embedded in the subject and that are essential for learning in that subject’ Gibbons (2009, p. 5). Two strategies to teach vocabu- lary are semantic webs and semantic grids. These and the other strategies mentioned in this section are explained towards the end of this chapter. The type or genres of text found in the subject need to be identified and the inherent language structures analysed. For example, texts such as the procedure and the report are often used in science, as in a procedure for conducting an experiment and a report for presenting the outcomes of the experiment, whereas in English, students are more likely to encounter narratives and a range of fiction genres. In western culture there is a tendency to use particular genres in certain ways that seem natural to those enculturated into it, however students from other cultures will not automatically pick it up. They may not, therefore gain full meaning from reading the text, nor be able to write that type of text at an age-appropriate level. Teachers need to identily the genres the students have to read and write in different subjects. For example, in history, students may be reading narratives but writing arguments. Further, frequently texts use mixed genres, which makes comprehension more difficult for many EAL/D students. For example, in envi- ronmental studies, an information report on the dairy industry can include both an historical timeline and an exposition on the impact on the environment (Gibbons, 2009). The teacher then needs to determine the students’ familiarity with the genre and decide the level of support to be provided. For example, stu- dents may simply need to read several examples of the genre, or if the genre is very unfamiliar, the teacher will need to deconstruct it and model how to write it (Derewianka, 1990, 2007). Further, different texts and genres may have dif ferent top level structures within them, depending on the purpose of the text. The top level structure is the organisation of the text at the paragraph level, and can be identified through finding the signal words, as distinct from the grammar which is the organisation of the text at the sentence level. The top level structure of a report on climate change, for example, may be cause/effect and can be identified through the signal words because of this, as a result of and the cause... the effect. Other top level structures include problem|solution, com- pare|contrast, time order, list and description. Being able to recognise the top level structure will assist students in comprehending the text, especially as it is ofien difficult to understand or explain the meanings of some of the signal words and yet they are integral to making meaning in the text. Examples of the signal words used in a text with a time order top level structure are first, next, then, following that and finally. For comparejcontrast some signal words are however, although, whilst and whereas (Gibbons, 2009; Meyer, 1975). Each genre also tends to have particular language forms or grammar that goes with it. For example, a narrative usually uses simple past tense verbsInclusive Literacy for Students from Other Language Backgrounds 255 (walked, said) whilst a procedure uses timeless present tense verbs as impera- tives or commands (blend, adjust). A procedure also uses instructions such as next and then and elements of time such as observe progress for 5 minutes, which has the same or a similar meaning to follow progress for 5 minuies and examine for 5 minutes. First language English speakers will understand the meanings through a tacit understanding of the grammatical functions of words in a range of contexts. This means that even though first language English speakers may not be able to tell you that a procedure uses the timeless present as an impera- tive, they will be able to follow the procedure correctly and understand that the words observe, examine and follow have similar meanings in this context and may have different meanings in everyday contexts. It cannot be assumed that an EAL/D student will have the same understanding and therefore may not be able to follow the procedure correctly. This could be problematic in science experiments. LANGUAGE AND LITERACY WITHIN LESSONS Alongside the subject content to be learned, there are language and literacy demands in every lesson, Teachers need to examine the content and the tasks in each lesson to answer the following questions: How much of the lesson is oral? How much requires reading and how much do they have to write? Are they working online? Do they have to be creative and produce something? Do they have to discuss th leas orally in small groups, in pairs or as part of a whole class discussion? Does the teacher need to teach students to use a meta- language (language to talk about language) to discuss the structure of genres, the vocabulary and language use embedded in the subject? Is the teacher's language use putting an added demand on the EAL/D students? For example, using idioms or colloquial terms will increase the language demands. Speaking rapidly and/or using complex sentence patterns with embedded clauses and giving complex verbal directions are making the job of learning very difficult for EAL/D students. Gibbons (2014, p. 122) suggested that teachers ask them- selves questions related to oral language, listening tasks, writing texts types, grammar and vocabulary in lessons. Similarly, others have focused on discover- ing the language needed for a topic, the strategies to be used, modelling reading and writing texts and maximising opportunities for collaborative activities in lessons (O’Neill & Gish, 2008, p. 168; Peregoy & Boyle, 2017, p. 8). Teachers in any subject area can investigate questions in order to determine the language demands of a lesson as elaborated in Fig. 1 ‘There are a number of effective ways to develop subject language and liter~ acy in EAL/D students. A vital factor is to draw on the individual’s back- ground knowledge and link the known to the new material, alongside teaching students strategies they can use independently to foster their own learning256 MARION MILTON + Do students know the types of language and vocabulary thay need to use? = How can | inerease the opportunities for them to use this language orally? 