Week 1 Lesson

Three Concepts of Globalization

1. Globalization as Economic Process

Economic accounts of globalization convey the notion that the essence of the phenomenon involves" the
increasing linkage of national economies through trade, financial flows, and foreign direct investment...by
multinational firms" (Gilpin 2000:299). Thus, expanding economic activity is identified as both the primary
aspect of globalization and the engine behind its rapid development.

Studies of economic globalization are usually embedded in thick historical narratives that trace the
gradual emergence of the new post-war world economy to the 1944 Bretton Woods Conference and its
post-war evolution (Schaeffer, 2005). During its operation for almost three decades, the Bretton Woods
system contributed greatly to the establishment of what some observers have called the "golden age of
controlled capitalism" (Luttwak, 1999: xii, 27). According to this interpretation, existing mechanisms of
state control over international capital movements made possible full employment and the expansion of
the welfare state. Rising wages and increased social services secured in the wealthy countries of the
global north a temporary class compromise. As sociologist, Manuel Castells (2000: 53) points out, the
process of financial globalization accelerated dramatically in the late 1980s as capital and securities
markets in Europe and the United States were deregulated. The liberalization of financial trading allowed
for the increased mobility among different segments of the financial industry, with fewer restrictions and a
global view of investment opportunities.

2. Globalization as Political Process

Economic perspectives on globalization can hardly be discussed apart from an analysis of political
processes and institutions. An influential group of scholars considers political globalization as a process
intrinsically connected to the expansion of markets. In particular, steady advances in computer technology
and communication systems such as the World Wide Web are seen as the primary forces responsible for
the creation of a single market. Bryan and Farrell (1996), Kurdle (1999), Rao (1998) and Weiss (2011).
As Richard Langhorne (2001:2) puts it, "Globalization has happened because technological advances
have broken down many physical barriers to worldwide communication which used to limit how much
connected or cooperative activity of any kind could happen over long distances." As Lowell Bryan and
Diana Farrell (1996: 187) assert, the role of government will ultimately be reduced to serving as
"superconductor for global capitalism".

A second group of scholars disputes the view that large-scale economic changes simply happen to
societies in the manner of natural phenomena such as earthquakes and hurricanes. Instead, they
highlight the central role of politics-especially the successful mobilization of political power- in unleashing
the forces of globalization (see, for example, Gowan, 1999; Kapstein, 1999; Korten, 2001; Luttwalk,
2000). Hence, this group of scholars argues for the continued relevance of conventional political
units,  operating either in the form of modern nation-states or "global cities".

On the other hand, Castells also emphasizes a far less pessimistic version of a perspective that combines
technology and politics to explain globalization. Castells points to the rise of a new "informational
capitalism" based on information technology as the indispensable tool for the effective implementation of
processes of socioeconomic restructuring. Castells also emphasizes the continued relevance of nation-
states as crucial bargaining agencies that influence the changing world of power relationships.

A fourth group of scholars" approaches political globalization primarily from the perspective of global
governance. Some researchers believe that political globalization might facilitate the emergence of
democratic transnational social forces emerging from a thriving sphere of "global civil society".
3. Globalization as Cultural Process

One major strength of their approach lies in viewing globalization not as a one-dimensional phenomenon,
but as a multidimensional process involving diverse domains of activity and interaction, including the
cultural sphere. As sociologist John Tomlinson (1999: 1) puts it, "Globalization lies at the heart of modern
culture; cultural practices lie at the heart of globalization."

Tomlinson (1999) has emphasized a general analysis of the relationship between the globalization
process and contemporary cultural change. For example, he defines cultural globalization as a "densely
growing network of complex cultural interconnections and interdependencies that characterize modern
social life". He emphasizes that global cultural flows are directed by powerful international media
corporations, that utilize new communication technologies to shape societies and identities. Briefly, as
images and ideas can be more easily and rapidly transmitted from one place to another, they profoundly
affect the way people experience their everyday lives. Culture no longer remains tied localities such as
town and nation, but acquires new meanings that reflect dominant themes emerging in a global context.
This interconnectivity caused by cultural globalization challenges parochial values and identities, because
it undermines the linkages that connect culture to fixity of location.

