Teaching – Learning

UNIT 8 PLANNING TEACHING-LEARNING Materials

ACTIVITIES

Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Concept of Curricular, Co-Curricular and Extra-Curricular Activities
8.3.1 Meaning of Curricular and Co-curricular Activities
8.3.2 Types of Co-curricular Activities
8.3.3 Importance of Co-curricular Activities
8.4 Planning and Organisation of Instruction
8.5 Annual Plan
8.6 Unit Plan
8.6.1 Meaning of Unit Plan
8.6.2 How do Teachers Plan Units?
8.6.3 Steps for the Preparation of Unit Plan
8.7 Lesson Plan
8.7.1 Meaning and Definition
8.7.2 Procedure and Planning for Content, Methods, Media and Evaluation Exercises
8.7.3 Steps for Preparing a Lesson Plan
8.8 Constructivist Teaching and Lesson Planning
8.8.1 Characteristics of Constructivist Teaching
8.8.2 Constructivist Learning Environments (CLEs)
8.8.3 Constructivist Assessment
8.8.4 Role of Teachers
8.8.5 Procedure for Implementation of Constructivist Activities
8.8.6 Constructivist Lesson Planning
8.9 Planning Co-Curricular Activities
8.9.1 Principles Underlying Planning and Organisation of Co-Curricular Activities
8.10 Let Us Sum-Up
8.11 Unit-End Exercises
8.12 Suggested Readings and References
8.13 Answers to Check Your Progress

8.1 INTRODUCTION
All of us are aware of the importance of planning in our life. All kinds of activities
require planning. Planning for any purposeful activity shows results. In addition,
planning leads to shared understanding and acceptance of clear and attainable
goals. In teaching-learning process planning of instructional activities enhances
students’ performance. Planning can give both teachers and students a sense of
direction. It helps them to become aware of the goals that are implicit in the
learning task they are asked to perform. Learning objectives, thus, have a focusing
effect on students. Another positive aspect regarding planning is that it produces
a smoothly running classroom with minimum discipline problems and
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Pedagogic Practices at interruptions. Educational research consistently shows that planning is the key
Elementary Level
to tackling most of the classroom management problems. All these bear testimony
to the need for planning of teaching-learning activities. At the elementary level,
planning involves planning of both curricular and co-curricular activities. In this
unit, we will discuss the meaning of curricular and co-curricular activities and
how they are planned by a teacher.

8.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• define the concepts of curricular and co-curricular activities;
• distinguish between co-curricular and extra-curricular activities;
• discuss planning of curricular and co-curricular activities;
• describe the planning of Annual Plan, Unit Plan and Lesson Plan;
• differentiate between traditional and constructivist classroom;
• organise constructivist classroom activities; and
• prepare lesson plan based on the principles of Constructivism.

8.3 CONCEPTS OF CURRICULAR, CO-

CURRICULAR AND EXTRA- CURRICULAR
ACTIVITIES
8.3.1 Meaning of Curricular and Co-curricular Activities
You may be carrying out so many activities both inside and outside the classroom.
These activities may be delivering a lecture in environmental sciences, organising
a quiz in mathematics class, demonstrating an experiment in a science laboratory,
organising a fieldtrip to the nearest industry or a historical place, asking students
to visit the library and consult the books in social sciences, etc. Similarly, you
might have engaged your students in activities such as music, drawing, stitching,
knitting, dancing, etc. In fact, all these teaching-learning activities you organise
in your school are either curricular or co-curricular in nature. Although, earlier
days, there was a lot of stress on organisation of curricular or scholastic activities,
of late there has been increasing emphasis on organisation of co-curricular or
co-scholastic activities as well. Apart from curricular and co-curricular activities,
schools also engage learners in extra-curricular activities. Organisation of co-
curricular and extra-curricular activities alongside the curricular activities is
necessary for holistic or all-round development of children.
Terms like curricular, co-curricular and extra-curricular activities overlap with
each other with regard to their meanings.
Curricular activities can be defined as activities directly linked with instructional
objectives based on which teaching-learning activities are organised. These
activities are organised in the classroom, in the laboratory and in the workshop
which are directly linked to the courses of study or curricular areas of the school
curriculum. These activities include classroom activities like individual and group
works, classroom experiments, conducting scientific experiments, preparation
of charts, models, etc; library activities like reading books and journals, taking
88 notes from library books, surfing digital library resources on the internet, etc.;
Socially Useful Productive Work(SUPW), and work experience; and activities Planning Teaching –
Learning Activities
in the science and language laboratories, etc.

Co-curricular activities are those activities which are organised by teachers having
some definite responsibilities; many full time professional teachers are employed;
schools rooms, time, equipment and materials are provided; their relationships
with regular curricular activities are regarded as vital; credit for participation is
allowed and recognition is also given. Co- curricular activities also have indirect
reference to actual instructional works that go on in the classroom (IGNOU,
2000). Co-curricular activities are physical development activities, literary
activities, civic development activities, visits, etc.

Extra-curricular activities are organised and promoted largely by students

themselves, with relatively little assistance from teachers and administrators.
No official recognition and credit is allowed for participation. Although they are
not part of curriculum, but they have a lot of significance for student learning.
They are outside the formal school hours. For example, student club, sports club,
etc. are examples of extra-curricular activities.

Co- curricular activities work in tandem with curriculum. In both curricular and
co-curricular activities, a variety of experiences are provided under the guidance
of the school for fulfilment of curricular objectives leading to certification and
grades. Extra-curricular events are considered part of the total social experience
for the student. The word extra in extra-curricular activities is an optional piece
to curricular learning, suggesting that not all students participate in these types
of activities. All accept that co-curricular and extra-curricular activities occupy a
very important place in the instructional programme of the school. They foster
creative ability and provide opportunities for expression. Students acquire many
subtle learning experiences like human values, beliefs, manners and thinking
styles through hidden curriculum which includes co-curricular activities.
Curriculum, thus, is not only teaching-learning in classroom. It also includes
works in library, laboratory and workshop, participation in games and sports in
playground and numerous informal contacts between teacher and students in
these places (IGNOU, 2000). There is a strong inter- relationship among curricular,
co-curricular and extra-curricular activities which is crucial for attainment of
holistic development of learners. The relationship among these activities is
depicted in Fig. 8.1.

