Lectures on

MEMS and MICROSYSTEMS DESIGN and MANUFACTURE

Chapter 4
Engineering Mechanics for
Microsystems Design
Structural integrity is a primary requirement for any device or engineering
system regardless of its size.

The theories and principles of engineering mechanics are used to assess:

(1) Induced stresses in the microstructure by the intended loading, and

(2) Associated strains ( or deformations) for the dimensional stability, and
the deformation affecting the desired performance by this
microstructural component.
Accurate assessment of stresses and strains are critical in microsystems design not only
for the above two specific purposes, but also is required in the design for signal transduction,
as many signals generated by sensors are related to the stresses and strains Induced by the
input signals.

HSU 2008
 Chapter Outline

Static bending of thin plates

Mechanical vibration analysis

Thermomechanical analysis

Fracture mechanics analysis

Thin film mechanics

Overview of finite element analysis

 Mechanical Design of Microstructures
Theoretical Bases:

● Linear theory of elasticity for stress analysis

● Newton’s law for dynamic and vibration analysis

● Fourier law for heat conduction analysis

● Fick’s law for diffusion analysis

● Navier-Stokes equations for fluid dynamics analysis

Mathematical models derived from these physical laws are valid for micro-
components > 1 µm.
 Mechanical Design of Microsystems

Common Geometry of MEMS Components

Beams:
Microrelays, gripping arms in a micro tong, beam spring in micro accelerometers

Plates:
● Diaphragms in pressure sensors, plate-spring in microaccelerometers, etc

● Bending induced deformation generates signals for sensors and relays using
beams and plates

Tubes:
Capillary tubes in microfluidic network systems with electro-kinetic pumping
(e.g. electro-osmosis and electrophoresis)

Channels:
Channels of square, rectangular, trapezoidal cross-sections in microfluidic network.

• Component geometry unique to MEMS and microsystems:

Multi-layers with thin films of dissimilar materials
 Recommended Units (SI) and Common Conversion
Between SI and Imperial Units in Computation

Units of physical quantities: Common conversion formulas:

Length: m 1 kg = 9.81 m/s2

Area: m2 1kgf = 9.81 N
Volume: m3 1 µm = 10-6 m
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
Force: N 1 MPa = 106 Pa = 106 N/m2
Weight: N
1 m = 39.37 in = 3.28 ft
Velocity: m/s 1 N = 0.2252 lbf (force)
1 kgf = 2.2 lbf (weight)
Mass: g 1 MPa = 145.05 psi
Mass density: g/cm3

Pressure: Pa
 Static Bending of Thin Plates

We will deal with a situation with thin plates with fixed edges subjected
to laterally applied pressure:
b
My x
Mx P Mx
a

My h
y z
in which, P = applied pressure (MPa)
Mx, My = bending moments about respective y and x-axis (N-m/m)
h = thickness of the plate (m)
The governing differential equation for the induced deflection, w(x,y) of the plate is:
⎛ ∂2 ∂
2 ⎞⎛ 2
∂ w ∂2 w ⎞ p
⎜ 2+ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎜ ∂ x ∂ y 2 ⎟⎜ ∂ x 2 + ∂ y 2 ⎟ = D (4.1)
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
E h3
with D = flexural rigidity,D = (4.2)
12(1 − ν 2)
in which E = Young’s modulus (MPa), and ν = Poisson’s ratio
 Static Bending of Thin Plates-Cont’d

Once the induced deflection of the plate w(x,y) is obtained from the solution of
the governing differential equation (4.1) with appropriate boundary conditions,
the bending moments and the maximum associated stresses can be computed
by the following expressions:

Bending moments (4.3a,b,c): Bending stresses (4.4a,b,c):

⎛ ∂2 w 6( M x ) max
∂
2
w⎞ (σ xx ) max =
⎜
M x = − D⎜ 2 + ν ⎟
2⎟
2
h
⎝∂x ∂y ⎠
6( M y ) max
⎛∂ w2
∂ w ⎞⎟
2
(σ yy ) max =
= − D ⎜ + ν 2
My ⎜ ∂ y2 ∂ x2 ⎟⎠ h
⎝

6( M xy ) max
∂ w
2
= D (1 − ν ) (σ xy ) max =
M xy h
2
∂x∂y
 Special cases of bending of thin plates

Bending of circular plates

p
a

r a

ν
Let W = total force acting on the plate, W = (πa)p and m=1/

The maximum stresses in the r and θ-directions are:

3νW
(σ rr ) max =
3W and (σ )
θθ max = (4.5a,b)
4π 2 4π h
2
h
3νW
Both these stresses at the center of the plate is: σ rr = σ θθ = (4.6)
8π h2
The maximum deflection of the plate occurs at the center of the plate:
3W (m2 − 1) a 2
wmax = − (4.7)
16πE m2 h3
 Example 4.1 (p.113)
Determine the minimum thickness of the circular 00 µm
diaphragm of a micro pressure sensor made of d=6
Silicon as shown in the figure with conditions:

Diameter d = 600 µm; Applied pressure p = 20 MPa

Yield strength of silicon σy = 7000 MPa
E = 190,000 MPa and ν = 0.25. Pressure loading, p Diaphragm
Solution: Diaphragm thickness, h
3W 3W
(σ rr ) max = h= Silicon die
4π h2 4π (σ rr ) max
Constraint base
3νW 3νW
(σ θθ ) max = h=
4π h2 4π (σ θθ ) max
Use the condition that σrr < σy = 7000 MPa and σθθ < σy = 7000 MPa, and
W = (πa2)p = 3.14 x (300 x 10-6)2x (20 x 106) = 5.652 N, we get the minimum thickness
of the “plate” to be:

3x5.652 −6
h= = 13.887 x10 m or 13.887 µm
4 x3.14 x(7000 x106 )
 Special cases of bending of thin plates-Cont’d

Bending of rectangular plates

a
x

y
The maximum stress and deflection in the plate are:
p b2 p b4
(σ yy ) max = β and wmax =α (4.8 and 4.9)
h
2
E h3
in which coefficients α and β can be obtained from Table 4.1:
a/b 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 ∞
α 0.0138 0.0188 0.0226 0.0251 0.0267 0.0277 0.0284

β 0.3078 0.3834 0.4356 0.4680 0.4872 0.4974 0.5000

Example 4.2 (p.115)
a = 752 µm
A rectangular diaphragm, 13.887 µm thick has the plane
x
dimensions as shown in the figure. The diaphragm is

b = 376 µm
made of silicon. Determine the maximum stress and
deflection when it is subjected to a normal pressure,
P = 20 MPa. All 4 edges of the diaphragm are fixed.

