Integrals

Definitions
Definite Integral: Suppose f ( x ) is continuous Anti-Derivative : An anti-derivative of f ( x )
on [ a, b] . Divide [ a, b ] into n subintervals of is a function, F ( x ) , such that F ¢ ( x ) = f ( x ) .
width D x and choose x from each interval. Indefinite Integral : ò f ( x ) dx = F ( x ) + c
*
i
¥
f (x )D x . where F ( x ) is an anti-derivative of f ( x ) .
ò a f ( x ) dx = nlim å
b *
Then i
®¥
i =1

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Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Part I : If f ( x ) is continuous on [ a, b ] then Variants of Part I :
d u( x)
f ( t ) dt = u ¢ ( x ) f éëu ( x ) ùû
g ( x ) = ò f ( t ) dt is also continuous on [ a, b ] dx ò a
x
a
d b
d x
ò f ( t ) dt = -v¢ ( x ) f éëv ( x ) ùû

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and g ¢ ( x ) = ò f ()
t dt = f ( )
x . v( x )
dx a dx
Part II : f ( x ) is continuous on [ a, b ] , F ( x ) is d u( x)
f ( t ) d = u ( ) f [ u ( x ) ] - v¢ ( x ) f [ v ( x ) ]
dx ò v( x )

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an anti-derivative of f ( x ) (i.e. F ( x ) = ò f ( x ) dx )

then ò f ( x ) dx = F ( b ) - F ( a ) .
b
a
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Properties
ò f ( x ) ± g ( x ) dx = ò f ( x ) dx ± ò g ( x ) dx ò cf ( x ) dx = c ò f ( x ) dx , c is a constant
m
( ) ( ) ( ) ò a g ( x ) dx ( ) ò a f ( x ) dx , c is a constant
b b b b b
òa f x ± g x dx = òa f x dx ± òa cf x dx = c

f ( x ) dx = 0 f ( x ) dx = ò f ( t ) dt
a b b
òa òa
xa

ò a f ( x ) dx = -òb f ( x ) dx
b a
ò f ( x ) dx £ ò f ( x ) dx
b b

a a
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If f ( x ) ³ g ( x ) on a £ x £ b then ò f ( x ) dx ³ ò g ( x ) dx
b a

a b

If f ( x ) ³ 0 on a £ £ b then ò f ( x ) dx ³ 0
b
w

If m £ f ( x ) £ M on a £ x £ b then m ( b - a ) £ ò f ( x ) dx £ M ( b - a )
b

a
w

Common Integrals
ò k dx = k x + c ò cos u du = sin u + c ò tan u du = ln sec u + c
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ò x dx = n+1 x + c, n ¹ -1 ò sin u du = - cos u + c ò sec u du = ln sec u + tan u + c

n 1 n +1

ò x dx = ò x dx = ln x + c ò sec u du = tan u + c ò a + u du = a tan ( a ) + c

-1 1 2 1 u
1 -1
2 2

ò a x + b dx = a ln ax + b + c
1 1
ò sec u tan u du = sec u + c ò a - u du = sin ( a ) + c
1
2 2
u -1

ò ln u du = u ln ( u ) - u + c ò csc u cot udu = - csc u + c

ò e du = e + c ò csc u du = - cot u + c
u u 2
 Standard Integration Techniques
Note that at many schools all but the Substitution Rule tend to be taught in a Calculus II class.

( )
u Substitution : The substitution u = g ( x ) will convert ò a f ( g ( x ) ) g ¢ ( x ) dx = ò g (a ) f ( u ) du
b g b
using

du = g ¢ ( x ) dx . For indefinite integrals drop the limits of integration.

cos ( x3 ) dx cos ( x3 ) dx = ò ( u ) du
2 2 8
ò 1 5x ò 1 5x
2 2 5
Ex. cos
1 3

u = x 3 Þ du = 3x 2 dx Þ x 2 dx = 13 du = 53 sin ( u ) 1 = ( sin (8) - sin (1) )

8 5

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3
x = 1 Þ u = 1 = 1 :: x = 2 Þ u = 2 = 8
3 3

b b
Integration by Parts : ò u dv = uv - ò v du and ò a u dv = uv - ò v du . Choos u and dv from
b
a a

integral and compute du by differentiating u and compute v using v = ò dv .

