UNIT – V

Distribution and Utilization

Compiled By
M Saad Bin Arif
Course Incharge
Mohd Anas Anees
Department of Electrical Engineering
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh
 Transmission Lines and Cable

Content
1. Types of distribution system
2. Illumination
▪ Definition of various terms
▪ Laws of Illumination
▪ Types of lamp
3. Substation
4. Traction

M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU

 Introduction

Principal components of an Electrical Power System

➢ Electrical system consist of three main components

– Generation, Transmission and Distribution

➢ The original electrical distribution system developed by Thomas Edison was an

underground direct current (DC) system.
M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU
 Distribution system

▪ In order to transfer electrical power from an alternating-current or a direct-current source to

the place where it will be used, some type of distribution network must be utilized.

▪ The method used to distribute power from where it is produced to where it is used can be
quite simple. More complex power distribution systems are used, to transfer electrical
power from the power plant to industries, homes, and commercial buildings.

▪ Distribution systems usually employ equipment such as transformers, circuit breakers, and
protective devices.

▪ In general, the distribution system is the electrical system between the sub-station fed by
the transmission system and the consumer end.

▪ In other words we can say, that part of power system which distributes electric power for
local use is known as distribution system.
✓ It generally consists of feeders and distributors.

M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU

▪ The single line diagram of a typical distribution system is shown in Figure.

M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU

Feeders
▪ A feeder is a conductor which connects the sub-station (or localised generating station) to
the area where power is to be distributed.

▪ Generally, no tappings are taken from the feeder so that current in it remains the same
throughout. The main consideration in the design of a feeder is the current carrying
capacity.

Distributor
▪ A distributor is a conductor from which tappings are taken for supply to the consumers.

▪ The current through a distributor is not constant because tappings are taken at various
places along its length.

Service mains
▪ A service mains is generally a small cable which connects the distributor to the
consumers terminals.

M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU

 Types of distribution system

A distribution system may be classified

1. According to nature of current.

2. According to scheme of connection.

1. According to nature of current, distribution system maybe classified as

a) d.c. distribution system.
b) a.c. distribution system.

Now-a-days, a.c. system is universally adopted for distribution of electric power as it

is simpler and more economical than direct current method.

2. According to scheme of connection, the distribution system may be classified as

a) Radial system.
b) Ring main system.
c) Inter-connected system.

M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU

A.C. DISTRIBUTION

▪ Now-a-days electrical energy is generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of

alternating current.

▪ One important reason for the widespread use of alternating current in preference to
direct current is the fact that alternating voltage can he conveniently changed in
magnitude by means of a transformer.

▪ Transformer has made it possible to transmit a,c. power at high voltage and utilize it at a
safe potential.

▪ The a.c. distribution system is classified into (i) primary distribution system and (ii)
secondary distribution system.

M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU

D.C. DISTRIBUTION

▪ Electric power is almost exclusively generated, transmitted and distributed as a.c.

However, for certain applications, d.c. supply is absolutely necessary.

▪ For instance, d.c. supply is required for the operation of variable speed machinery (i.e.,
d.c. motors), for electro-chemical work and for congested areas where storage battery
reserves are necessary.

▪ For this purpose, a.c. power is converted into d.c. power at the substation by using
converting machinery e.g., mercury arc rectifiers, rotary converters and motor-generator
sets.

▪ The d.c. supply from the substation may be obtained in the form of (i) 2-wire or (ii) 3-
wire for distribution.

M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU

2-wire d.c. system

▪ As the name implies, this system of distribution consists of two wires. One is the outgoing or
positive wire and the other is the return or negative wire.

▪ The loads such as lamps, motors etc. are connected in parallel between the two wires.

▪ This system is never used for transmission purposes due to low efficiency but may be
employed for distribution of d.c. power.

3-wire d.c. system

▪ It consists of two outers and a middle or neutral wire which is earthed at the substation. The
voltage between the outers is twice the voltage between either outer and neutral wire.

▪ The principal advantage of this system is that it makes available two voltages at the consumer
terminals viz., V between any outer and the neutral and 2V between the outers.