Solution: y

We will first determine α = 0.0277 and β = 0.4974 with a/b = 752/376 = 2.0 from the
Given Table. Thus, from available formulas, we get the maximum stress:

p b2 (20 x10 6 )(376 x 10−6) 2

(σ yy ) max = β = 0.4974 = 7292 . 8 x 106 Pa
h2 (13.887 x 10−6) 2
and the maximum deflection:
3
0.0277 x(20 x10 ) x376 x10 ⎛⎜ 376 x10 ⎞⎟
4 3 6 −6 −6
pb pb ⎛ b ⎞ −6
w = −α = −α ⎜ ⎟ =− = − 21 . 76 x10 m
max
Eh
3
E ⎝h⎠ 190000 x10
6
⎜ −6
⎟
⎝ 13.887 x10 ⎠

at the center (centroid) of the plate

 Special cases of bending of thin plates-Cont’d

Bending of square plates:

a
0.308 p a 2
The maximum stress occurs at the middle of each edge: σ max = 2
(4.10)
h
0.0138 p a 4
The maximum deflection occurs at the center of the plate: wmax =− 3
(4.11)
Eh
The stress and strain at the center of the plate are:
6 p (m + 1) a 2
1 −ν
σ= and ε= σ (4.12 and 4.13)
47 m h2 E
Square diaphragm (idealized as a square plate) is the sensing element in
many micro pressure sensors
Example 4.3 (p.116)
a = 532 µm
Determine the maximum stress and deflection in
a square plate made of silicon when is subjected

532 µm
to a pressure loading, p = 20 MPa. The plate has
edge length, a = 532 µm and a thickness,
h = 13.887 µm.

Solution:

From the given formulas, we have the maximum stress to be:

0.308 pa 2 0.308 x(20 x10 6 )(532 x10 −6 ) 2

σ max = h 2 = (13.887 x10 )−6 2
= 9040 x 10 6
Pa

and the maximum deflection:

3
0.0138 p a 4 0.0138 pa ⎛ a ⎞
wmax = − = − ⎜ ⎟ =
Eh 3 E ⎝h⎠
3
0.0138(20 x10 6 ) x532 x10 −6 ⎛ 532 x10 −6 ⎞
− 6
⎜⎜ ⎟ = −43 x10 −6 m
−6 ⎟
or wmax = 43 µm
190000 x10 ⎝ 13.887 x10 ⎠
 Geometric effect on plate bending

Comparison of results obtained from Example 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 for plates made of
silicon having same surface area and thickness, subjecting to the same applied
pressure indicate saignificant difference in the induced maximum stresses and
deflections:
Geometry Maximum Stress (MPa) Maximum Deflection
(µm)

7000 55.97

7293 21.76

9040
43.00
highest stress output
The circular diaphragm is most favored from design engineering point of view.
The square diaphragm has the highest induced stress of all three cases. It is
favored geometry for pressure sensors because the high stresses generated by
applied pressure loading – result in high sensitivity..
Example 4.4 Determine the maximum stress and deflection in a square diaphragm
used in a micro pressure sensor as shown in the figure. The maximum
(p. 118) applied pressure is p = 70 MPa.

Detail of the Silicon die and diaphragm:

Silicon die
783 µm

Diaphragm

783 µm
Uniform pressure
View on Section “A-A” loading: 70 MPa 783 µm 266 µm
Passage for

Thickness h = 266 µm
Pressurized
Medium 54.74o 480 µm
1085 µm
2500 µm
(Pressurized Medium)

By using the formulas for square plates, we get:

Uniform pressure loading
A A

0.308 x70 x10 6 x(783 x10 −6 ) 2

Silicon
Wafer
Adhesive Metal
Casing
σ max = −6 2
= 186.81MPa
Thin Silicon Membrane
with signal generators
( 266 x10 )
Pyrex Glass and interconnect
Constraining
Base
and the maximum deflection:
0.0138 x70(783x10 −6 ) 4 −11
wmax =− −6 3
= −10153 x10 m
190000(266 x10 )
or 0.1015 µm (downward)
 Mechanical Vibration Analysis
Mechanical vibration principle is used in the design of micro-
accelerometer, which is a common MEMS device for measuring
forces induced by moving devices.

Microaccelerometers are used as the sensors in automobile air bag

deployment systems.

We will outline some key equations involved in mechanical vibration

analysis and show how they can be used in microaccelerometer
design.
Overview of Simple Mechanical Vibration Systems

(a) Free vibration: (b) Damped vibration: (c) Forced vibration:

Circular frequency:

k Spring k Force on Mass:

ω = k F(t) =FoSinαt
m Mass m
Natural frequency: m
X(t) Damping
ϖ
f =
Coefficient
2π x c
λ = c/(2m)
X(t) = instantaneous position of the mass, or the displacement of the mass at time t.
X(t) is the solution of the following differential equation with C1 and C2 being constants:
2
d X (t )
m + kX (t ) = 0 Eq. (4.14) for Case (a) X(t) = C1 cos (ωt) + C2 sin (ωt)
d t2
2
d X (t ) dX (t )
m 2
+ c + kX (t ) = 0 Eq. (4.19) for Case (b)
dt dt for λ2 - ω2 > 0
X (t ) = e−λt (C1et λ −ω + C 2 e−t λ −ω )
2 2 2 2

X (t ) = e− λt (C 1 + C 2 t ) for λ2 - ω2 = 0
(
X (t ) = e− λt C1 cos ω 2 − λ 2t + C 2 sin ω 2 − λ 2t ) for λ2 - ω2 < 0
(− αSinωt + ωSinαt )
2
d X (t ) X (t ) = Fo
+ kX (t ) = F o Sin(αt ) Eq (4.21) for Case (c)
ω (ω 2 − α 2 )
m
d t2
F o Sinωt − F o tCosωt
In a special case of which α = ω Resonant vibration: X (t ) =
2ω 2 2ω
 A typical µ-accelerometer:
Proof
Example 4.6 (p.121) Mass
Determine the amplitude and frequency of vibration Spring or
n
a tio ion
of a 10-mg mass attached to two springs as shown r t
cele lera
in the figure. The mass can vibrate freely without Ac ece
friction between the rollers and the supporting floor. D
Assume that the springs have same spring constant Math Model:
x
k1 = k2=k = 6 x 10-5 N/m in both tension and
compression. The vibration begins with the mass
Spring constant, k1 Spring constant, k2
being pulled to the right with an amount of δst = 5 µm.
Mass, m
(as induced by acceleration or deceleration)
Solution:

We envisage that the mass in motion is subjected to two spring forces:

One force by stretching the spring (F1 =k1x) + the other by compressing (F2 = k2x).
Also If the spring constants of the two springs are equal, (k1 = k2).
And also each spring has equal magnitudes of its spring constants in tension and
Compression. We will have a situation:
Dynamic force, F

F1 = Spring force, k1X Spring force, k2X = F2

Mass, m

In which F1 = F2 , This is the situation that is called “Vibration with balanced force”
Example 4.6-Cont’d

Since the term kX(t) in the differential equation in Eq. (4.14) represent the “spring force”
acting on the vibrating mass, and the spring force in this case is twice the value.