9 pair, small group work. What ar® the oral language demancs inte lesson? = Are students familiar with the genre, vocabulary and the structural foaturos of the toxis thoy will road? What fading | + How can | scaffold thair reading and understanding of the text? cemanis wane | aq before, during and after stratagios, glossing the text ‘exspresent? | _ 9 Detore, during — = Are students familiar with the text type, the associated structure and grammatical features? wnat rote | * HOW can I scaffold their writing of this text type? eg deconstruct it, model wiling demands? | Witing it, give them a framework, Fig. 1. Determining the Language Demands of a Lesson. (Cummins, 2007; Enright, 2010). Research with EAL/D students in social stud- ies found that problem-based tasks using social interactions and appropriate texts enabled students to relate their own experiences to the dilemma and con- struct oral and written explanations (Bunch, 2006). Similar research in science investigated a local issue so that students could relate it to their own lives (Moje, Ciechanowski, & Kramer, 2004). Another study found that literacy pro- grams using age-appropriate complex texts, detailed deconstruction and expla- nations can be more effective for EAL/D students with the ‘inclusion of culturally inclusive texts’, “better use of the students’ own linguistic and cultural resources’ and ‘greater use of multi-modal teaching’ (Adoniou & Macken- Horarik, 2007, p. 5). Building on students’ background and experience as well as their familiarity with digital technologics will greatly assist in developing their language and literacy. Research investigated whether the principles outlined in the ‘Quality Teaching Framework’ and ‘Productive Pedagogies’ programs developed in New South Wales and Queensland, respectively, were successful in schools with high numbers of EAL/D students. Those programs emphasise the importance of higher order thinking skills and developing decp knowledge about a topic. Whilst teachers were enthusiastic about the potential for EAL/D students, they indicated that they themselves needed more knowledge about how to scaffold the language for EAL/D students (Hammond, 2006, 2008). Audio recording a lesson and listening to it afterwards is a good way for teachers to identify the ways in which they might be making lessons difficult for EAL/D students. TheyInclusive Literacy for Students from Other Language Backgrounds 257 can also note unexpected student responses that may indicate lack of under- standing. Teachers can address these aspects of the lesson by planning to scal fold and support students. For example, when explaining a concept orally, they can supplement it with visuals, such as pictures, graphs, displays and demon- strations. They can write key words on the board and on a hand-out sheet, give definitions and use common words in place of complex words (Gibbons, 2009) or pre-prepare a text with explanations included (glossing the text). Next, tea- chers need to determine the language goal(s) for the lesson. For example, stu- dents will learn five new technical terms and use them in discussion. Students need to be told the language goal for the lesson to alert them to the learning required and the importance of language in the subject. This is an example of explicit teaching as are other strategies discussed later. ‘As an cxample of the challenge facing teachers of EAL/D students and the complexity of provision, a description of the Australian context is presented. This is followed by descriptions of some research-based teaching strategies. THE AUSTRALIAN CONTEXT As a multi-cultural society, any Australian classroom can have speakers from up to 10 or more different language backgrounds, and each of those students could have lived in Australia for differing periods of time ranging from their whole lives to a few months (Gibbons, 2014). The Australian census data from 2011 indicated that 15% of school-aged students lived in homes in which another language was spoken at home (Australian Burcau of Statistics, 2016). It is commonly acknowledged that approximately one in four school students are from a background in which English is not the first language (Gibbons, 2009). Even those born in Australia, may not have been exposed to standard Australian English at home which impacts on their depth of understanding of English. Further, their experience with English will differ and they may speak different variations, or dialects, of English, including Aboriginal English. Some EAL/D students who were born in Australia, or arrived as young chil- dren, may have lost any early fluency in their first language (O'Neill & Gish, 2008). This does not necessarily mean that they will be able to manage the chz lenges of more complex language required in the classroom. There is another group of students from families that are recent migrants or refugees. These stu- dents may be