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ò xe
-x 5
Ex. dx Ex. ò3 ln x dx

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u=x dv = e- x Þ du = dx v = -e - x u = ln x dv = dx Þ du = 1x dx v = x
ò xe dx = - xe + ò e dx = - xe - e
-x -x -x -x -x
+c
ln x dx = x ln x 3 - ò dx = ( x ln ( x ) - x )
5 5 5
ò3
5
3 3

= 5ln ( 5) - 3ln ( 3) - 2
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Products and (some) Quotients of Trig Functions
m
For ò sin n x cos m x dx we have the following For ò tan n x sec m x dx we have the following :
1. n odd. Strip 1 sine out and convert rest to 1. n odd. Strip 1 tangent and 1 secant out and
cosines using sin x = 1 - cos x , then use
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2 2 convert the rest to secants using

the substitution u = cos x . tan 2 x = sec 2 x - 1 , then use the substitution
2. m odd. Strip 1 cosine out and co vert rest u = sec x .
to sines using cos 2 x = 1 - sin 2 x , then use 2. m even. Strip 2 secants out and convert rest
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the substitution u = sin x . to tangents using sec2 x = 1 + tan 2 x , then

3. n and m both odd. Use either 1. or 2. use the substitution u = tan x .
4. n and m both e n. Use double angle 3. n odd and m even. Use either 1. or 2.
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and/or half angle formulas to reduce the 4. n even and m odd. Each integral will be
integral into a form that can be integrated. dealt with differently.
Trig Formulas : sin ( 2 x ) = 2sin ( x ) cos ( x ) , cos 2 ( x ) = 2 (1 + cos ( 2 x ) ) , sin ( x ) = 2 (1 - cos ( 2 x ) )
1 2 1
w

ò tan ò cos x dx
sin5 x
3
Ex. x sec5 x dx
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Ex. 3

ò tan x sec5 xdx = ò tan 2 x sec 4 x tan x sec xdx

3 2 2
ò cos x dx = ò cos x dx = ò cos x dx
sin x 5 sin x sin x 4 (sin x ) sin x
3 3 3

= ò ( sec2 x - 1) sec 4 x tan x sec xdx (1- cos x ) sin x

( u = cos x )
2 2
=ò dx 3
= ò ( u 2 - 1) u 4 du
cos x
( u = sec x ) = - ò (1-u ) du = - ò 1-2u +u du
2 2 2 4
u 3 u 3
= 17 sec7 x - 15 sec5 x + c
= 12 sec2 x + 2 ln cos x - 12 cos 2 x + c
Trig Substitutions : If the integral contains the following root use the given substitution and
formula to convert into an integral involving trig functions.
a 2 - b 2 x 2 Þ x = ab sin q b 2 x 2 - a 2 Þ x = ba sec q a 2 + b 2 x 2 Þ x = ab tan q
cos 2 q = 1 - sin 2 q tan 2 q = sec 2 q - 1 sec2 q = 1 + tan 2 q

òx ó ( 23 cos q ) dq = ò sin122 q dq
16 16
Ex. dx
2
4 -9 x 2 õ 4 sin 2 q ( 2cosq )
9
x = 23 sin q Þ dx = 23 cos q dq
= ò 12 csc 2 dq = -12 cot q + c
4 - 9x 2 = 4 - 4sin q = 4 cos q = 2 cos q

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2 2
Use Right Triangle Trig to go back to x’s. From
Recall x 2 = x . Because we have an indefinite substitution we have sin q = 32x so,
integral we’ll assume positive and drop absolute
value bars. If we had a definite integral we’d
need to compute q ’s and remove absolute value

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bars based on that and,
ì x if x ³ 0 4 -9 x 2
x =í From this we see hat cot q = . So,