Globalization Theories

A. Cultural Theory Variations

Homogeneity  is seen as the transnational expansion of common codes and practices. It refers to the
increasing sameness in the world as cultural inputs, economic factors, and political orientation of societies
expand to create common practices, same economics, and similar forms of government.

Example: Cultural imperialism.

In Heterogeneity, global and local cultural inputs interact. This variations pertains to the creation of
various cultural practices, new economies, political groups because of the interactions of elements from
different societies around the globe. It is more associated to cultural hybridization.

B. Cultural Theory Dynamics

 Cultural Differentialism- cultures unaffected by globalization and closed.  Example: Clash of

Civilizations
 Cultural Convergence - increasing sameness in the direction of dominant groups.. Example:
McDonalization, influenced by Weber.

Cultural Hybridization- mixing of cultures, producing new and unique cultures. A key concept is 
glocalization. 

1. Hybridization: emphasizes increasing diversity associated with the unique mixtures of the global
and the local (Ritzer, 2008, p. 462).
2. Glocalization: the interpretation of the global and the local resulting in unique outcomes in
different geographic areas (Ritzer, 2008, p. 461).

Two Waves of Globalization

There are two waves of globalization (roughly 1820-1914 and 1960- present) focusing on key economic
facts (trade investment, migration, and capital flows, industrialization/de-industrialization,
convergence/divergence) beliefs and policymaking environments. The two waves have superficial
similarities but are fundamentally different. Chief similarities include aggregate trade and capital flow
ratios, and the fundamental difference lies in the ideas. Initial conditions constitute another important
difference. Before the first wave, all the world was poor and agrarian. When the second wave began, it
was sharply divided between rich and poor nations.

Week 3 Lesson: Globalization of Religion

Introduction:

Generally, religion is a "system of beliefs and practices." More specifically, the word comes from a Latin 
"religare" whicc means, " to bind together again that which was once bound but has since been torn apart
or broken." Indeed, with the globalization of economics and politics, individuals feel insecure "as the life
they once led is being contested and changed at the same time." Hence, "In order for a person to
maintain a sense of psychological well-being and avoid existential anxiety," individuals turn to scripture
stories and teachings that provide a vision about how they can be bound to a "meaningful world." a world
that is quickly changing day-by-day.

Nonetheless, the relationship between globalization and religion is one with new possibilities and
furthering challenges. On the one hand, while religion takes advantage of communication and
transportation technology, it is at the same time the source of globalization's greatest resistance by acting
as a haven for those standing in opposition to its power. On the other hand, because globalization allows
for daily contact, religion enters into a circle of conflict in which religions become "more self-conscious of
themselves as being world religions." The relationship between religion and globalization is complex, one
with new possibilities and furthering challenges. However, this chapter cannot provide a comprehensive
overview of religion and globalization, as the terrain is too vast. Still, it does provide several examples to
illustrate the complex relationship between the two.

CONTENT:

Globalization of Religion and Technological Advancement   

Globalization brings a culture of pluralism, meaning religions "with overlapping but distinctive ethics and
interests" interact with one another. Essentially, the world's leading religious traditions---- Hinduism-----,
Buddhism----Judaism----Christianity, and Islam---teach values such as human dignity, equality, freedom,
peace, and solidarity. More specifically, religions maintain the Golden Rule: "what you do not wish done
to yourself, do not do to others." Therefore, through such religious values, globalization engenders
greater religious tolerance in such areas as politics, economics, and society.

Religion has tremendously benefited from technological advancements. For example, websites  provide
information and explanations about different religions to any person regardless of his or her geographical
location, as well as provide the opportunity to contact others worldwide and hold debates that allow
religious ideas to spread. Furthermore, television  allows for religious channels that provide visual
religious teachings and practices. Hence, by making the leap onto the information superhighway, which
brings religious teachings into every home and monitor in a global setting, religions have come together
into one setting. In short, globalization allows for religions previously isolated from one another to now
have regular and unavoidable contact.
Globalization Creating Backlash of Religious Parochialism

Globalization breaks down traditional communities and replaces them with larger,
impersonal organizations. As globalization creates a "global village," it dramatically alters,
what individuals traditionally understood themselves by---"citizenship," and "immigration."