fully literate in their first language and have a solid knowledge base that they can transfer to another context with their developing English skills, however their low initial levels of English may mask their underlying capabilities. Alternatively, the students may not have undertaken formal learning in their home country and have no, or low, literacy skills in their first language. Refugees have added difficulties as often they have faced trauma, experience emotional turmoil and/or concomitant medical problems (Gibbons, 2009).258 MARION MILTON Free specialist English classes are available for up to a year after migrants/ refugees arrive in Australia, Students who are born in Australia, but speak another language as their first language, may also be able to access such classes. Students who access intensive English classes at a specialist centre usually spend from 1 year to 18 months there, following the Australian curriculum. However, for a range of reasons, including the distance to a centre that holds the special- ist classes, parents who take jobs in rural and isolated regions, and lack of knowledge of the service, means that mainstream schools sometimes enrol stu- dents who have little or no English. In the Australian National Curriculum, item 46 (ACARA, 2011) states that EAL/D students may require additional time and support, along with informed teaching which explicitly addresses their language needs’. When their level of English is assessed as sufficient to be able to benefit from regular classes EAL/D students are enrolled at their local school, In the recent past, specialists assessed an EAL/D student’s level of English using a range of measures, which differed from state to state. Currently tea- chers are required to assess and place students according to the ‘EAL/D Progress Map’, which was recently released by the Australian Department of Education (2016). The progress map allows classroom teachers from kinder- garten to Year 12 to determine the level and progress of students from other language backgrounds, in order to inform their teaching and for reporting purposes. The map describes four levels, incorporating nine graduations, of progress: emerging, beginning, developing and consolidating. Teachers can consult the Progress Map Observation Guide Mairices for Early Childhood, Middle Childhood, Early and Late Adolescence, in order to determine the lan- guage and literacy levels of students in those age groups. The level of English determines the type and duration of support needed; it is rarely sufficient for students exiting from intensive language centres to be able to deal with the language and literacy demands of the regular classroom without on-going support. Further, students in the late developing and consolidating levels are harder for classroom teachers to identify as needing language support, and so they may not receive the sort of teaching that will assist them in their learn- ing. Teachers of all levels may not recognise the full impact that a back- ground or home language can have on English literacy development. There are a number of teaching strategies that can support language and literacy development, some of which will benefit all children in the class and others provide explicit assistance for EAL/D students. RESEARCH-BASED TEACHING STRATEGIES The strategies chosen here ensure that thinking is necessary and students have to interact with stretches of language (Gibbons, 2009) as well asInclusive Literacy for Students from Other Language Backgrounds 259 including the key ideas listed at the commencement of the chapter. Reading comprehension strategies used prior to, during or afler reading are effective for EAL/D and elements are contained within several of the listed strategies. Whilst the following strategies may already be known to teachers, not all of them will be conversant with the modifications that focus on and scaffold specific aspects of literacy for EAL/D students (Gibbons, 2014; Milton, 2013). Many of these strategies can be used with the whole class, benefiting all students, however some are best used as explicit teaching for EAL/D students. Effective integration of content and tasks via technology can enhance learning (Kebbie, 2010; Li, 2013). An indication is given as to whether the strategy can be used with whole or specific groups. Collaborative Problem Solving with Hypotheses Collaborative problem solving in small groups can include hypothesising as part of the process. Hypothesising is an important skill for EAL/D students to practice and master, as many are hesitant to guess and yet the quickest way to learn and improve language skills is by learning from errors. To encourage pre- dicting and hypothesising, teachers can ask: ‘What do you think might happen next?” Asking students to think about predictions, share with a peer, think again and then write them down, encourages and values prediction, Written predictions can be self-checked later. The small groups can be of mixed ability and mixed language background. Semantic Webs and Grids Semantic webs and grids are well known by most teachers and can be used with the whole class as well as with small groups and individuals. At the commence- ment of a new topic a group brainstorm can be written down in the form of an inter-connected grid or web and used to build vocabulary, classify, discuss and justify. It can be re-used as a reference during the topic by individual EAL/D students to check terms and classifications. Small groups can add to the web as new information is gleaned, then at the end of the topic the teacher can use it