We may replace the term kX(t) in that equation with (k+k)X(t) or 2kX(t) as:

d 2 X (t )
m 2
+ 2k X (t ) = 0
dt
dX (t )
with the conditions: X(0) = δst = 5 µm, and = 0 (zero initial velocity)
dt t =0
The general solution of the differential equation is: X(t) = C1 cos (ωt) + C2 sin(ωt),
in which C1 = δst = 5 x 10-6 m and C2 = 0 as determined by the two conditions.

Thus, the instantaneous position of the mass is: X(t) = 5x10-6 cos (ωt) meter

The corresponding maximum displacement is Xmax = 5x10-6 m

The circular frequency, ω in this case is:

2k (6 + 6) x10 −5
ω = = −5
= 3.464 rad / s
m 10
Microaccelerometers
Micro accelerometers are used to measure the acceleration (or deceleration)
of a moving solid (e.g. a device or a vehicle), and thereby relate the acceleration
to the associated dynamic force using Newton’s 2nd law: F(t) = M a(t), in which
M = mass of the moving solid and a(t) = the acceleration at time t.

An accelerator requires: a proof mass (m), a spring (k), and damping medium (c),
in which k = spring constant and c = damping coefficient.

Early design of microaccelerators have the following configurations:

k
Conventional M
M
accelerometers
k C
Casing Casing
(a) Spring-mass (b) Spring-mass-dashpot

Silicon beam
Piezoresistor
Microaccelerometers k M
M
Fluid: C
Fluid:
Constraint
C base
Casing Casing

(c)Beam-Mass (d) Beam-attached mass

 Design Theory of Accelerometers
In a real-world application, the accelerometer is attached to a moving solid. We realize
that the amplitude of the vibrating proof mass in the accelerometer may not necessarily
be in phase with the amplitude of vibration of the moving solid (the base).
x(t) = the amplitude of vibration of the base

Assume x(t) = X sin(ωt) – a harmonic motion

y(t) = the amplitude of vibration of proof mass
m y in the accelerometer from its initial static
equilibrium position.
k c x z(t) = the relative (or net) motion of the
proof mass, m
Moving (vibrating) Base Hence z(t) = y(t) – x(t) (4.26)

The governing differential equation for z(t) is:

m&z&(t ) + cz&(t ) + kz (t ) = mX ω 2 Sinωt (4.29)

Once z(t) is obtained from solving the above equation with appropriate initial conditions,
we may obtain the acceleration of the proof mass in a relative movement as:
d 2 z (t )
&z&(t ) =
dt 2
 Design Theory of Accelerometers-Cont’d

dz (t )
The solution of z(t) with initial conditions: z(0) = 0 and = 0 is:
dt t =0
z(t) = Z sin(ωt – Φ) (4.30)

in which the maximum magnitude, Z of z(t) is:

Z=
ω2 X
(4.31a)
⎞ ⎛ ωc ⎞
2 2
⎛k
⎜ − ω2⎟ − ⎜ ⎟
⎝m ⎠ ⎝m⎠

where X = maximum amplitude of vibration of the base. The phase angle difference, Φ
between the input motion of x(t) and the relative motion, z(t) is:
ωc
φ = tan −1 m (4.31b)
k
−ω2
m
Design Theory of Accelerometers-Cont’d

An alternative form for the maximum amplitude of the relative vibration of the proof mass in
the accelerometer, Z is:

Z=
ω 2
X
⎡ 2 ⎤2 2 (4.32a)
⎛ ω ⎞ ⎡ ω ⎤
ω n ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ + ⎢2h ⎥
2

⎢⎣ ⎝ ω n ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎣ ωn⎦

where ω = frequency of the vibrating base; ωn is the circular natural frequency of

the accelerometer with:
k
ωn =
m
The parameter, h = c/cc = the ratio of the damping coefficients of the damping medium
in the micro accelerometer to its critical damping with cc = 2mωn

For the case of which the frequency of the vibrating base, ω is much smaller than the
natural frequency of the accelerometer, ωn, i.e. ω << ωn:
abase,max
Z =& − (4.33)
ω 2n
 Design of Accelerometers

The engineer may follow the following procedure in the design of appropriate
microaccelerometer for a specific application:

(1) Set the target maximum amplitude of vibration, X of the base (e.g., a
vehicle or a machine) and the anticipated frequency of vibration, i.e. ω.

(2) Select the parameters: m, k, c and calculate ωn and h.

(3) Compute the maximum relative amplitude of vibration of the proof mass,
Z using the available formulas.

(4) Check if the computed Z is within the range of measurement of the

intended transducer, e.g. piezoresistors, piezoelectric, etc.

(5) Adjust the parameters in Step (2) if the computed Z is too small to
be measured by the intended transducer.
 Design of Accelerometers-Cont’d
Spring constant of simple beams
Simple beams are commonly used to substitute the coil springs in microaccelerometers.
It is thus necessary to calculate the “equivalent spring constant” of these beam springs.

Since the spring constant of an elastic solid, whether it is a coil spring or other geometry,
is define as k = Force/Deflection (at which the force is applied), we may derive the spring
constant for the three simple beam configurations to be:
L F Appliedforce, F 3EI
k = = 3
Induceddeflection, δ L

F F F

L L L

48 EI 192 EI
k = k =
L3 L3
in which E = Young’s modulus; I = section moment of inertia of beam cross-section.
 Design of Accelerometers-Cont’d
Damping coefficients

In microaccelerometers, the friction between the immersed fluid and the contacting
surfaces of the moving proof mass provides damping effect.

There are two types of “damping” induced by this affect:

(a) Squeeze film damping:
(b) Micro damping in shear:
k
M
M
k C
Casing Casing
(a) Spring-mass (b) Spring-mass-dashpot

Silicon beam
Piezoresistor
k M
M
Fluid: C
Fluid:
Constraint
C base
Casing Casing

(c)Beam-Mass (d) Beam-attached mass

Numerical values of damping coefficients depend on the geometry of the vibrating

solid components and the fluid that surround them.
Example 4.10 (p.133)

Determine the displacement of the proof mass from its neutral equilibrium
Position of a balanced-force microaccelerometer illustrated below:

The structure of this accelerometer

can be graphically represented below:

Anchors Beam mass, m

Beam springs

Rigid bars

Anchors m
Beam mass 700 µm

Beam springs 5 µm
“A” “A”
m 600 µm
Beam mass 1 µm
View “A-A”
Beam springs
With: b = 10-6 m, B = 100x10-6 m, L = 600x10-6 m and Lb = 700x10-6 m, we have
from Example 4.9 the moment of inertia of beam spring cross-section to be:
I = 10.42x10-24 m4

For simply-support beam spring: k = 0.44 N/m, ωn = 23,380 rad/s

For rigidly fixed beam spring: k = 1.76 N/m and ωn = 147,860 rad/s

Assume the “rigidly held beam spring case is adopted, the equation of motion of
the proof mass is:
d 2 X (t )
2
+ ω 2
X (t ) = 0
dt
with initial conditions: X (t ) t =0 = 0 initial position
, and dX (t ) = 50 km / h = 13.8888 m / s initial velocity
dt t =0