▪ Loads requiring high voltage (e.g., motors) are connected across the outers, whereas lamps
and heating circuits requiring less voltage are connected between either outer and the
neutral.

M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU

Radial System

▪ In this system, separate feeders radiate from a single substation and feed the distributors
at one end only.

▪ The radial system is employed at low voltage

and the substation is located at the center of
the load.

▪ A single line diagram of a radial distribution

system is shown in Figure.

M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU

 Radial system is the simplest distribution circuit and has the lowest initial cost.
However, it suffers from the following drawbacks.

▪ The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding point will be heavily loaded.

▪ The consumers are dependent on a single feeder and single distributor. Therefore, any
fault on the feeder or distributor cuts off supply to the consumers who are on the side
of the fault away from the substation.

▪ The consumers at the distant end of the distributor would he subjected to serious
voltage fluctuations when the load on the distributor changes.

Due to these limitations, this system is used for short distances only. The radial
system can be extended by introducing more laterals and sub-laterals.

M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU

Ring main system

▪ In this system, the primaries of distribution transformers form a loop.

▪ The loop circuit starts from the substation bus-bars, makes a loop through the area
to be served, and returns to the substation.
▪ The single line diagram of ring main system is shown in Figure.
The ring main system has the following advantages.

▪ There are less voltage fluctuations at

consumer’s terminals.

▪ The system is very reliable as each distributor

is fed via two feeders. In the event of fault on
any section of the feeder, the continuity of
supply is maintained.

For example, suppose that fault occurs at any

section of the feeder. Then the faulted section the
feeder can be isolated for repairs and at the same
time continuity of supply is maintained to all the
consumers via the other feeder.

M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU

Interconnected system
When the feeder ring is energized by two or more than two source it is called inter-
connected system. The single line diagram of interconnected system is shown in Figure.

The interconnected system has the

following advantages.

▪ It increases the service reliability.

▪ Any area fed from one generating

station during peak load hours can be
fed from the other generating station.

▪ This reduces reserve power capacity

and increases efficiency of the system.

M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU

 Substation
▪ Substations arc key parts of electrical generation, transmission, and distribution systems.

▪ Substations transform voltage from high to low or from low to high as necessary.
Substations also dispatch electric power from generating stations to consumption centers.

▪ Electric power may flow through several substations between the generating plant and
the consumer, and the voltage may be changed in several steps.

▪ Substations can be generally divided into three major types:

1. Transmission substations - voltages above : 132 kV

2. Sub-transmission substations – voltage levels : 33 kV through 132 kV

3. Distribution substations – voltage levels : 11 kV/0.4 kV

M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU

Transmission substations
▪ Transmission substations integrate the transmission lines into a network with multiple
parallel interconnections so that power can flow freely over long distances from any
generator to any consumer.

▪ This transmission grid is often called the bulk power system. Typically, transmission lines
operate at voltages above 132 kV.

▪ Transmission substations often include transformation from one transmission voltage

level to another.

Sub-transmission substations
▪ Sub-transmission substations typically operate at 33 kV through 132 kV voltage levels.

▪ And transform the high voltages used for efficient long distance transmission through
the grid to the sub-transmission voltage levels for more cost-effective transmission of
power through supply lines to the distribution substations in the surrounding regions.

▪ These supply lines arc radial feeders, each connecting the substation to a small number
of distribution substations.

M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU

Distribution substations

▪ Distribution substations typically operate at I I kV/0.4 kV voltage levels, and deliver

electric energy directly to industrial and residential consumers.

▪ Distribution feeders transport power from the distribution substations to the end
consumers’ premises.

▪ These feeders serve a large number of premises and usually contain many branches.

▪ At the consumers’ premises, distribution transformers transform the distribution voltage

to the service level voltage directly used in households and industrial plants, usually
from 230 V or 400 V.

M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU

 Substation
Connection diagram

A typical sub-station connection diagram is shown in

Figure.

The sub-station may include the following equipment.

✓ Power transformer or distribution

transformer.
✓ Circuit breakers.
✓ Disconnecting switches.
✓ Isolators.
✓ Station bus.
✓ Current transformer.
✓ Potential transformer.
✓ Lightening arrestor.
✓ Protective relays.
✓ Station batteries.
✓ Earthing system.