with the whole class or with individuals to check understanding. Key Vocabulary Students need to master subject-specific language for reading comprehension and tasks using higher order thinking skills. The suggestions here can be used with the whole class, with extra lessons for EAL/D. There has been much260 MARION MILTON discussion about the best ways to teach subject-specific terminology. Hirsh and Coxhead (2010) developed a list of science terms that were common to a range of different areas in science and investigated ways to teach them which ranged from direct instruction — a focus on the word, its spelling, and mean- ing, to integrated approaches that used the words in context. They contend that EAL/D students need a range of different types of opportunities to learn a subject's terminology. Another recent experimental study found that EAL/D students learnt and retained the technical vocabulary in texts better when the vocabulary was explicitly studied and definitions examined after an initial reading of the text, rather than in a reading only session in which implicit learning was assumed (Sonbul & Schmitt, 2010). Unfortunately, there is far more technical language to be learned and understood than class time to teach it. Teachers therefore need to focus on the most useful technical terms and teach students a range of strategies (memory, cognitive, meta- cognitive) so that they can continue their learning of terms independently. Extensive reading is important for both vocabulary development and compre- hension so long as students have been taught meta-cognitive strategies to use whilst reading (Cummins & Man Yee-Fun, 2007). Genre Analysis Genre analysis is a strategy to teach text type and structure, and can be used with the whole class. A genre approach is useful for EAL/D students in scaf- folding reading comprehension and text writing. Genre analysis has four cycles: an introduction to the content, familiarisation with the genre through decon- struction which includes investigating the way language is used in the text to make meaning at word, sentence and paragraph levels. Then the teacher with student contributions writes a new text and finally the students write their own texts (Derewianka, 2007) Deconstructing a narrative would identify an orientation, followed by an initiating event, then a series of actions/events leading to a climax followed by a conclusion. Whilst not all narratives follow this exact pattern, it is common. Similarly, there are specific structures for non-fiction genres. An exposition, for example, begins with a statement, then presents arguments for and against, and counteracts one side of the argument, then sums up the argued position, In deconstruction the focus is not just on the surface features, such as an exposi- tion being a piece of writing that presents an argument, teachers also need to deconstruct the language used, and the top level structure. This level of decon- struction can be very helpful for EAL/D students as it gives them explicit infor- mation about the language of the text and will help them to identify those features in similar texts, which will lead to increased understanding of written language in English (Derewianka, 2007; Gibbons, 2014).Inclusive Literacy for Students from Other Language Backgrounds 261 Text Reconstruction In text reconstruction, students are given a cut-up version of a familiar text. The randomly placed cut-up sentences are put into the correct order by students, individually or in pairs. In pairs they have to talk to justify their choices, which becomes a learning experience. Text reconstruction can also be used to assess comprehension (Swain, 2005). In the genre analysis described above, there is the opportunity for repeated practice of the genre, there may not, however, be an emphasis on the grammar needed. A carefully selected text for reconstruction may help provide that for the EAL/D group. Dictogloss A specific form of text reconstruction, dictogloss, was developed in research by Swain (2005) in Toronto, who found that after 6 or 7 years of immersion teach- ing, students still produced some language that was not like native speakers. The research led to a strategy that can be used with mixed groups of students in upper primary, and the EAL/D group in secondary schools. In the research, she also found that many EAL/D students did not pick up the grammar needed in their writing, that it needed to be taught explicitly and that students needed the opportunity to use it in a real context. She conducted some experiments on strategies that might help. In one experiment she compared the type of language generated when students were asked to either retell a story they had been read or to reconstruct the story as closely as possi- ble to the original. In the retell situation students used a lot more adjectives, however in the reconstruction there was a lot more talk about sequencing and the language discussions were more sophisticated. The reconstruction exercise is known as dictogloss. This strategy combines clements of dictation and text reconstruction. It is a strategy for upper primary and secondary EAL/D students in the late develop- ing and consolidating levels of the Australian progress map, who need to focus on English grammar in their writing. In the process described by Swain (2005), a short picce of subject-related text (about 100 words or less) is read to the students three times. They listen and after cach reading may make notes. Then cach individual tries to rewrite the text exactly. Then they compare their writing with others and together