Fig.8.1 Relationship among curricular, co-curricular and extra-curricular activities 89

Pedagogic Practices at
Elementary Level Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space provided after each item.
1) Find out the type of activities whether curricular co-curricular/or extra
curricular to which each of the following belongs:
Activity Category
1) Singing a song during PTA meeting ......................................
2) Singing a song in the school choir ......................................
3) Study tour ......................................
4) Excursion ......................................
5) Painting ......................................
6) Offering painting in a workshop ......................................
7) Fancy dress ......................................
8) Celebration of Independence Day ......................................
9) Morning Assembly ......................................
10) Mass Parade ......................................

8.3.2 Types of Co-Curricular Activities

Co-curricular activities refer to activities that schools provide in addition to
academic classes.
Examples include:
1) Literary Activities:
Debates and panel discussion, subject-wise club, School Magazine,
Dramatics, Study Circle, Story Writing, Recitation, Kavi Summelan, Library
Work.
2) Physical Development Activities:
Games, Indoor and Outdoor Athletics, Mass Drill, Parade,
3) Aesthetic and Cultural Development:
Music, Dancing, Drawing, Painting, Dramatics, Exhibition, Fancy, Folk
Dance, Folk Songs, etc.
4) Civic Development Activities:
Morning Assembly, Celebration of Religious, National and Social Festivals,
Organising of School Panchayat, Mock Parliament.
5) Excursion Activities:
Picnic, Visit to Museum, Zoo etc.

8.3.3 Importance of Co-curricular Activities

The co-curricular activities have the following benefits:

1) Prepare for Future

Co-curricular activities prepare students for the future. Through these
90 activities, students learn about working in a group or a team to accomplish a
 Planning Teaching –
goal. When students enter the workforce and have to cooperate with their Learning Activities
co-workers, they will be able to call on the teamwork and leadership skills
they learned.

2) Develop Time Management

Because co-curricular activities occur outside school hours, participating
students have less free time. This forces them to develop skill of time
management.

3) Contribute to holistic development of students

Co-curricular activities contribute to holistic development of students because
these activities teach students a variety of skills. For example, the debate
facilitate students on how to communicate and to explain their point of view
to others. Choir or drama helps students on how to perform in front of others
without stage fright. Co-curricular also develops social skills by encouraging
students to interact with one another. Excursions and tours provide first hand
experience and reinforce classroom knowledge in subjects like history,
geography, nature study etc. Co-curricular activities meet the psychological
needs of students. These activities are a means of channelizing students’
instincts into healthy and fruitful channels e.g. instinct of curiosity can be
fruitfully channelized by library work and coin collection etc. By participating
in group activities like dramatics, exhibition, etc., students learn good manners
and develop a sense of cooperation. These activities train the students for
good citizenship. Games, sports and athletics directly contribute to physical
development of students,

8.4 PLANNING AND ORGANISATION OF

INSTRUCTION
Organizing and planning for instruction is the framework on which effective
teaching is based. Careful and thoughtful planning allows instructional time to
be maximized, standards to be addressed, prior knowledge to be activated,
misconceptions to be confronted and the diverse characteristics and learning
needs of the students to be considered. Classroom management issues are
minimized and the focus can be on instruction and increasing student
achievement. In addition, instruction can be scaffolded more effectively and
assessments, learning goals, and content can be aligned to maximize
understanding. For curricular planning, it should be done before the academic
year. In this case, the selection of textbooks, their distribution, conduct of exams,
preparation of time-table, allotment of staff for each subject in different classes,
monitoring of each class by teachers, etc. are very important. All these activities
highlight the importance of annual planning, unit planning and lesson planning.

Good planning is the first step towards an effective classroom. A well-planned

class reduces stress on the teacher and helps minimize disruptions. When teachers
know what they need to accomplish and how they are going to do it, they have a
better opportunity to achieve success with the added benefit of less stress. Further,
when students are engaged in the entire class period, they have less opportunity
to cause disruptions.

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Pedagogic Practices at
Elementary Level 8.5 ANNUAL PLAN
An annual plan outlines smooth operation of curricular and co-curricular activities.
An annual plan provides a method for tracking the progress of some of the key
tasks your service needs to complete regularly, as well as specific ‘one off’
projects. For some projects you will need to develop much more detailed time
lines identifying ‘who, what, when’. An annual plan allows you to easily tick
items off as you go and check progress. You can ensure that tasks are spread over
the year and in the right order.

Each teacher needs to have a copy of the currently approved curriculum guide
(program outline). The instructor’s copy may include additions, deletions, and
other unofficial modifications needed for curriculum planning purposes.
Substitutions must be approved per the procedure for Approval of Program, Title,
Hour, and Content Changes. However, the curriculum guide is not in sufficient
detail to ensure sound instruction; therefore instructors need to maintain plans
of instruction such as lesson plans.

An annual plan contains all academic and co-curricular activities to be taken in

the specified academic year. It gives a detailed description about the units to be
covered in each month and the related activities to be undertaken along with the
unit. Hence we can say that an annual plan reflects the total activities of the
school. From the annual plan the unit plan can be constructed. Generally, the
annual plan is prepared before the beginning of the new academic year. It is
useful in scheduling the activities of the school as well as the availability of time
to accomplish the activities.
A Model Annual Plan
School: Standard: VII
Subject: Social Science Year :2012-13
Sl. Units Time Month when Special Methods Teaching- Co-curricular
No. in planned to if any learning Activities
Period teach materials
Environment 4 July Narration of a Picture of Celebration of
1. situation, natural World
Discussion, and human Environmental Day
Co-operative environment
learning Poster on World
Environmental
Day
2. Inside Our 4 July Demonstration, Model of Preparation of
Earth Discussion , Interior picture book related
Observation of Earth, with rocks and
Specimens of minerals
sandstone,
limestone
3. Our 6 August, Demonstration, Chart of volution Preparation of scrap
Changing September Library refer- of landforms, book regarding
Earth ence, Model of Volcano, earthquakes
Case Study on Pictures of various
92 earth quake landforms
 Planning Teaching –
4. Air 7 September, Discussion, Chart of Library reference,
Learning Activities
October Demonstration, constituents of Preparation of
Observation, air, layers of weather calendar,
Experiments on earth Mid- term test
rain gauge, wind
vane

