Module 7 (Maintenance Practices) Sub Module 7.15 (Welding

PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 7A - MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 7.15 - Welding, Brazing, Soldering and Bonding
MODULE 7A
Sub Module 7.15
WELDING, BRAZING, SOLDERING AND BONDING
ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M7A/01 Rev. 01
7.15 Nov 2017
Contents
(A) SOLDERING ------------------------------------------------------- 1

SOLDERING METHODS ------------------------------------------------ 5
INSPECTION AND TESTING OF SOLDERED JOINTS --------10
(B) WELDING ---------------------------------------------------------12
BRAZING -------------------------------------------------------------------14
INSPECTION OF WELDED AND BRAZED JOINTS ------------16
BONDING ------------------------------------------------------------------16
BONDING METHODS ---------------------------------------------------17
INSPECTION OF BONDED JOINTS --------------------------------18

7.15 - i Nov 2017
(A) SOLDERING
Soldering irons
Soldering differs from welding in that it is done at considerably
lower temperatures so that the parent metals do not melt and A soldering iron consists essentially of a copper “bit” secured to
fuse together. a holder, to which is fitted a heat-resistant handle. The bit varies
in weight, according to the nature of the work for which the iron
Instead, a fusible and, usually, non-ferrous alloy (with a lower
is intended. Normally for general workshop, bits of 4 ounce are
melting point) is applied between the heated metals of the joint,
used and adequate for most purposes, but very small bits may
such that the fusible alloy forms a metallic bond with the parent
have needed for ultra-light soldering in very confined positions.
metals and, on cooling, creates a solid joint.
The bit is the heat reservoir of the tool, and it must be large
The word ‘solder’ does, in fact, come from the same stem as the enough to heat the job adequately never try to do sizeable job
word ‘solid’ (as does the American term, which is pronounced with a small iron, the result is always disappointing, if not
‘solder’, for the same process). actually unsatisfactory. The following types of solder iron are
available.
General
Common
Soldering is a process of joining metals by flowing a low melting
point alloy termed solder, between the surfaces that are to be Two typical forms of common soldering iron are the hatchet type
joined. It is essentially an alloying process in which certain and straight type. The bits, which are renewable, are heated in
elements in the solder combine with the metals of the joint, and a fire or the flame of a brazing lamp.
this is only possible if clean metal and clean molten solder are
brought into effective contact. A flux material which removes
oxide from the metal faces and facilitates the flow and adhesion
of the solder is therefore, and essential requirement for soft
soldering. The basic equipment required for normal soldering
operations is a soldering iron of suitable type and a source of
heat (these may be combined, as in the electric soldering iron),
solder of the correct composition for the job in hand and suitable
flux-more elaborate equipment is needed for such special
applications of the process as sweating and dip soldering, but
these types of soldering are not usually encountered in the
general workshop.

7.15 - 1 Nov 2017
Electric Tinning
Before an iron can be used for soldering, the contact surfaces
These tools are available in various sizes and shape with
must be given a coating of tin or solder this process is called
heating elements suitable for most supply voltages. There are
“tinning” the iron, and is called out as follows:
two typical examples of electric soldering irons; one is intended
for worth work such as soldering small electrical connections, The faces on the end of the copper bit are cleaned with a file to
while the other is suitable for general workshop use. The light remove all dirt, oxide and roughness.
type may weight only a few ounces and have a pointed The bit is heated to a temperature where it will just melt solder.
cylindrical bit of 1/8 inch or 3/16-inch diameter, with a heater Flux is applied to the hot bit, and solder is rubbed against it: the
element rated at as little as 20 watts for use on a 6-volt supply tin or solder will adhere to and leave a smooth coating over the
other heaters are suitable for use on normal main-supply faces forming the point of the bit.
voltages (200-250 volts). The larger types are effective
instruments for general soldering, work, with substantial bits and
heaters rated at up to 250 watts. These irons are, as a rule, only
available for use on normal main supply. Temperature control of
electric soldering irons is made possible by the incorporation of
heater switches. These are usually fitted in the flexible cable of
the tool, but many of the light types, which attain soldering heat
very rapidly, have thumb-type switches in the handles to ensure
that the iron is automatically switched off when not actually in
use “MOX”.
This type of iron was originally introduced for ‘outside” use

where neither electric power nor other heating medium is
available. The copper bit incorporates a circular cavity in which
is placed a “mox” (Magnesium and Aluminium oxide) tablet’ is lit
by a special match, and in burning it raises the temperatures of
the bit to soldering heat. (The residue of the tablet must be
shaken out of the cavity before using the iron). There irons are
now rarely used.