reproduce the text. The correct copy is then displayed and students identify errors. The teacher can explain the correct form. In another experiment Swain (2005) conducted a dictogloss with two similar groups of students. Group | was given explicit instructions such as ‘Don’t for- get the “s” on streets because streets is plural’, Group 2 had non-explicit instructions. Giving explicit instructions helped the students to reconstruct a262 MARION MILTON more accurate text and increased their knowledge of grammar. Swain concluded that to complete a dictogloss, students had to focus on form to talk about the grammatical structure of the language to complete the task, which helped their understanding of how the English language works in texts. Mainstream teachers would need to use this as a targeted strategy with the EAL/D students whilst other students were completing another task. Swain also indicated that English language learners need to be pushed to be more grammatically correct, as teachers often focus completely on the meaning and ignore incorrect grammar. One way of increasing the learner’s focus on correct grammar is by accepting the learner’s answer but recasting it into the correct grammatical form. IMPLEMENTATION OF STRATEGIES Underlying themes that emerge from the research cited are that no individual strategy will ensure that EAL/D students develop classroom literacy, and that using a range of strategies and repeating them in different contexts, will give students opportunities to practice, extend and generalise their learning. Cummins (2001, 2007) postulated that the range of activities teachers used could be described as either embedded in a context such as having visual and manipulative materials available (what I have called handls on activities) or dis- embedded, context-free tasks (e.g. reading or writing about a topic without access to those materials). He also indicated that tasks could have high or low cognitive demands. He suggested that teachers often began with a task that was cognitively demanding and dis-embedded/context free, and that when they found EAL/D students did not understand they reverted to cognitively unde- manding, context-embedded tasks, but did not scaffold the learning to take the students back through to highly cognitive, context-free tasks. Students were thus frustrated and stuck at lower levels of learning. Cummins suggested that teachers needed to begin with cognitively undemanding context-embedded tasks, and move through a series of stages to cognitively demanding, context- free tasks. In this way students are scaffolded through to undertaking complex tasks using academic literacy. In order to make sense of the research and how to apply it, I have developed a model that may assist teachers to implement effective strategies in a way that supports student learning (Fig. 2). The model not only draws on background from Cummin’s stages and Swain’s findings but also draws on the ideas of the ‘quality teaching framework’ in its use of a well-scaffolded cognitively demand- ing task from the beginning, It starts with a well-supported oral exploration through hands on supported activities, to shared oral refiections/discussions, supported note taking and finally independent writing. For example, the teacher may model and discuss a simple experiment. Prior to beginning, theInclusive Literacy for Students from Other Language Backgrounds 263 ——— ‘RAL EXPLORATION (S#REDREREGTION) ores a pRE WRITING] {_ ) ‘srpar Yann,” || 280s on actu || epee at wn ee st eetior eens || Sra Yun Sens ‘ea mae “INS ean Sas oa ee = Fig. 2, Scaffolding Writing for EAL/D Students. teacher would ask students to hypothesise about the outcome. As support there would be a list and pictorials of the procedure on a chart, key words and defini- tions would be written on the board. This task is oral, but supported. It is also cognitively demanding, as they have to think about the experiment, however, it is well scaffolded. Students can then undertake the experiment in pairs or small groups. They have the pictorial procedure chart and a buddy to help them, so again it is cognitively demanding but supported. Once the materials have been packed away, the students may be asked to discuss with another student what they did in their experiment and what they found, This is a shared oral activity that gives them an opportunity to use technical terms in a supportive context. Further scaffolding can be provided by matching a non-EAL/D with the EAL/D learner and providing a sct structure or guiding questions for the discussion. Students can be asked to write notes cither before or after their shared oral reflection/discussion as a precursor to writing a report on the experi- ment. Once again scaffolding can be provided through verbal and pictorial reminders about the genre, headings and lists of technical terms. The amount of scaffolding reduces throughout with the aim of student independence. CONCLUSION In summary, EAL/D school students need to develop the English literacy skills 1o think, discuss, read and write across the curriculum, Some students may still be developing their understandings of English and will need further scaffolding in order to take advantage of the learning opportunities provided. There is some consensus that the language used in class and in texts needs to be compre- hensible, and just above the student’s own level of production and the student needs to have opportunities to use the language in a range of contexts, in differ- ent size groups and for different purposes. 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