5. Water 7 October Map reading, Chart of water Collage on water

Observation, cycle, Physical scarcity,
Discussion, Map of World, Report writing on
Demonstration Model on Tides World Water
Day

6. Natural 6 October, Narration of a Pictures on Preparation of Picture

Vegetation November situation, various types of album
and Discussion, Note forests and
Wild Life making grasslands

7. Human 7 November Discussion, Pictures of Survey on

Environment- December, Lecture, different modes Communicatio-n to
Settlement, Map reading of transport, nearby locality
Transport Map
and
Communication

8. Human 7 January, Discussion, World Map Project on

Environment February Lecture Destruction of
Interactions- Forests
the Tropical
and the Sub
tropical
region
9. Life in the 5 February Map Reading, World Map, Model of World Map
Temperate Note making, Map filling
Grasslands Discussion

10. Life in the 4 February, Discussion, Map Map filling, Desert game
Deserts March Reading Pictures of desert
places

8.6 UNIT PLAN

8.6.1 Meaning of Unit Plan
Proper planning of a unit is very important for a teacher’s success in his/ her
teaching. Unit planning can be one of the most exciting and rewarding experience
for a teacher since it demands his/her ability to relate societal and professional
values to knowledge of the learner, knowledge of the subject matter and
knowledge of teaching methods. What exactly is a unit plan? What makes it so
important?
A unit plan is a series of lesson plans designed around a specific topic, lesson,
etc. Unit planning begins with the selection of a unit a starting point for this 93
Pedagogic Practices at process could be examination of the chapter headings in the students’ text. Borich
Elementary Level
(1988) describes unit planning as creating a diagram or visual blue print of what
one wants to teach. Unit planning is a process wherein teachers select, organize,
order, evaluate and revise both what they teach and how they teach it. The unit
must be a comprehensive and significant aspect of the environment.

Origin of Unit Plan

Unit plan was originated from Gestalt psychology. The Gestalt theory of learning
has a great influence on human learning. According to this theory, learning takes
place when the whole is perceived rather in parts. For example, we understand
the concept of ‘diversity’. When we know about the various aspects of diversity
such as linguistic, religious diversity, etc. A unit plays an important role in learning.
The learner usually takes help of the units in understanding and grasping the concepts
given in that unit. The concepts are related to one another within a unit.

8.6.2 How Do Teachers Plan Units?

Planning a unit depends on nature of the topic, the importance assigned to it by
a teacher, decisions about how lessons will be organised, students interest and
time availability. Generally, 2-3 weeks is a manageable amount of time for
transacting a unit. It allows a class to explore a topic with some depth and to
engage in intellectual discourse on an issue. With every unit, try to provide students
with a lesson schedule and a homework assignment sheet, design some form of
unit project, and include a unit test. As you plan, it is useful to ask yourself some
of the following questions:
• Does this unit build on the previous unit or has some connection with it?
• Does this unit lay the basis for future unit/units?
• Are there materials for students to analyze in class? Do the lessons include
enough activities for students to do?
• Are my teaching-learning activities varied and interesting?

8.6.3 Steps for the Preparation of Unit Plan

The following steps are followed:
i) Select a unit/chapter;
ii) Divide the unit/chapter into sub-units;
iii) For each sub-unit, formulate learning objectives;
iv) Develop instructional procedures for each sub-units. Instructional procedures
would include number of periods, main teaching points, teaching-learning
activities, methods and media;
v) Plan and prepare your evaluation questions;
vi) Have benchmarks in place. Once the transaction of the unit has begun, use
benchmarks to keep you on track for time and to ensure that learning
objectives are being met.

The outline of a unit plan in social science is given as an example.

94
 Outline of a Unit Plan Planning Teaching –
Learning Activities
Name of the Teacher : Subject : Social Science
Name of the Institution: Standard : VII
Unit : Environment
Mode of Delivery: Constructivist Approach
Sub-units No. of Specific Main Teaching Teaching- Methods Evaluation Co-curricular
Periods Learning Points Learning And Activities
Objectives Activities Media

Environment 1 To define the The place, The teacher Narration Define the Prepare a
term people, things presented a of a term poster on
environment and nature that situation situation environment natural and
surround any related with human made
living organism environment environment
is called
evironment

Components To classify the Environment is From a Picture Differentiate Prepare a

of components a combination picture between model of
Environment of of natural and teacher asks natural domains of
environment man made the student to environment natural
phenomena. list out the from man- environment
natural and made
human environment
environment

Domains of 1 To categorize Lithosphere, The teacher Discussion Note making

Natural the domains Hydrosphere, writes some method
Environment of natural Atmosphere words on the
environment and Biosphere CB and asks Chalkboard
To define are the domains learners to
each domain of natural categorize
of natural environment into different
environment domains

Eco- system 1 To define the Eco- system is The students Observation What is an Planting of
1 term eco- a complex set identify the eco- system? trees in school
system of relationships picture Note surroundings
To find the among the related with making
relationship living eco- system Prepare a
between resources, Picture poster on
various organs habitats and World
of eco system residents of an Environmental
area Day
To analyze the Human beings The students Note Comparative
interaction of interact with are asked to making table
human beings environment prepare a
Human with
interaction and modify it comparative Conduct of
environment according to table on the Discussion Unit test
with
environment their need life of early Method
man and
modern man Textbook
The class
then discusses
about the
interaction of
man with
environment
95
Pedagogic Practices at
Elementary Level Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space provided after each item.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
2) What are the steps for the preparation of a unit plan?
...............................................................................................................
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8.7 LESSON PLAN

8.7.1 Meaning and Definition
Planning for instruction is a part of a teacher day-to-day activity for teaching.
Lesson plans, specify the learning objectives, content, methods, materials/
equipment, application, and evaluation for each lesson that is taught. Such
planning prepares a teacher to teach and is invaluable to substitute teachers who
will need to know what and how to teach. Lesson plans serve several purposes.
For beginning teachers, in particular, they provide the day-to-day planning of a
course. Such plans can easily be modified in subsequent years of teaching a
program. lesson plans can be evidence of good sound planning and preparation
and provide detailed information about teaching performance and level of
expertise. Even after the lesson is taught, administrators and teachers themselves
can analyze and reflect on instructional methodology. They can also provide
useful information for school administration. Ideally, instructors will use formal
plans such as lesson plans, which usually include the four step method for teaching
to a specific outcome or objective: preparation of the student, presentation
(procedure), application, and evaluation.