The solution of the equation of motion with the given initial conditions is:
X (t ) = 9.3932 x10 −5 Sin(147.86 t )
leading to X(1 ms) = -2.597x10-5 m or 26 µm opposite to the direction of
deceleration.
(a) Damping coefficient in a squeeze film:

Damping Velocity
y H(t) fluid profile

2L Moving strip with

width 2W

⎛W ⎞ 3
The damping coefficient can be found to be: c = 16 f ⎜ ⎟ W L H 3o
where Ho = nominal thickness of the thin film. ⎝L⎠
⎛W ⎞
The function, f⎜ ⎟ can be obtained by the following Table 4.2:
⎝L⎠

W ⎛W ⎞ W ⎛W ⎞
f⎜ ⎟ f⎜ ⎟
L ⎝L⎠ L ⎝L⎠
0 1.00 0.6 0.60
0.1 0.92 0.7 0.55
0.2 0.85 0.8 0.50
0.3 0.78 0.9 0.45
0.4 0.72 1.0 0.41
0.5 0.60
 Example 4.11 (p.136)

Estimate the damping coefficient of a micro accelerometer using

a cantilever beam spring as illustrated.

10 µm
1000 µm
Ho=20 µm
Damping fluid:
Silicone oil 50 µm
Ho=20 µm m
Mass, m = 10 mg Beam cross-section

Vibrating Base Frequency,ω

We have the beam dimensions as: 2L = 1000x10-6 m and 2W = 10x10-6 m

W/L = 0.01 F(W/L) = 0.992 from Table 4.2.

The nominal film thickness, Ho = 20x10-6 m. From Eq. (4.38) we get: c = 8x10-33 N-s/m.
(b) Micro damping in shear:

Damping
Fluid
Velocity profile
Gap, H
Su u(y)
bm
erg
ed V
f lui Moving mass, m Velocity, V
d V

y
Gap, H
Velocity profile
u(y)

The damping coefficient, c may be computed from the following expression:

2 µLb
c = FD = N-s/m (4.43)
V H
where L = length of the beam (m); b = the width of the beam (m); H = gaps (m)
µ = dynamic viscosity of the damping fluid (N-s/m2), see Table below.
 Dynamic Viscosity for Selected Fluids (in 10-6 N-s/m2)
A.Compressible fluids:

0oC 20oC 60oC 100oC 200oC

Air 17.08 18.75 20.00 22.00 25.45

Helium 18.60 19.41 21.18 22.81 26.72

Nitrogen 16.60 17.48 19.22 20.85 24.64

B. Non-compressible fluids:

0oC 20oC 40oC 60oC 80oC

Alcohol 1772.52 1199.87 834.07 591.80 432.26

Kerosene 2959.00 1824.23 1283.18 971.96 780.44
Fresh water 1752.89 1001.65 651.65 463.10 351.00
Silicone 740
oil*
Example 4.12 (p.139)
Estimate the damping coefficient in a balanced-force microaccelerometer as illustrated,
with (a) air, and (b) silicone oil as damping media. The sensor operates at 20oC.
L = 700 µm

1 µm
Eq. (4.43) is used for the solutions.
A
We have L = 700x10-6 m and b = 5x10-6 m
Beam Mass, m B =100 µm
and the gap, H = 10x10-6 m.
Velocity,v
A View “A-A”
The dynamic viscosities for air and silicone oil
Top View at 20oC may be found from Table 4.3 to be:

µair = 18.75x10-6 N-s/m2, and

Gap, H = 20 µm
µsi = 740x10-6 N-s/m2
H (Damping fluid)

Elevation Thus, the damping coefficient with air is:

2µ Lb 2(18.75 x10 −6 )(700 x10 −6 )(100 x10 −6 ) −12 N-s/m
c= air
= = 2 . 625 x10
H 20 x10 −6
and the damping coefficient with silicone oil is:
2 µ Lb 2(740 x10 −6 )(700 x10 −6 )(100 x10 −6 ) −10 N-s/m
c= si
= = 1 . 036 x10
H 20 x10 −6
Example 4.14 Design of an inertia sensor for airbag deployment system in automobiles (p.142)
Two vehicles with respective masses, m1 and m2 traveling in opposite directions at velocities
V1 and V2 as illustrated. Each vehicle is equipped with an inertia sensor (or micro
accelerometer) built with cantilever beam as configured in Example 4.8.

Estimate the deflection of the proof mass in the sensor in vehicle 1 with mass m1,
and also the strain in the two piezoresistors embedded underneath the top and bottom
surfaces of the beam near the support after the two vehicles collide.
V1
V2
m1
m2

m1 = 12,000 Kg, m2 = 8000 Kg; V1 = V2 = 50 Km/h

Solution:
Let us first look into the property of the “beam spring” used in Example 4.8, and have:
(10 x 10−6)(50 x 10−6) 3
I= = 0.1042 x 10−18 m4
10 µm 12
m
50 µm 3(190000 x 106)(0.1042 x 10−18)
L = 1000 µm m = 10 mg k= = 59.39 N/m
Cross-section (1000 x 10−6) 3
of the beam
k 59.39
ωn = = = 2437 Rad/s
m 10 − 5
Postulation: The two vehicles will tangle together after the collision, and the entangled
vehicles move at a velocity V as illustrated:
V

m1
m2

Thus, by law of conservation of momentum, we should have the velocity of the entangled
vehicles to be:
m1V 1 − m2 V 2 12000 x50 − 8000 x50
V = = = 10 Km/h
m1 + m2 12000 + 8000

The decelerations of the two vehicles are:

V −V1 && = V − V 2 for vehicle with m2
X&& = for vehicle with m1, and X
∆t ∆t
in which ∆t = time required for deceleration.

Let us assume that it takes 0.5 second for vehicle 1 to decelerate from 50 Km/hr to
10 Km/hr after the collision. Thus the time for deceleration of the vehicle m1 is
∆t = 0.5 second, in the above expressions.
We may thus compute the deceleration of vehicle m1 to be:

&X& = abase = (10 − 50) x10 / 3600 = −22.22 m/s2

3

0. 5

Let ω = frequency of vibration of the vehicles.

Assume that ω<< ωn, (ωn =the natural frequency of the accelerometer = 2437 rad/s2).