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î- x if x < 0
3x

òx
4 -9 x 2
16
dx = - 4 +c
In this case we have 4 - 9x = 2 cos q .
2 2
4 -9 x 2 x

Partial Fractions : If integrating

P( x )
ra
ò Q( x) dx where the degree of P ( x ) is smaller than the degree of
Q ( x ) . Factor denominator as completely as possible nd find the partial fraction decomposition of
m
the rational expression. Integrate the partial f action decomposition (P.F.D.). For each factor in the
denominator we get term(s) in the decomposition according to the following table.
xa

Factor in Q ( x ) Term in P.F D Factor in Q ( x ) Term in P.F.D

A1 A2 Ak
ax + b
A
( ax + b )
k
+ +L +
ax + b ax + b ( ax + b ) 2
( ax + b )
k
.e

Ax + B A1 x + B1 Ak x + Bk
+L +
( ax + bx + c )
k
ax 2 + bx + c
2
ax + bx + c ( ax 2 + bx + c )
2 k
ax + bx + c
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7 x2 +13 x +C A( x2 + 4) + ( Bx + C ) ( x -1)
Ex. ò ( x -1)( x 2
+4)
dx 7 x2 +13 x
( x -1)( x + 4 )
2 = A
x -1 + Bx
x2 + 4
= ( x -1)( x 2 + 4 )
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ò 7 x2 +13 x
( x -1)( x2 4 )
dx = ò x4-1 + 3xx2++164 dx Set numerators equal and collect like terms.
7 x 2 + 13x = ( A + B ) x 2 + ( C - B ) x + 4 A - C
ò x4-1 + x3+x 4 + x16+4 dx
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2 2 Set coefficients equal to get a system and solve

= 4 ln x - 1 + 32 ln ( x 2 + 4 ) + 8 tan -1 ( x2 ) to get constants.
A+ B = 7 C - B = 13 4A - C = 0
Here is partial fraction form and recombined.
A=4 B=3 C = 16

An alternate method that sometimes works to find constants. Start with setting numerators equal in
previous example : 7 x 2 + 13x = A ( x 2 + 4 ) + ( Bx + C ) ( x - 1) . Chose nice values of x and plug in.
For example if x = 1 we get 20 = 5A which gives A = 4 . This won’t always work easily.
 Applications of Integrals

ò a f ( x ) dx represents the net area between f ( x ) and the

b
Net Area :
x-axis with area above x-axis positive and area below x-axis negative.

Area Between Curves : The general formulas for the two main cases for each are,
y = f ( x) Þ A = ò & x = f ( y) Þ A = ò
b d
éupper function ù
ë û - éëlower function ùû dx é right function ù
ë û - éëleft functio ùû dy
a c

om
If the curves intersect then the area of each portion must be found individually. Here are som
sketches of a couple possible situations and formulas for a couple of possible cases.

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ce
A = ò f ( y ) - g ( y ) dy
d
A = ò f ( x ) - g ( x ) dx
b
ò a f ( x ) - g ( x ) dx + òc g ( x ) - f ( x ) dx
c b
a c ra A

Volumes of Revolution : The two main formulas are V = ò A ( x ) dx and V = ò A ( y ) dy . Here is

some general information about each method of omputing and some examples.
m
Rings Cylinders
(
A = p ( outer radius ) - ( inner radius)
2 2
) A = 2p ( radius ) ( width / height )
xa

Limits: x/y of right/bot ring to x/y of left/top ring Limits : x/y of inner cyl. to x/y of outer cyl.
Horz. Axis use f ( x ) , Vert. Axis use f ( y ) , Horz. Axis use f ( y ) , Vert. Axis use f ( x ) ,
g ( x ) , A ( x ) and dx. g ( y ) , A ( y and dy. g ( y ) , A ( y ) and dy. g ( x ) , A ( x ) and dx.
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Ex. Axis : y = a > 0 Ex. Axis : y = a £ 0 Ex. Axis : y = a > 0 Ex. Axis : y = a £ 0
w
w
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outer radius : a - f ( x ) outer radius: a + g ( x ) radius : a - y radius : a + y

inner radius : a - g ( x ) inner radius: a + f ( x ) width : f ( y ) - g ( y ) width : f ( y ) - g ( y )