Theoretical knowledge of teaching concept does not provide any guideline for
classroom instructional procedure. Every teacher who intends to teach something
has to prepare an outline of his/ her subject or topic in written form or at his/ her
cognitive level that is known as lesson planning. A teacher has to apply his/ her
theoretical knowledge in planning and administrating his lesson plan. A practical
outline of a topic to be taught in a period is called the lesson plan. It is designed
during the student teaching or teaching practice.

Teaching is organized in three phases: pre-active, interactive and post-active.

All the activities of a teacher and his planning done prior of the timings of his
class are called pre-active. Lesson planning is the pre-active phase of teaching.

Binning and Binning (1982) have explained the structure and purpose of lesson
planning in their definition. “All lesson planning involves defining the objectives,
selecting and arranging the subject-matter and determining the method and
procedure.”

96
 Planning Teaching –
8.7.2 Procedure and Planning for Content, Methods, Media and Learning Activities
Evaluation Exercises
A lesson plan is the teacher’s road map of what students need to learn and how it
will be done effectively during the class time. The first task in planning a lesson
is to analyse the contents of the topic in terms of concepts, principles, laws,
theories, etc. the learning objectives the second task is to based on the content
analysis. Then, you can design appropriate learning activities and develop
strategies to obtain feedback on student learning. The procedure is the body of
your lesson plan, the ways in which you’ll share information with students and
the methods that you’ll use to help them assume a measure of mastery of that
material. A successful lesson plan addresses and integrates these three key components:
• Content analysis;
• Objectives for student learning;
• Teaching/learning activities including selection of methods and media;
• Strategies to assess student understanding.
Specifying concrete objectives for student learning will help you determine the
kinds of teaching and learning activities you will use in class, while those activities
will define how you will assess whether the learning objectives have been
accomplished (see Fig. 8. 2).

Fig. 8.2: Relationship between objectives, learning experience and evaluation

8.7.3 Steps for Preparing a Lesson Plan

Below are the steps to guide you when you prepare your first lesson plans. Each
step is accompanied by a set of questions meant to prompt reflection and aid you
in designing your teaching and learning activities.
a) Outline learning objectives
The first step is to determine what you want students to learn and be able to
achieve at the end of class. To help you specify your objectives for student
learning, answer the following questions:
• What is the topic of the lesson?
• What do I want students to learn? 97
Pedagogic Practices at • What do I want them to understand and be able to achieve at the end of
Elementary Level
class?
• What do I want them to take away from this particular lesson?
Once you outline the learning objectives for the class rank them in terms of
their importance. This step will prepare you for managing class time and
accomplishing the more important learning objectives in case you are pressed
for time. Consider the following questions:
• What are the most important concepts, ideas, or skills I want students
to be able to grasp and apply?
• Why are they important?
• If I ran out of time, which ones could not be omitted?
• And conversely, which ones could I skip if pressed for time?
b) Develop the introduction
Now having your learning objectives in order of their importance, design
the specific activities that you will use to get students to understand and
apply what they have learned. Because you will have a diverse body of
students with different academic and personal experiences, they may already
be familiar with the topic. That is why you might start with a question or
activity to gauge students’ knowledge of the subject or possibly, their
preconceived notions about it. For example, you can take a simple poll:
“How many of you have heard of the concept of sustainablity? Raise your
hand if you have.” You can also gather background information from your
students prior to class by sending students an electronic survey or asking
them to write comments on index cards. This additional information can
help shape your introduction, learning activities, etc. When you have an
idea of the students’ familiarity with the topic, you will also have a sense of
what to focus on.

Develop a creative introduction to the topic to stimulate interest and

encourage thinking. You can use a variety of approaches to engage students
(e.g., personal anecdote, historical event, thought-provoking dilemma, real-
world example, short video clip, practical application, probing question,
etc.). Consider the following questions when planning your introduction:
• How will I check whether students know anything about the topic or
have any preconceived notions about it?
• What are some commonly held ideas (or possibly misconceptions) about
this topic that students might be familiar with or might espouse?
• What will I do to introduce the topic?
c) Plan the specific learning activities (the main body of the lesson)
Prepare several different ways of explaining the material (real-life examples,
analogies, visuals, etc.) to catch the attention of more students and appeal
to different learning styles. As you plan your examples and activities, estimate
how much time you will spend on each. Build in time for extended
explanation or discussion, but also be prepared to move on quickly to
different applications or problems, and to identify strategies that check for
understanding. These questions would help you design the learning activities
98 you will use:
 • What will I do to explain the topic? Planning Teaching –
Learning Activities
• What will I do to illustrate the topic in a different way?
• How can I engage students in the topic?
• What are some relevant real-life examples, analogies, or situations that
can help students understand the topic?
• What will students need to do to help them understand the topic better?
d) Plan to check for students’ understanding
Now that you have explained the topic and illustrated it with different
examples, you need to check for student understanding – how will you know
that students are learning? Think about specific questions you can ask
students in order to check for understanding, write them down, and then
paraphrase them so that you are prepared to ask the questions in different
ways. Try to predict the answers your questions will generate. Decide on
whether you want students to respond orally or in writing. You can also ask
yourself these questions:
• What questions will I ask students to check for students understanding?
• What will I have students do to demonstrate that they are following?
• Going back to my list of learning objectives, what activity can I have
students do to check whether each of those has been accomplished?
e) Develop a conclusion and a preview
Go over the material covered in class by summarizing the main points of the
lesson. You can do this in a number of ways: you can state the main points
yourself; you can ask a student to help you summarize them; or you can
even ask all students to write down on a piece of paper what they think were
the main points of the lesson. You can review the students’ answers to gauge
their understanding of the topic and then explain anything not understood
by students in the following class. Conclude the lesson not only by
summarizing the main points, but also by previewing the next lesson. How
does the topic relate to the one that is to be taught in the next class? This
preview will spur students’ interest and help them connect the different
ideas within a larger context.