Consequently, we may approximate the amplitude of vibration of the proof mass in the
accelerometer using Eq. (4.33) as:

− 22.22
= 3.74 x10 −6 m, or 3.74 µm
abase
Z =& − =− 2
ω n2 ( 2437 )
We thus have the maximum deflection of the cantilever beam of 3.74 µm at the free end in
the accelerometer. The equivalent force acting at the free-end is:

3EIZ 3(1.9 x1011 )(0.1042 x10 −18 )(3.74 x10 −6 ) −4 N

F= = = 2 . 2213 x10
L3 (1000 x10 −6 ) 3
From which, we may compute the maximum bending moment at the support to be:

Mmax = FL in which L is the length of the beam. The numerical value of Mmax is:
 M max = 2.2213 x10 −4 x10 −3 = 2.2213 x10 −7 N-m

The corresponding maximum stress,σmax is:

M max C (2.2213x10 −7 )(25 x10 −6 )

σ max = = −18
= 532.95 x10 5
N/m2 or Pa
I 0.1042 x10

and the corresponding max. strain is obtained by using the Hooke’s law to be:

53.30 x10 5
σ max −4
ε max = = 9
= 02.81x10 = 0.0281%
E 190 x10

Depending on the transducer used in the microaccelerometer, the maximum stress, σmax
can produce a resistance change in the case of “piezoresistors”. Alternatively, the maximum
strain, εmax will produce a change of voltage if “piezoelectric crystal” is used as the transducer.
(Detail descriptions available in Chapter 7)

Piezoresistor Proof mass

Beam spring
Piezoelectric
 THERMOMECHANICS

Thermomechanics relates mechanical effects (stresses, strains

and deformation) induced by thermal forces (temperature difference

or heat flow) – common phenomena in microsystems.

Other thermal-induced effects on solid physical behavior:
1. Material property changes:
LEGEND:
E E = Young’s modulus
σy= Plastic yield strength
σy,σu k, α,c σu= Ultimate tensile strength
k = Thermal conductivity
c = Specific heat
α = Coefficient of thermal expansion

Temperature
Table 4-4 Temperature-Dependent Thermophysical Properties of Silicon
Temperature, K Specific Heat, J/g-K Coefficient of Thermal Expansion, 10-6/K
200 0.557 1.406
220 0.597 1.715
240 0.632 1.986
260 0.665 2.223
280 0.691 2.432
300 0.713 2.616
400 0.785 3.253
500 0.832 3.614
600 0.849 3.842
Other thermal-induced effects on solid physical behavior (cont’d):

2. Creep deformation:

Structure changes its shape with time without increase of mechanical load:

Stage I: Stage III:

Primary creep Tertiary creep
Stage II:
Steady-state creep
Structure
Strain,ε

Failure

T3
T2

e rat ure, T 1
p
Tem
T1<T2<T3

Initial mechanical strain Time, t

Silicon and silicon compounds have strong creep resistance. Creep is not a problem.

It is the polymer materials and many solder alloys that have this problem.
 Thermal Stress and Strain Analysis

A simple physical phenomenon:

Solids expand when they are heated up and contract when they are
cooled down.

Constraints to such shape change will cause “stresses” in the solids.

Thermal expansion coefficient,α Free-expansion:

Constrained with δ = Lα ∆T
Both ends fixed: L L δ

T+∆T

Heat, Q→∆T

Induced thermal stress with both ends fixed: σT = -E εT = -α E ∆T

where E = Young’s modulus; εT = thermal strain; ∆T = temperature rise from
reference temperature (room temperature)
Application of Thermal Expansion of Bi-strip Materials in MEMS:
(S. Timoshenko “Analysis of Bi-metal thermostats,” J. of Optical society of America, 11, 1925, 00. 233-255)
unity=1.0 *
t1
Strip 1: α1, E1

h
t2
Strip 2: α2, E2
The bi-metallic strip will bend when it is subjected to a temperature rise of ∆T = T – To.
The strip will bend into the following shape if t2>t1 and α2 > α1:
In which ρ = radius of curvature of the bent strip.
Radius of curvature,ρ
If we let: m = t1/t2 and n = E1/E2.
Since the strips are of rectangular shape with
a unity width, the moment of inertia for strip 1
and strip 2 are: t3 t3
I1 = 1
and I2 = 2
12 12
The radius of curvature, ρ can be obtained by the following expression:
6 (1 + m ) (α 1 − α 2 )∆ T
2
1
=
ρ ⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤ Eq. (4.49)
h ⎢ 3 (1 + m ) + (1 + mn )⎜ m 2 +
2
⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ mn ⎠ ⎦
*The unity width is used to simplify the derivation. The width of the strip does not affect
the curvature of the bent beam.
For a special case when t1 = t2 = h/2 m = 1, we have:

1 24(α 2 − α1 )∆T
=
ρ ⎛ 1⎞
h⎜14 + n + ⎟
⎝ n⎠

Further, if E1 ≈ E2 → n ≈ 1, we may further simplify the expression to give:

1 3 (α 2 − α1 )∆T
=
ρ 2 h

or in another way:
2h
ρ =
3(α 2 − α1 )∆T

which is identical to Eq. (4.51) in the textbook.

Example 4.17 (p.154)
A micro actuator made up by a bi-layered strip using oxidized silicon beam is illustrated
below. A resistant heating film is deposited on the top of the oxide layer. Estimate the
interfacial force and the movement of the free-end of the strip with a temperature rise,
∆T = 10oC. Use the following material properties:
Young’s modulus: ESiO2 = E1 = 385000 MPa; ESi =E2 = 190000 MPa
Coefficients of thermal expansion: αSiO2 = α1 = 0.5x10-6/oC; αSi = α2 = 2.33x10-6/oC
1200 µm
1000 µm
(1) 5 µm SiO2
(2)
(3) 5 µm
5 µm 1000µm Si
(1) Electric resistant heater
(2) Silicon dioxide coating
(3) Silicon
Solution:
( − )T
Use Eq. (4.49) to compute the interface force: F = α 2 α 1
hb
8 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
⎜ + ⎟
⎝ E1 E 2 ⎠
(2.33 x10 −6 − 0.5 x10 −6 )10 (10 x10 −6 )(5 x10 −6 )
F= = 14.55 x10 −6 N
8 1 1
+
385000 x10 6 190000 x10 6
The radius of curvature of the bent beam can be computed from Eq. (4.50):

2(10 x10 −6 )
ρ= −6 −6
= 0.3643 m
3(2.33 x10 − 0.5 x10 )10
In reality, however, we will design the actuator for the end movement to the desired amount.

Thus, we have to translate the radius of curvature of the actuated beam to that amount by
taking the following approach:
O

θ ρ
ρ
b a
δ
c

The angle, θ can be evaluated by the following approximation:

θ θ θ 360
≈ = =
arc(ac) line(ac) 1000 x10 −6 2.2878
from which we may compute the end movement, δ to be:

δ ≈ ρ − ρCosθ = 0.3643 − 0.3643Cos (0.1574 o ) = 1.373 x10 −6 m, or 1.37 µm

Example 4.18 (p.156)

If the same bi-layer beam described in Example 4.17 is used, but with the thickness of the
SiO2 film being reduced to 2 µm and the total thickness, h remains to be 10 µm, meaning
the thickness of the Si beam being increased to 8 µm. Estimate what will be the change
in the actuated strip.

Solution:
We have in this case, t1 = t SiO2 = 2x10-6 m and t2 = tSi = 8x10-6 m, which leads to:

m = t1/t2 = 2/8 = 0.25, and n = E1/E2 = 385000/190000 = 2.026.