These are only a few cases for horizontal axis of rotation. If axis of rotation is the x-axis use the
y = a £ 0 case with a = 0 . For vertical axis of rotation ( x = a > 0 and x = a £ 0 ) interchange x and
y to get appropriate formulas.
Work : If a force of F ( x ) moves an object Average Function Value : The average value
of f ( x ) on a £ x £ b is f avg = ò f ( x ) dx
1 b
in a £ x £ b , the work done is W = ò F ( x ) dx
b
b-a a
a

Arc Length Surface Area : Note that this is often a Calc II topic. The three basic formulas are,
b b b
L = ò ds SA = ò 2p y ds (rotate about x-axis) SA = ò 2p x ds (rotate about y-axis)
a a a
where ds is dependent upon the form of the function being worked with as follows.

( ) ( dxdt ) ( )
2 2
dx if y = f ( x ) , a £ x £ b dt if x = f ( t ) , y = g ( t ) , a £ t £ b
dy 2 dy
ds = 1 + ds = +

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dx dt

1+ ( ) ds = r 2 + ( ddrq ) dq if r = f (q ) , a £ q £ b
2 2
ds = dx
dy
dy if x = f ( y ) , a £ y £ b
With surface area you may have to substitute in for the x or y depending on your choice of ds to
match the differential in the ds. With parametric and polar you will always need to substitute.

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Improper Integral
An improper integral is an integral with one or more infinite limits and/or d scontinuous integrands.

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Integral is called convergent if the limit exists and has a finite value and divergent if the limit
doesn’t exist or has infinite value. This is typically a Calc II topic.

Infinite Limit
¥
f ( x ) dx = lim ò f ( x ) dx
ra f ( x ) dx = lim
ò ò¥ ò f ( x ) dx
t b
1. 2
a t ®¥ a - t ®-¥ t
¥ ¥
ò ¥ f ( x ) dx = ò ¥ f ( x ) dx + ò f ( x ) dx provided BOTH integrals are convergent.
c
m
3.
- - c

Discontinuous Integrand
1. Discont. at a: ò f ( x ) dx = lim+ ò f ( x ) dx 2. Discont. at b : ò f ( x ) dx = lim- ò f ( x ) dx
b b b t
xa

a t ®a t a t ®b a

ò f ( x ) dx = ò f ( x ) dx + ò f ( x ) dx provided both are convergent.

c b
3. Discontinuity at a < c < b :
a c
.e

Comparison Test for Improper Integrals : If f ( x ) ³ g ( x ) ³ 0 on [ a, ¥ ) then,

¥ ¥ ¥ ¥
1. If ò f ( x ) dx conv then ò g ( x ) dx conv. 2. If ò g ( x ) dx divg. then ò f ( x ) dx divg.
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a a a a
¥
Useful fact : If a > 0 then òa dx converges if p > 1 and diverges for p £ 1 .
1
xp
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Approximating Definite Integrals

ò a f ( x ) dx and a n (must be even for Simpson’s Rule) define Dx = b-na

b
w

F r given integral and

divide [ a, b] into n subintervals [ x0 , x1 ] , [ x1 , x2 ] , … , [ xn -1 , xn ] with x0 = a and xn = b then,

ò f ( x ) dx » Dx éë f ( x ) + f ( x ) + L + f ( x )ùû , xi is midpoint [ xi -1 , xi ]
b
* * * *
Midpoint Rule : 1 2 n
a

Dx
ò f ( x ) dx » 2 éë f ( x ) + 2 f ( x ) + +2 f ( x ) + L + 2 f ( x ) + f ( x )ùû
b
Trapezoid Rule : 0 1 2 n -1 n
a

Dx
ò f ( x ) dx » 3 éë f ( x ) + 4 f ( x ) + 2 f ( x ) + L + 2 f ( x ) + 4 f ( x ) + f ( x )ùû
b
Simpson’s Rule : 0 1 2 n-2 n -1 n
a