f) Create a realistic timeline

A realistic timeline will reflect your flexibility and readiness to adapt to the
specific classroom environment. Here are some strategies for creating a
realistic timeline:
• Estimate how much time each of the activities will take, then plan
some extra time for each;
• When you prepare your lesson plan, next to each activity indicate how
much time you expect it will take;
• Plan a few minutes at the end of class to answer any remaining questions
and to sum up key points;
• Plan an extra activity or discussion question in case you have time left;
• Be flexible – be ready to adjust your lesson plan to students’ needs and
focus on what seems to be more productive rather than sticking to your
original plan. 99
Pedagogic Practices at g) Presenting the Lesson Plan
Elementary Level
Letting your students know what they will be learning and doing in class
will help keep them more engaged and on track. You can share your lesson
plan by writing a brief agenda on the board or telling students explicitly
what they will be learning and doing in class. You can outline on the board
or on a handout the learning objectives for the class. Providing a meaningful
organization of the class time can help students not only remember better,
but also follow your presentation and understand the rationale behind in-
class activities. Having a clearly visible agenda (e.g., on the board) will also
help you and students stay on track.

h) Closure
Whenever possible, use a cliffhanger at the end of a lesson.
• Teacher summary. Be sure to summarize the important points or critical
elements of a lesson for students. Discuss what you taught and what they
learned. This might be the most valuable 3 to 5 minutes of any lesson.
• Student summary. Provide opportunities for students to summarize a
lesson as well. Inviting them to put a lesson into their own words can
be helpful to you in determining how well they learned the material.
• Lesson product. Invite students to incorporate the major elements of
a lesson into a final product. As described earlier, this product may
take the form of a poster, brochure, model, or portfolio.
i) Reflecting on Your Lesson Plan
A lesson plan may not work as well as you had expected due to a number of
extraneous circumstances. You should not get discouraged – it happens to
even the most experienced teachers! Take a few minutes after each class to
reflect on what worked well and why, and what you could have done
differently. Identifying successful and less successful organization of class
time and activities would make it easier to adjust to the contingencies of the
classroom

j) Self-Evaluation
As you write lessons, include a brief section at the end that allows you to
self-evaluate. This will be important when and if you decide to teach the
lesson again. It will also provide you with some important insights relative
to your perceived level of success.
You might consider some of these self-evaluative questions:
• How was my pacing?
• Did students understand the content?
• Did students understand the important concepts?
• Did I use my time appropriately?
• What changes should I make the next time I teach this lesson?
• Were students engaged and involved?
• What new activities or procedures could I include?

100
• Did I present the lesson well?
 Planning Teaching –
Check Your Progress Learning Activities
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space provided after each item.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
3) What are the steps for the preparation of a lesson plan?
...............................................................................................................
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8.8 CONSTRUCTIVIST TEACHING AND LESSON

PLANNING
Constructivist teaching is based on constructivist learning theory. This
theoretical framework holds that learning always builds upon knowledge that a
student already knows; this prior knowledge is called a schema. Because all
learning is filtered through pre-existing schemata, constructivists suggest that
learning is more effective when a student is actively engaged in the learning
process rather than attempting to receive knowledge passively. A wide variety of
methods claim to be based on constructivist learning theory. Most of these
methods rely on some form of guided discovery where the teacher avoids most
direct instruction and attempts to lead the student through questions and activities
to discover, discuss, appreciate, and verbalize the new knowledge.

Constructivist learning theory says that all knowledge is constructed from a base
of prior knowledge. Children are not a blank slate and knowledge cannot be
imparted without the child making sense of it according to his or her current
conceptions. Therefore children learn best when they are allowed to construct a
personal understanding based on experiencing things and reflecting on those
experiences.

8.8.1 Characteristics of Constructivist Teaching

One of the primary goals of using constructivist teaching is that students learn
how to learn by giving them the training to take initiative for their own learning
experiences.

According to Audrey Gray (1997), the characteristics of a constructivist classroom

are as follows:

§ the learners are actively involved;

§ the environment is democratic;

§ the activities are interactive and student-centred;

§ the teacher facilitates a process of learning in which students are encouraged

to be responsible and autonomous.
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Pedagogic Practices at 8.8.2 Constructivist Learning Environments (CLEs)
Elementary Level

Fig. 8.3: Constructivist Learning Situation

Source: Constructivismetec512.edublogs.org

Jonassen (1994) has proposed a model for developing constructivist learning

environments (CLEs) around a specific learning goal. This goal may take one of
several forms, from least to most complex:
§ Question or issue;
§ Case study;
§ Long-term Project;
§ Problem (multiple cases and projects integrated at the curriculum level).
Jonassen (1994) recommends making the learning goals engaging and relevant
but not overly structured. In CLEs, learning is driven by the problem to be solved;
students learn content and theory in order to solve the problem. This is different
from traditional objectivist teaching where the theory would be presented first
and problems would be used afterwards to practice theory. Depending on students’
prior experiences, related cases and scaffolding may be necessary for support.
Instructors also need to provide an authentic context for tasks, plus information
resources, cognitive tools, and collaborative tools.

8.8.3 Constructivist assessment

Traditionally, assessment in the classrooms is based on testing. In this style, it is
important for the student to produce the correct answers. However, in
constructivist teaching, the process of gaining knowledge is viewed as being just
as important as the product. Thus, assessment is based not only on tests, but also
on observation of the student, the student’s work, and the student’s points of
view. Some assessment strategies include:
• Oral discussions. The teacher presents students with a “focus” question and
102 allows an open discussion on the topic;
• KWL (H) Chart (what we know(K), what we want(W) to know, what we Planning Teaching –
Learning Activities
have learned(L), How(H) we know it). This technique can be used
throughout the course of study for a particular topic, but is also a good
assessment technique as it shows the teacher the progress of the student
throughout the course of study;
• Mind Mapping. In this activity, students list and categorize the concepts and
ideas relating to a topic;
• Hands-on activities. These encourage students to manipulate their
environments or a particular learning tool. Teachers can use a checklist and
observation to assess student success with the particular material;
• Pre-testing. This allows a teacher to determine what knowledge students
bring to a new topic and thus will be helpful in directing the course of study.

In most pedagogies based on constructivism, teachers also intervene when there

are conflicts that arise; however, they simply facilitate the students’ resolutions
and self-regulation, with an emphasis on the conflict being the students’ and that
they must figure things out for themselves. For example, promotion of literacy is
accomplished by integrating the need to read and write throughout individual
activities within print-rich classrooms. The teacher, after reading a story,
encourages the students to write or draw stories of their own, or by having the
students re-enact a story that they may know well, both activities encourage the
students to conceive themselves as reader and writers.