By using the previously derived equation to compute the radius of curvature:

6 (1 + m ) (α 1 − α 2 )∆ T
2
1
=
ρ ⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
h ⎢ 3 (1 + m ) + (1 + mn )⎜ m 2 +
2
⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ mn ⎠⎦
Thus, by substituting the appropriate values into the above expression, we get:

1
=
2
( )
6(1 + 0.25) 0.5 × 10 −6 − 2.33 × 10 −6 × 10
= − 2.187
ρ ⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
10 × 10 −6 ⎢3(1 + 0.25) + (1 + 0.25 × 2.026 )⎜ 0.252 +
2 1
⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ 0. 25 × 2. 026 ⎠⎦

or ρ = - 0.4572 m, which leads to the end deflection, δ = 1.73 µm (downward with –ve ρ)
Design of thermal-actuated relay using bi-layer beams:

We realize the fact that the actuation of this type of relays is due to the fact that
dissimilar materials with different coefficient of thermal expansion are the reason
for its bending when it is subjected to a temperature rise.

In the above formulation in Eq. (4.49), we realize that the “Stiffness” ratio, i.e.
n = E1/E2 is a part of the equation used to calculate the radius of curvature
of the bent beam.

The curve at the right depicts 1.60E-06

the effect of the stiffness relating 1.40E-06

to the thickness ratio: m = t1/t2 1.20E-06

Strip Tip Movement, m

that could affect the strip movement, 1.00E-06

despite the fact that 8.00E-07

αsi (= α2) / αSiO2 (= α1) = 5 6.00E-07

But Esi (=E2)/ESiO2 (=E1) =0.4935 4.00E-07

2.00E-07
Higher n = t1/t2 means thicker 0.00E+00
SiO2 portion and thus stiffer the 0 0.5 1 1.5

bi-layer strip. Thickness Ratio, t1/t2

Thicker SiO2 layer

 Thermal Stresses (and Strains)

Thermal stresses and strains in a solid structure can be induced in three conditions:

(1) Uniform temperature rise (or fall) in structure with constrained boundaries;

(2) Non-uniform temperature in structure with partial boundaries constrained;

(3) Non-uniform temperature in structure with no constrained boundaries.

Designation of stresses (strains) in a solid in a 3-dimensional space:

z A solid in static equilibrium: z Stress components at p(x,y,z):
P1 P2
σzz

σzy σ
p(x,y,z) σxz zx
σxx
T(x,y,z)
P3
σyx σxy
P4
x σyy σyz x

y
y
The stress component: σxy in which the subscript x = the axis that is perpendicular to
the plane of action. The subscript y = the direction of the
stress component.
 Thermal Stresses in Thin Plates with
Temperature Variation Through the Thickness (p.158)
y
Being a thin plate, the stress components along the z-axis
are negligible. We thus have the situation:
0 x σxx (x,y,z) = f1(z) and σyy (x,y,z) = f2(z)

σzz = σxz = σyx = σyz = 0 with temperature variation,

z
2h x with T = T(z) is specified.
1 ⎡ 1 3z ⎤ (4.52)
Thermal stresses σ xx = σ yy = ⎢ − αET ( z ) + N T + MT⎥
1 −ν ⎣ 2h 2h 3 ⎦
1⎡1 3z ⎤
Thermal strains ε xx = ε yy = +
E ⎢⎣ 2h N T 2h 3 M T ⎥
⎦
(4.53a)

2ν ⎛ N T 3 z ⎞ 1 +ν
ε zz = − ⎜ +
(1 −ν ) E ⎜⎝ 2h 2h 3 M T ⎟⎟ + 1 −ν αT ( z )
⎠
(4.53b)

εxy = εyz = εzx = 0

where NT = thermal force = N T = αE ∫− h T ( z )dz (4.55a)

h

and MT = thermal moment = M T = αE ∫−h T ( z ) zdz (4.55b)

h
Displacement components

x ⎛ NT 3z ⎞
In x-direction: u= ⎜ + 3 MT ⎟ (4.54a)
E ⎝ 2h 2h ⎠

y ⎛ NT 3z ⎞ (4.54b)
In y-direction: v= ⎜ + 3 MT ⎟
E ⎝ 2h 2h ⎠

In z-direction: w = −
3MT 2
x (
+ y 2
+ ) 1 ⎡
⎢
(1 − ν ) E ⎣
(1 + ν )αE z
∫o T ( z ) dz −
νz
NT −
3νz 2 ⎤
MT⎥ (4.54c)
4h 3 E h 2h 3 ⎦

with thermal force, NT and thermal moment, MT to be:

N T = αE ∫−h T ( z )dz
h
(4.55a)

(4.55b)
M T = αE ∫−h T ( z ) zdz
h
and
 Thermal Stresses in Beams with -Temperature Variation in the Depth

Let us consider the situation as illustrated below, with z = depth direction:

b, h << L:
z
Temperature, T = T(z): z

0 x y
2h
L/2 L/2 b

We have the beam cross-sectional area, A = 2bh, -σzx

-σxz
and the moment of inertia, I = 2h3b/3. σxx σxx
σxz
The bending stress is σxx = σxx(x,z): σzx

b N T z (b M T )
σ xx ( x, z ) = −αET ( z ) + + (4.56)
A I
The shearing stresses: σxz = σzx = 0

The two associate strain components are:

1 ⎡b NT z ⎤
ε xx ( x, z ) = + (b ) (4.57a)
E ⎢⎣ A
MT ⎥
I ⎦
ν ⎡b NT z ⎤ ⎛1 +ν ⎞ (4.57b)
ε zz ( x, z ) = − ⎢ + (b M T ) ⎥+⎜ ⎟αT ( z )
E⎣ A I ⎦ ⎝ E ⎠
 Thermal Stress in Beams – Cont’d

The deflections

In the x-direction:

x ⎡b NT z ⎤
u ( x, z ) = + (b )
E ⎢⎣ A
M T ⎥ (4.58a)
I ⎦

In the z-direction:
b M T 2 ν ⎡b NT z
2 ⎤ ⎛1 +ν ⎞z
w( x, z ) = − x − ⎢ z + (b MT ⎥
) + α ⎜ ⎟ ∫0 T ( z )dz (4.58b)
2 EI E⎣ A 2I ⎦ ⎝ E ⎠

with thermal force, NT and thermal moment, MT to be:

N T = αE ∫−h T ( z )dz
h
(4.55a)

(4.55b)
M T = αE ∫−h T ( z ) zdz
h
and
1 b
The curvature of the bent beam is: ≈ − MT (4.59)
ρ EI
 Example 4.19 (p.160)

Determine the thermal stresses and strains as well as the deformation of a thin beam
at 1 µsec after the top surface of the beam is subjected to a sudden heating by the resistance
heating of the attached thin copper film. The temperature at the top surface resulting from the
heating is 40oC. The geometry and dimensions of the beam is illustrated below. The beam
is made of silicon and has the following material properties (refer to Table 7.3, p. 257):

Mass density, ρ = 2.3 g/cm3; specific heats, c = 0.7 J/g-oC;

Thermal conductivity, k = 1.57 w/cm-oC (or J/cm-oC-sec);
Coefficient of thermal expansion, α = 2.33 x 10-6/oC;
Young’s modulus, E = 190000 x 10 6 N/m2; and Poisson’s ratio, ν = 0.25.
z
2 µm
Cu thin film
b = 5 µm
2h = 10 µm Silicon beam x H = 10 µm
L = 1000 µm beam cross-section

NOTE: This is not a bi-material strip. It is a beam made of a single material – silicon.
Thermal stresses and deformations occur because of the uneven temperature
distribution in beam (from top to bottom) in early stage of heating.