M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU

 Illumination
DEFINITIONS

Plane angle
▪ A plane angle is subtended at a point and is enclosed by two straight lines lying in the same plane.

▪ A plane angle is expressed in terms of degrees or radian.

▪ A radian is the angle subtended by an arc of a circle whose length equals the radius of the circle.

Luminous flux
▪ It is the rate of energy radiation in the form of light waves and is denoted by Φ = Q/t, where Q is the
raidiant energy. It’s unit is lumen.

▪ One lumen is defined as the luminous flux emitted by a source of one candle power in a unit solid
angle, i.e. Lumen = Candle power of source X Solid angle

▪ Hence candle power of a source is defined as the no. of lumens emitted by that source per unit
solid angle in a given direction. The term candle power is used interchangeably with intensity.

M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU

Luminous intensity (I)
▪ The mean luminous intensity over a particular range of directions or zones is the flux
contained per unit solid angle in that zone.

▪ If the solid angle is infinitely small the intensity is no longer mean value but a value in a
specific direction.
▪ Hence luminous intensity is mathematically defined as
Luminous Intensity, I = d Φ /dω
whereas dΦ is the differential luminous flux in a differential solid angle dω
▪ The unit for luminous intensity is candela or lumens/steradian.

Brightness or luminance (L)

▪ It is defined as the intensity of a source in a given direction divided by the orthogonally
projected area of the source in that direction.

▪ The orthogonal projection of any element of area of a surface dA is given by dA cosθ where θ
is the angle between the normal to element and the direction of view.

▪ The element dA may have any size provided that this is small as compared with the distance at
which the intensity measurement is made. The unit for brightness is lambert.

M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU

Illumination (E)
▪ Illumination of a surface is defined as the luminous flux received by the surface per unit
area.
▪ Its unit is Lux. Illumination of one lux means one lumen per sq meter.

Relationship between I, L and E

Consider a uniform diffuse spherical source with radius r meters and luminous
intensity I candela.
Then L = I / π(r^2)
And, E = I / 4π(r^2)
Therefore, E=πL

M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU

 THE ELECTRIC LAMP

LAMP
▪ A lamp is a replaceable component which is designed to produce light from electricity.

▪ These components usually have a base of ceramic, metal, glass or plastic etc.

▪ The origins of the very first lamp dates back to70,000 BC.

▪ Invention of the first practical incandescent lamp by Thomas Edison and Joseph Swan in the
nineteenth century.

▪ Invention of the incandescent light bulb from Thomas Edison and so on.

M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU

 THE ELECTRIC LAMP
Light sources are usually divided into two classes: incandescent sources and
luminescent sources.

▪ An incandescent source is one which

emits light solely because of its’ high

temperature e.g. a tungsten lamp.

▪ Whereas, a luminescent source emits light due to ionization and excitation

independent of temperature e.g. mercury vapour lamp, sodium vapour lamp
and neon lamp.

M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU

Mercury vapour lamp

▪ The mercury vapour lamp is similar in

construction to the sodium vapour lamp and
consists of a double glass bulb (Figure).

▪ The operation of the mercury vapour lamp at

low mercury vapour pressure gives blue light
and a high proportion of the ultra violet rays -
hence are unsatisfactory.

▪ A more recent development is a high pressure (1

to 2 atm) mercury lamp in which a small but
carefully measured mercury drop of mercury is
introduced in the bulb.

➢ The vapour pressure rises until all the mercury

is vaporized - the light given out is with a
bluish tinge.

M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU

Sodium Vapour lamp

▪ A sodium vapour lamp consists of an inner

bulb of special glass containing the sodium
and inert gas either neon or argon (at 1.5mm
pressure) and is fitted with two filaments.

▪ This is enclosed in a large bulb (Figure).

M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU

References
1. C.L.Wadhwa, ‘Electrical Power Systems’, New Academic Science Ltd, 2009.
2. K. Padiyar, HVDC power transmission systems: technology and system interactions:
New Age International, 1990.

# Please include the topics (with this material) discussed on board in class.

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M Saad Bin Arif and Mohd Anas Anees,EED, AMU