Another important consideration in evaluating the potential benefits/limitations

of constructivist teaching approach is to consider the large number of varied
personal characteristics as well as prevalence of learning problems in children
today. For example, when a solely constructivist approach was employed in your
classroom, then a significant number of children, for example say with Attention
Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, might not be able to focus on their perceptions
of learning experiences long enough to build a knowledge base from the event.
In other words, constructivist theory is biased to students who desire to learn
more and are capable of focusing attention to the learning process independently.
A mixed approach that incorporates components of constructivist learning along
with other approaches, including more guided teaching strategies, would better
meet the learning needs of the majority of students in a classroom by accounting
for differences between learning styles and capacities.

8.8.4 Role of Teachers

The teacher as a facilitator
The teachers task is to facilitate the learning. Instead of direct instruction, teachers
play the role of a facilitator who helps the learner to get to his or her own
understanding of the content.
Instructor Facilitator
lectures supports
gives answers provides guidelines and creates the
according to a set curriculum environment for the learner to arrive
at his or her own conclusions
Gives a monologue continuous dialogue with the learners
103
Pedagogic Practices at The learner in traditional learning environments is a passive recipient to be filled
Elementary Level
with knowledge by the instructor while in constructivist pedagogy the learner
plays an active role in the learning process.
In the constructivist classroom, the teacher’s role is to prompt and facilitate
discussion. Thus, the teacher’s focus should be on guiding students by asking
questions that will lead them to develop their own conclusions on the subject.

8.8.5 Procedure for Implementation of Constructivist Activities

Furthermore, in the constructivist classroom, students work primarily in groups
and learning and knowledge are interactive and dynamic. There is a great focus
and emphasis on social and communication skills, as well as collaboration and
exchange of ideas. This is contrary to the traditional classroom in which students
work primarily alone, learning is achieved through repetition, and the subjects
are strictly adhered to and are guided by a textbook. Some activities encouraged
in constructivist classrooms are:
§ Experimentation: students individually perform an experiment and then come
together as a class to discuss the results;
§ Research projects: students research a topic and can present their findings to
the class;
§ Field trips. This allows students to put the concepts and ideas discussed in
class in a real-world context. Field trips would often be followed by class
discussions;
§ Films. These provide visual context and thus bring another sense into the
learning experience.
§ Class discussions. This technique is used in all of the methods described above.
It is one of the most important distinctions of constructivist teaching methods.
Constructivist approaches can also be used in online learning. For example, tools
such as discussion forums, wikis and blogs can enable learners to actively
construct knowledge. Because existing knowledge schemata are explicitly
acknowledged as a starting point for new learning, constructivist approaches
tend to validate individual and cultural differences and diversity.

8.8.6 Constructivist Lesson Planning

Although several models of lesson plan for constructivism exist, the model
developed by Roger Bybee of the Biological Science Curriculum Study is widely
used by practitioners. This model is best known as the “Five Es”. (http://
sites.google.com/site/constructivism512/Home/lesson-plan)
The Five Es Instructional Model
1) Engage: This stage provides the opportunity for the teachers to discover what
students know or what they think they know.
2) Explore: This stage provides a common set of experiences as well as broad
range of experiences. This stage allows students to compare what they think
about with what they are actually observing.
3) Explain: This stage provides opportunity for students to connect their previous
experiences and to begin to make conceptual sense of the main ideas within
the unit of study.
104
4) Elaborate: In this stage students apply or extend the concepts in new situations Planning Teaching –
Learning Activities
and relate their pervious experiences to new ones.
5) Evaluate: Evaluation of students’ conceptual understanding and ability to
use skills begins at the Engage stage and continues throughout the model.

5Es Suggested Activity What the Teacher Does? What the Student Does?
Engage • Demonstration • Creates interest. • Asks questions such as.
• Reading • Generates curiosity. Why did this happen?
• Free Write • Raises questions. What can I found out
• Analyze a • Elicits responses that about this?
Graphic uncover what the • Shows interest in the
Organizer students know or think topic.
• KWL about the concept/ topic.
• Brainstorming
Explore • Perform an • Encourages the students • Thinks freely but
Investigation to work together without within the limits of the
• Read Authentic direct instruction from activity.
Resources to the teacher. • Tests predictions and
Collect • Observes and listens to hypotheses.
Information the students as they • Forms new predictions
Solve a problem interact. and hypotheses.
• Construct a • Asks probing questions • Tries alternatives and
Model to redirect the students’ discusses them with
investigations when others.
necessary. • Records observations
• Provides time for and ideas.
students to puzzle • Suspends judgement.
through problems.
Explain • Student Analysis • Encourages the students • Explains possible
& Explanation to explain concepts and solutions or answers to
• Supporting Ideas definitions in their own others.
with Evidence words. • Listens officially to
• Structured • Asks for justification others’ explanations.
Questioning (evidence) and • Questions others’
• Reading and clarification from explanations.
Discussion students. • Listens to and tries to
• Teacher • Formally provides comprehend
Explanation definitions, explanations the
• Thinking Skill explanations, and new teacher offers.
Activities: labels. • Refers to previous
compare, • Uses students’ previous activities.
classify and experiences as basis for • Uses recorded
error analysis explaining concepts. observations in
explanations.
Extend • Problem Solving • Expects the students to • Applies new labels,
• Decision Making use formal labels, definitions,
• Experimental definitions, and explanations, and skills
Inquiry explanations provided in new, but similar
• Think Skill previously. situations.
Activities: • Encourages the students • Uses previous
compare, to apply or extend the information to ask
classify and concepts and skills in questions, propose
apply new situations. solutions, make
105
Pedagogic Practices at
Elementary Level • Reminds the students of decisions, and design
alternative explanations. experiments.
• Refers the students to • Draws reasonable
existing data and conclusions from
evidence and asks, evidence.
What do you already • Records observations
know? Why do you and explanations.
think...? • Checks for
• Strategies from Explore understandings among
apply here also. peers.