The Cu heating film is so thin that it does not affect the mechanical deformation
or stresses in the structure.
 Solution:
Solution procedure includes:
(1) Use the “heat conduction equation (Eq.(4.60)) to solve for temperature distribution
in beam, i.e. T(z,t) with the boundary conditions of T(5 µm,t) = 40oC, and T(-5 µm,t)
= 20oC as the case in the problem:
z
T(5 µm,t) = 40oC z = +5 µm
T(z,t) x
z = -5 µm
T(-5 µm,t) = 20oC

(2) Exact solution of T(z,t) for this problem is beyond the scope of this chapter.

(3) Instead, we use an approximate solution for the temperature distribution along
the depth of the beam at t = 1 µs to be: T(z) = 2.1x106z +28.8 oC

(4) We may thus use Eqs. (4.55a) and (4.55b) to calculate the thermal force and thermal
moment.
−6
NT = αE ∫−hh T ( z )dz = (2.33x10 −6 )(190000 x10 6 ) ∫5 x10 − 6 (2.1x10 6 z + 28.8)dz = 127.5
−5 x10

−6
−6 −6
M T = αE ∫− h T ( z ) zdz = ( 2.33 x10 )(190000 x 10 ) ∫−5 x10−6 (2.1x 10 z + 28.8) zdz = 77.4725 x10 N-m
h 6 5 x10 6
(5) Once NT and MT are computed, we may calculate the maximum bending stress
using Eq. (4.56):
−6
σ xx ( z ,1µs ) = −(2.33 x10 )(190000 x10 )( 2.1x10 z + 28.8)
6 6

(5 x10 −6 )127.5 z (5 x 10−6)(77.4725 x 10−6)

+ +
5 x 10−11 4.167 x 10− 22

= −4.427 x10 5 ( 2.1x10 6 z + 28.8) + 127.5 x10 5 + 92.95 x1010 z Pa

(6) From which, the maximum bending stress to be σmax = -500 Pa at z = 5 µm

(7) The associated thermal strain components may be computed using Eqs. (4.57a)
and (4.57b):

1 ⎡ (5 x 10−6)127.5 z (5 x 10−6 x77.4725 x 10−6) ⎤

ε xx ( z ) = 6 ⎢
+ ⎥
− 4.167 x 10− 22
190000 x10 ⎣ 5 x 10 11
⎦

= 67.11x10 −6 (1 + 0.73 x10 5 z )

The thermal strain in z-direction is:

ε zz ( z ) = 0.25( −67.11x10 −6 )(1 + 0.73 x10 5 z )

1 + 0.25 −6
+ 6
( 2.33 x 10 )( 2.1x 106
z + 28.8)
190000 x10

= (−16.78x 10−6 − 1.23z ) + (3.22 x 10−11 z + 44.15x 10−17)

(8) From which, we have the maximum strains to be:

εxx,max = εxx(5x10-6) = 91.61x10-6 = 0.0092% and

εzz,max = εzz(5x10-6) = -22.93x10-6 = -0.0023%

(9) The displacements, or deflection of the beam, at the top free corners with x = ± 500 µm
and z = +5 µm can be computed using Eqs. (4.58a) and (4.58b):
Deflection in the x-direction:

500 x 10−6 ⎡ (5 x10 −6 )127.5 (5 x10 −6 )(5 x10 −6 )(77.47 x10 −6 ) ⎤

u= ⎢ −11
+ − 22 ⎥ = 0.046 µm
6
190000 x 10 ⎣ 5 x10 4.167 x10 ⎦

The deflection in normal (z)-direction to the beam:

(5 x10 −6 )(77.47 x10 −6 )(500 x10 −6 ) 2

w=−
2(190000 x10 6 )(4.167 x10 − 22 )
0.25 ⎡ (5 x10 −6 )127.5 −6 (5 x10 −6 ) 2 (5 x10 −6 )(77.47 x10 −6 ) ⎤
− ⎢ (5 x10 ) + ⎥
190000 x10 6 ⎣ 5 x10 −11 2(4.167 x10 −22 ) ⎦
1 + 0.25 − 6 5 x10 − 6
+ 6
( 2 . 33 x10 ) ∫0 (2.1x10 6 z + 28.8) zdz = −0.612 µm
190000 x10

(10) The curvature of the bent beam as estimated from Eq. (4.58) is:

1 (5 x10 −6 )(77.47 x10 −6 ) m-1

=− = −4.892
ρ (190000 x10 6 )(4.167 x10 − 22 )
Application of Fracture Mechanics in MEMS and Microsystems Design

Many MEMS and microsystems components are made of layers of thin films
using physical or chemical vapor deposition methods (Chapter 8).

These structures are vulnerable to failure in “de-lamination”, or fracture at the

interfaces.
Linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) theories are used to assess the
integrity of these structures.

Fracture mechanics was first introduced by Griffith in 1921 in the study of crack
propagation in glasses using energy balance concept. It was not a practical
engineering tool due to the difficulty in accurately measure the “surface energy”
required in the calculation.

The LEFM was developed in 1963 by US naval research institute in studies

unexpected fracture of many “liberty” class ships built in WWII.

The essence of the LEFM is to formulate the stress/strain fields near tips of
cracks in elastic solids.
Stress Intensity Factors

A “crack” existing inside an elastic solid subjected to a mechanical

and/or thermal loading. A stress field is induced in the solid due to the
loading. The stress components in a point located near the crack tip can
be shown as:

Y (X2)
Loading
σyx
σxy σyz
Stress field σzy
X (X1) σzx
r σxx σxz
θ
Leading edge σzz
of the crack

Z (X3)
Stress Intensity Factors-cont’d
The “Three modes” of fracture of solids:
Y (X2)
Loading
σyx
σxy σyz
Stress field σzy
X (X1) σzx
r σxx σxz
θ
Leading edge σzz
of the crack

Z (X3)

y y
y
x
x
x
z
z
z
(a) Mode I (b) Mode II (c) Mode III
The Opening mode The Shearing mode The Tearing mode
Stress Intensity Factors-cont’d
y y
y
x
x
x
z
z
z
(a) Mode I (b) Mode II (c) Mode III
(The Opening mode) (The Shearing mode) (The Tearing mode)

Near-tip stress components in three modes:

Note:
σ ij =
K I or K II or K III
f ij (θ ) σ ij → ∞ when r → 0
r
Near-tip displacement components:
u i = K I or K II
or K III
r g i (θ )

Stress intensity factors:

KI = stress intensity factor for Mode I fracture

KII = stress intensity factor for Mode II fracture
KIII = stress intensity factor for Mode III fracture
Fracture Toughness, Kc

Fracture toughness, Kc is a material property that sets the limits for

the three modes of fracture, e.g. KIC, KIIC and KIIIC to be the limiting
values of KI, KII and KIII respectively.