For instance, The European Union (EU) does not call their members by country of origin but
rather by their greater title, European citizens. Moreover, such organizations set universal
standards upon all members, causing individuals to believe that they are not fairly
represented. As a result, feeling that these organizations have shattered their "protective
shell" that has shielded them in the past, many individuals find comfort in religion.

In giving individuals a sense of belongings, religious groups help them to find themselves in
modern times. For instance, religious leaders, pointing to modern society's loss of ethical
values and increased corruption, preach, "the only answer to the current "decay" is a return
to traditional values and religious norms. "Hence, religion supplies these individuals with a
feeling of being a part of a group that represents their interests and allows them to regain
their traditional sense of who they are.

Globalization brings economic marginalization

For example, as transnational corporations increasingly take over the role of the state's
involvement in the economic sector, the government loses its status as a welfare provider.
Moreover, increasing the gaps between those who have benefited from the global market
(generally the West) and those who have been left behind (generally the Global South),
globalization is seen as "Western imperialism," as well as "Americanization." For instance,
globalization "encourages people to buy American goods and services, which ultimately
"undermines deep-rooted communal values," Simply put, individuals are bombarded with
McDonald's, Nike, and MTV.

Globalization brings religions to a circle of conflicts

As the previous section shows, since God has set the rules and has made them difficult to
challenge, religion provides answers to questions concerning self-identity. However, in
providing such answers, religion also institutes a notion of "truth," which implies an
automatic exclusion of the one who does not adhere to such "truth." In times of uncertainty
like globalization, therefore, collective identity is reduced to a number of cultural religious
characteristics---"them" and "us" and "they" and "our". In other words, the abject suddenly
recognized as a threat.
For example, since the 9/11 attacks, there has been a tendency of the West to link the
religion of Islam with terrorist practices while Al-Qaeda links links the US as Christian or a
Judeo-Christian nation. on the one hand, Al-Qaeda men who hijacked the planes on 9/11
saw the passengers and those working in the World Trade Center and Pentagon as
"abjects" of Islam. On the other hand, the US-led invasion of Afghanistan and then Iraq
turned into wars of "Islamofacism" and a "crusade" to the divine in getting rid of the other.
Moreover, other attacks on innocent people based on cultural religious characteristics still
occur today. In other words, though socially constructed, these cultural religious
characteristics become a unifying force against others not adhering to a particular truth. 
On the other hand, religions have, indeed, taken part in dialogues beforehand. As a further
example, religious leaders gathered at the UN's Millennium Peace Summit in September
2000 to mark the turn of the millennium. A milestone in itself, as the UN is not a common
ground in the sense of ecumenical meeting inside the church, synagogue, or mosque but
rather a global common ground, the Summit's conversation encouraged the world's
religious communities to stop fighting and arguing amongst themselves and begin working
together for peace, justice, and social harmony. As then UN Secretary General Kofi
Annan addressed to the Summit, "Whatever your past, whatever your calling, and whatever
the differences among you, your presence here at the United Nations signifies your
commitment to our global mission of tolerance, development, and peace.
Moreover, as transnational corporations increasingly become actors in the international
system, one could argue that religious communities have agreed on "the emerging global
ethic" which consists of three major components:
1. Corporations are prohibited from involving in bribes and corruption;
2. Corporations are prohibited from discriminating on the grounds of race, religion, ethnicity,
or gender in the conduct of business;
3. Corporations are prohibited from activities that pose a significant threat to human life and
health.
Simply put, these components are, in themselves, religious values used to regulate the way
transitional corporations increasingly engage in the global market.
Key Concepts:
Despite the interreligious dialogue to manage religious diversity and to avoid violence,
globalization's intentional and/or unintentional consequences has the problem of making
religions more conscious of themselves as "world religions," as well as the undesirable
consequences of disrupting traditional communities, and causing economic
marginalization---all reinforcing religious-cultural characteristics and identities. Hence, the
relationship between religion and globalization has brought new possibilities but
also further challenges.