Evaluate • Any of the • Observes the students • Answers open-ended

Above as they apply new questions by using
• Develop a concepts and skills. observations,
Scoring Tool or • Assesses students’ evidence, and
Rubric knowledge and/ or previously accepted
• Test skills. explanations.
• Performance • Looks for evidence that • Demonstrates an
Assessment the students have understanding or
• Produce a changed their thinking knowledge of the
Product or behaviours. concept or skill.
• Journal Entry • Allows students to • Evaluates his or her
• Portfolio assess their own own progress and
learning and group- knowledge.
process skills. • Asks related questions
• Asks open-ended that would encourage
questions, such as: Why future investigations.
do you think...? What
evidence do you have?
What do you know
about x? How would
you explain x?

Source: http://www.mcps.k12.md.us/curriculaum/science/instr/5Esactivities.htm.

A lesson plan in the subject of Social Science for Class VII is presented here.
This lesson plan is prepared for teaching a topic on Meaning of Environment. It
is done following the 5E constructivist approach to teaching-learning process.
The detail outline of the plan is given under the following headings.
A Suggestive Model of Planning a Lesson Based on Constructivist Approach
Name: Unit: Environment
Class: VII Topic: Meaning of Environment
Duration: 60 mts.
Approach to Teaching-Learning: Constructivist approach
I) Learning Objectives
Students will:
• define the term environment;
• list the components in environment;
• differentiate between natural environment and man-made environment.
106
II) Materials Needed Planning Teaching –
Learning Activities
• Picture of an environment
• Picture of natural and man-made environment
• Worksheet
III) Pre-Requisite
The students are already familiar with different objects existing in the
environment.
Stage 1- Engage (Group work)
The teacher divides the students into two groups and asks them to go around the
school campus and identify the objects, people, phenomena, etc. available in
school surroundings. Afterwards the leaders of both the groups read out what
their groups have identified and write them on the chalkboard. Both the groups
discuss about their observations and summarise about the objects, people and
phenomena existing in the school campus.

Stage 2- Explore (Introduction to the topic)

Based on the discussion, the teacher shows a picture related to environment and
asks the following questions:

Fig. 8.4: A Picture Related to Environment

Teacher’s Activities Learners’ Activities( Expected)

What this picture is related with? Surrounding

List out the names of objects you Trees, birds, crocodile , fish,
observe in this picture. water, etc.
Can you identify where these
objects can be seen?
Environment
What do you mean by an The place, people, objects and nature that
environment? surround any living organism is called
environment.
Announcement of the topic
After having the above discussion with the learners, the teacher announces that
today let us discuss and learn what an environment is.
107
Pedagogic Practices at Stage 3- Explain (Presentation)
Elementary Level
Next, the teacher shows the following two pictures related with environment.

Picture A

Fig. 8.5: Picture A

Picture B

Fig. 8.5: Picture B

(Source: NCERT.(2006). Unit 12, Work We Do in Looking Around-Textbook forClass III, p. 78)

108
Based on these pictures, the teacher asks the following questions: Planning Teaching –
Learning Activities
What do you observe in the pictures? Picture A includes the sun, lake, fishes
tree, birds, boad, tortoise, water etc.,
whereas in Picture B there are building,
Whether buildings and cars are a part car, human beings.
of environment?
Yes.
How are buildings and car different
from birds and animals? Building is constructed by human
beings and cars are produced by human
beings; whereas birds and animals are
Can you classify these two types of part of nature.
environments on the basis of your Yes.
observation?

Environment can be classified into

How do you classify these two natural environment and man-made
types of environment? environment. All those objects like
water, birds, trees, sun, rivers, sea, etc.
are part of natural environment;
whereas roads, buildings, vehicles,
etc. comprise man-made environment.

The students then summarizes the environment that is a combination of natural

and man -made phenomena.

Stage 4- Extend
Activity-I Analyzing a situation
The teacher presents the following situation.
Rakesh was studying in a boarding school. During vacation he went home and
found that the pond nearby his house was levelled and a building was constructed
over this place. He felt sad because whenever he went home, he usually tried to
catch fish from the pond and observed other insects, small animals, etc. and
enjoyed moving around the pond. He enquired about this to his parents and they
said that the environment was changing rapidly.

Based on this situation, the teacher asks students the following questions to discuss
in groups.
1) Why did Rakesh feel sad when he saw the building on the spot where the
pond was existing earlier?
2) What are the reasons for the rapid changes in the environment?
Activity II- Filling the worksheet
The following worksheets are given to each student to work on:
1) Among the items given below list out the items which are not a part of man-
made environment.
• Flat
• Club
• Flowers
109
Pedagogic Practices at • Community
Elementary Level
• Mountains
• Aquarium
• Road
• Rain
• Train
• Rivers
2) Distinguish between natural environment and man-made environment based
on the following aspects.

Aspects Natural environment Man-made Environment

• Living things
• Non-living things
• Pollution
• Sustainability

Recapitulation
The students summarise the concept of environment and the difference between
natural and man-made environments.

Stage 5- Evaluate (Reflective Questions and Activities)

1) With examples differentiate natural environment from human environment;
2) Prepare a poster related to World Environment Day;
3) Go to your nearby locality and find out the natural and man-made objects in
the environment;
4) Conduct a talk in your class on ‘Care Our Environment and Protect Our
Resources’;
5) How would you explain the role of human being in preserving the environment?
6) According to you, which component is more important in an environment-
nature or human beings? Why do you think so?

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space provided after each item.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
4) In what way is constructivist learning environment differ from traditional
classroom environment?
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 Planning Teaching –
8.9 PLANNING CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES Learning Activities

Before going through the steps of planning a co-curricular activity, let us ponder
over three various situations in a school.

Situation 1: Mr. Kabir is the class teacher of Std.VIII A. During Gandhi Jayanthi
celebration, he asked his students to participate in the cleaning of the school
campus and left home. After his departure, some students participated in the
cleaning activity and some students left home.

Situation 2: During the same celebration, Mr. Hari Das who was in-charge of
Std. VIII B, asked his students to clean the classroom and courtyard. He asked
the class leader to be in charge of the activity. But he didn’t come for supervision
of the activity. There was confusion and conflict among the students.

Situation 3: Ms. Lali, who was in-charge of Std VIII C, already informed her
students about the cleaning activity for the Gandhi Jayanti celebration. She
explained to the students the importance of dignity of labour. On Gandhi Jayanti
day, she took attendance of all students. Then she divided them into small groups.
Each group was assigned one area for cleaning. During the cleaning process, she
came and supervised her students. Those students who were not participating in
the activity were identified and motivated by her to participate in this activity.
There was discipline among the groups. After the cleaning activity was over, she
distributed refreshments among them.