So, in practice, Kc is used to assess the “stability” of an existing crack

in the following ways:

KI > KIC unstable crack in Mode I fracture

KII > KIIC unstable crack in Mode II fracture

KIII > KIIIC unstable crack in Mode III fracture.

Numerical values of Kc are measured by laboratory testing as described

in Section 4.5.2 of the textbook for KIC
 Interfacial Fracture Mechanics

MEMS and microsystems components made of multi-layers of thin films

are vulnerable to interfacial fracture – delamination of layers.
y
Interface of two dissimilar materials
Material 1
subject to mixed Mode I and Mode II E1, ν1
fracture at the interface: σyy
θ1
Stress components at Point P are: σyx = σxy
P x
σ = K I
or
λ
K II
+ L l n ( r ) + terms
θ2
ij ij
r
where λ = singularity parameter r Material 2
E2, ν2
If P is very close to the tip of the interface, i.e. r 0, the contribution
of the term Lij is small, thus leads to:
KI
σ yy = λ for the opening mode
K or K r I
σ ij = I
λ
II

r K II
σ xy = for the shearing mode
r λ II
 Interfacial Fracture Mechanics-Cont’d

Determination of: KI, KII and λI, λII:

KI K II
σ yy = λ σ xy =
r I r λ II
After taking logarithms on the above expressions:

ln(σ yy ) = − λ I ln(r ) + ln( K I ) and ln(σ xy ) = − λ II ln(r ) + ln( K II )

Plot the above expressions in logarithm scale for the desired values:
ln(σyy) ln(σxy)
Slope = λII
Slope = λI

ln(KII)
ln(KI)

ln(r) ln(r)
re re
ro ro

(a) Mode I fracture (b) Mode II fracture

 Interfacial Fracture Mechanics-Cont’d

Failure (Fracture) Criteria

2 2
⎛ KI ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ K II ⎟ = 1 (4.69)
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ K IC ⎠ ⎝ K IIC ⎠
in which KIC and KIIC are experimentally determined fracture toughness
from “mixed Mode I and II” situations.
KI

FAIL
KIC
SAFE

KII
KIIC
 Thin Film Mechanics (p.172)

A common practice in MEMS and microsystems fabrication is to deposit thin

films of a variety of materials onto the surface of silicon substrates.

These films usually are in the order of sub-micrometer or a few micrometers thick.

Due to the fact that the overall microcomponent structures are minute in size,
thin films made of different materials can effect the overall stiffness, and thus
the strength of the structures.

Quantitative assessment of induced stresses in thin films after they are produced
on the top of the base materials is not available for the following two reasons:

(1) These films are so thin that the unusual forces such as molecular forces
(or van der Waals) forces become dominant forces. There is no reliable way
to assess such forces quantitatively at the present time.
(2) Another major source that induces stresses in thin films is “residual stresses”
resulting from fabrication processes.
Total stress in thin films is expressed as: σ = σth + σm + σint (4.70)

where σth = thermal stress; σm = due to mechanical loads; σint = intrinsic stresses.

The intrinsic stresses are normally determined by empirical means.

Overview of Finite Element Stress Analysis (p.173)

Finite element method (FEM) is a powerful tool in stress analysis of MEMS and
microsystems of complex geometry, loading and boundary conditions.

Commercial FEM codes include: ANSYS, ABAQUS, IntelliSuites, MEMCad, etc.

The essence of FEM is to discretize (divide) a structure made of continuum into a finite
number of “elements” interconnected at “nodes.” Elements are of specific geometry.

One may envisage that smaller and more elements used in the discretized model
produces better results because the model is closer to the original continuum.

Continuum mechanics theories and principles are applied on the individual elements,
and the results from individual elements are “assembled” to give results of the overall
Structure.
 I/O in FEM for Stress Analysis
● Input information to FE analysis:
(1) General information:

• Profile of the structure geometry.

y
• Establish the coordinates:
z
x

y x
r z
x-y for plane
r-z for axi-symmetrical x-y-z for 3-dimensional geometry

(2) Develop FE mesh (i.e. discretizing the structure):

Use automatic mesh generation by commercial codes.

User usually specifies desirable density of nodes and elements in specific regions.
(Place denser and smaller elements in the parts of the structure with abrupt change of
geometry where high stress/strain concentrations exist)
(3) Material property input:

In stress analysis: Young’s modulus, E; Poisson ratio, ν; Shear modulus of elasticity, G;

Yield strength, σy; Ultimate strength, σu.

In heat conduction analysis: Mass density, ρ; Thermal conductivity, k; Specific heat, c;

Coefficient of linear thermal expansion coefficient, α.

(4) Boundary and loading conditions:

In stress analysis: Nodes with constrained displacements (e.g. in x-, y- or z-direction);

Concentrated forces at specified nodes, or pressure at specified element edge surfaces.

In heat conduction analysis: Given temperature at specified nodes, or heat flux at

specified element edge surfaces, or convective or radiative conditions at specified
element surfaces.
● Output from FE analysis

(1) Nodal and element information

Displacements at nodes.

Stresses and strains in each element:

- Normal stress components in x, y and z directions;
- Shear stress components on the xy, xz and yz planes;
- Normal and shear strain components
- Max. and min. principal stress components.
- The von Mises stress defined as:

σ =
1
(σ xx − σ yy
2
) + (σ xx − σ zz
2
) + (σ yy − σ zz
2
) + (
6 σ 2
xy + σ 2
yz + σ 2
xz ) (4.71)
2
The von Mises stress is used to be the “representative” stress in a multi-axial stress
situation.

It is used to compare with the yield strength, σy for plastic yielding, and to σu for the
prediction of the rupture of the structure, often with an input safety factor.
Application of FEM in stress analysis of silicon die in a pressure sensor:
by V. Schultz, MS thesis at the MAE Dept., SJSU, June 1999 for LucasNova Sensors
In Fremont, CA. (Supervisor: T.R. Hsu)

Region for
FE Model
Silicon diaphragm

Silicon die

Die Attach
View on Section “A-A”

Signal generators
Pyrex Constraint and interconnect
A A
Pressurized Medium

Silicon Metal
Diaphragm Adhesive Casing

Pyrex Glass
Constraining Passage for

Note: Only quarter of the die structure was Base Pressurized

Medium

in the FE model due to symmetry in

geometry, loading and boundary
conditions.