From the above situations, can you point out the difference among the three
teachers? The teachers differ in their styles of planning and implementation.
While observing the three situations, we can see that Mr. Kabir just announced
about the activity without giving guidance and specific instruction. In the case of
Mr. Hari Das, he acts as an irresponsible teacher and giving the charge to class
leader. As far as Ms. Lally is concerned, she adequately integrated the activity
with the curriculum, gave proper guidance, took initiative, supervised and
motivated the students.

Planning and organisation of co-curricular is important for achieving the

objectives of school curriculum. Generally, there is negligence on the part of
school authorities regarding co-curricular activities. But with the introduction of
continuous and comprehensive evaluation (CCE), it is compulsory to organise
co-curricular activities. Planning, scheduling and organising of these activities
should be done democratically by involving pupils.

8.9.1 Principles Underlying Planning and Organisation of Co-

Curricular Activities
The main principles which need to be kept in mind while planning and organising
these activities are presented below (IGNOU, 2000):

• Select activities that are closely related to curriculum. They should be

educationally relevant;
• The selected activities should be constructive and should aim at development
of higher level objectives, which are not attainable through regular classroom

111
Pedagogic Practices at teaching e.g. novelty and originality, writing, skill of recitation of poems,
Elementary Level
discussion etc.;
• Co-curricular activities should have place within school timings so that all
can participate;
• As far as possible, all students should participate in one or other activity
going on in the school;
• The atmosphere has to be democratic: More suggestions and ideas can be
incorporated in the democratic atmosphere so that nothing is imposed on
students;
• Leadership should be proper and careful: Every time the same person should
not get a chance to lead. Leadership should be rotational and maximum
number of students should get opportunity to conduct an activity;
• Administration and supervision: the responsibility for organising the
programme should be placed on students, while teachers can supervise and
facilitate;
• Regularity: co-curricular activities should be organised regularly i.e. they
should have a place in school time-table;
• Advisor: the teacher should have an advisory role and should not impose
his/ her will on students;
• Programme should grow from small to large gradually. Initially there may
be a few items and a few students but gradually the programme should widen
with maximum number of students being involved.

Activites
1) From the above situations list out the general guidelines for organising
co-curricular activities.
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...............................................................................................................

2) Select any one co-curricular activity and prepare guidelines for

organising that activity.
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112
 Planning Teaching –
8.10 LET US SUM-UP Learning Activities

In the present Unit, you have studied about the importance of curricular, co-
curricular and extra-curricular activities and their importance in the teaching-
learning process. Organisation of these activities have been discussed . As a
teacher of elementary education, it is essential to know about these activities and
the ways to organise them. We provided a detailed description and formats of
annual plan, unit plan and lesson plan. The importance of constructivism in the
field of education has been elaborated in this unit. A suggestive example of
constructivist based lesson plan was presented.

8.11 UNIT-END ACTIVITIES

1) Select any co-curricular activity and describe how you will organise the same
activity in your school.
2) Prepare a lesson plan on any topic of your choice based on constructivist
approach.

8.12 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

• Bettencourt, A.(1993).The Construction of Knowledge: A radical
constructivist view. In K.Tobin, ed., The Practice of Constructivism in Science
Education (pp.39-50).Erlbaum: Hillsdale, N.J.
• Binning, A.C., and Binning, D.R. (1982). Teaching Social Studies in School
New York: McGraw Hill Book Co.
• Burich, Gory. D. (1988). Effective Teaching Methods. Toranto: Merrill.
• Daniels, H.(1996).The Classroom as Workshop. The Best Practice Project:
Building Parent partnerships in Chicago. Educational Leadership,53,38-43
• Gray, Audrey. (1997). SSTA Research Centre Report #97-07, Regina, SA:
Saskatchewan School Boards Association Research Centre. http://
www.ssta.sk.ca/research/instruction/97-07.htm.
• IGNOU (2000). Unit-13 Co-curricular Activities, in Block-4 School
Activities, ES_335 Teacher and School, SOE, IGNOU: New Delhi
• Jacobsen, D., Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D.(1981).Methods for Teaching-A Skills
Approach (3rd ed.).Columbus: Merrill Publishing Company
• Jonssen, D.H. (1994). Thinking Technology: Toward a Constructivist Design
Model. Educational Technology 34 (3), 34-37.
• Singh, Y. K. (2008). Teaching Practice: Lesson Planning. New Delhi: APH
Publishing Corporation.
• Singer, Alan J. & the Hofstra New Teachers Network (1997). Social Studies
for Secondary Schools-Teaching to learn, learning to teach. New York:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
• http://edweb.sdsu.edu/Courses/EDTEC470/sections/F02-10/lesson_
planning.htm

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Pedagogic Practices at
Elementary Level 8.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1) i) Extra-curricular activity.
ii) Co-Curricular activity.
iii) Co-Curricular activity.
iv) Extra-curricular activity.
v) Extra-curricular activity.
vi) Co-curricular activity
vii) Co-curricular activity
viii) Extra curricular activity
ix) Co-curricular activity.
x) Extra-curricular activity
2) What are the steps for the preparation of a unit plan?
i) Select a topic
ii) Divide the topic into subtopics.
iii) Develop a curricular statement for each subtopic.
iv) Develop instructional procedures for each goal.
v) Link your unit to the national standards.
vi) Plan and create your assessment tools.
vii) Have benchmarks to makeover through the unit
3) Preparation of a lesson plan:
i) Determine the learning objectives
ii) Develop the introduction
iii) Plan the specific learning activities
iv) Plan to check for understanding.
v) Develop a conclusion and a preview
vi) Create a realistic timeline
vii) Presenting the lesson plan.
viii) Summarization of important points.
ix) Self-evaluation
4) Traditional classroom Constructivist classroom

i) Teacher is the primary source of i) Teacher acts as a facilitator

information. and assist students in pursuit
ii) Teacher centred of knowledge.
iii) Students are passive listeners. ii) Student – centred.
iv) Less activity in the classroom iii) Students are active
v) Traditional assessment involves participants.
formal and informal tests. iv) Activity – oriented
classroom environment.
v) Continuous and
comprehensive evaluation in
the constructivist classroom.
114