7.15 - 2 Nov 2017
Precautions  Never put it down on your workbench, even for a

moment!
The following precautions should be observed when using  Work in a well-ventilated area.
soldering irons:  The smoke formed as you melt solder is mostly from the
 The ideal working temperature for the iron is just high flux and quite irritating. Avoid breathing it by keeping you
enough to melt the solder easily; overheating causing head to the side of, not above, your work.
chalkiness in solder and responsible for unsatisfactory  Wash your hands after using solder.
joints and it is also encourages the formation of oxide on  Solder contains lead, which is a poisonous metal.
the bit, thus necessitating repeated cleaning and re-
tinning. Solders
 Systematic use of the heater switch enables an electric
iron to be kept at optimum temperature, while frequent Any discussion of soldering techniques should include an
alight reheating of a common iron is always preferable to explanation of solder itself. Ordinary soft solder is a fusible alloy
less frequent but more protracted re-heating. consisting chiefly of tin and lead. It is used to join two or more
 When heating a common iron, always direct the flame of metals at temperatures below their melting point. In addition to
the brazing lamp at the base of the bit, not at the point. tin and lead, soft solders occasionally contain varying amounts
 Avoid excessive use of soldering fluid or flux too much of antimony, bismuth, cadmium, or silver. These are added to
flux tends to lower the temperature of the iron and also change the melting point or physical properties of the alloy.
promotes corrosion of the bit. Ordinary table salt has to be heated to 1,488°F before it melts.
 Never touch the element or tip of the soldering iron. However, when a little water is added, it dissolves easily at
room temperature. The action of molten solder on a metal like
 They are very hot (about 400°C) and will give you a
copper may be compared to the action of water on salt.
nasty burn.
 Take great care to avoid touching the mains lead with
The solder bonds the connection by dissolving a small amount
the tip of the iron.
of the copper at temperatures quite below its melting point.
 The iron should have a heatproof lead for extra Thus, the soldering process involves a metal solvent action
protection. An ordinary plastic lead will melt immediately between the solder and the metal being joined. A solder joint is
if touched by a hot iron and there is a serious risk of therefore chemical in nature rather than purely physical. The
burns and electric shock. bond is formed in part by chemical action and part by a physical
 Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not in bond.
use.

7.15 - 3 Nov 2017
The properties of a solder joint are different from those of the Lead/silver
original solder. The solder is converted to a new and different
alloy through the solvent action. Two metals soldered together This is an alloy of lead (97.5%) and silver (2.5%), which melts at
behave like one solid metal. It is unlike two metals bolted, wired, 304°C and solidifies at 183°C. It retains its strength to a
or otherwise physically attached. These types of connections considerable higher temperature than will lead/tin solder.
are still two pieces of metal. They are not even in direct contact
due to an insulating film of oxide on the surfaces of the metals.
Temperature change does not affect the solder alloy. It

withstands stress and strains without damaging the joint. An
unsoldered connection eventually becomes loosened by small
movements caused by temperature variations and by the
gradual build-up of oxides on the metal surfaces. Solders
available in two forms i.e. stick solder with a separate flux used,
and solder in wire form having a rosin flux core. The standard
grades of soft solder are as follows.
Tinman’s
This is a solder composed of 50% lead, 48% tin, and 2%

antimony; it is supplied in stick form. Tinman’s solder liquefies at
227°C and sets solid at 185°C it is used for fine work and higher
grade general work.
Electrician’s
This solder is composed at 40% lead and 60% tin; it is supplied

in the form of resin-cored wire to eliminate any danger of
corrosive fluxes being used with it. Melting and solidifying points
approximate to those of tinman’s solder.

7.15 - 4 Nov 2017
SOLDERING METHODS
In general applications, workshops and small factories, a flame,
Soldering can be divided into two basic methods, one of which directed onto the joint area, is the source of heat. However, in
uses higher temperature ranges than the other, but both of the more sophisticated applications, used in industry, heating
which are conducted at temperatures below the melting points for hard soldering may be provided by a:
of the parent metals of the intended joint.
 Gas, oil or electrically heated, closed furnace
The two basic methods of soldering are:  High-frequency (HF) induction coil.
Hard Soldering: done at temperatures in excess of 500°C and As with welding, it is necessary to employ the use of a flux
which include the processes of Brazing and Silver Soldering material to assist the fusion of the filler with the parent metals
Soft Soldering: done at temperatures within the range of 180°C and to prevent oxidation of the joint.
to 330°C, which, consequently, create joints of lower strength The flux mostly used for brazing processes is borax, which is
(but less expense) than those achieved by the hard-soldering based on Sodium Borate powder, mixed with water, to a thin
methods. paste before being applied, by brush or swab, to the site of the
Note: The hard soldering processes are, normally, beyond the joint. Other fluxes are also available where required.
remit of the aircraft servicing technician, so only brief
consideration is given to them here, with more attention being
given to the soft soldering method. Silver Soldering entails the use of a Copper/Zinc/Silver or
Nickel/Silver alloy as the joining metal and (again depending on
the alloy employed), can be done at temperatures of between
Hard Soldering (Brazing and Silver Soldering) 650°C to 700°C. Brass, copper, monel metal and stainless steel
Brazing, as the name implies, uses a Copper/Zinc (Brass) alloy, are typical metals on which silver soldering processes can be
as the filler metal (spelter) between the parent metals of the used.
joint. The degree of alloying will dictate the temperature at
which the process is done but the melting point of the brazing
alloys can be as high as 880°C. Soft soldering
Brazing is a process of joining in which, during, or after heating, Soft Soldering involves the use of a Lead/Tin alloy (with traces
the molten filler metal is drawn into, or retained in, the space of Bismuth and Antimony added when required) as the filler
between closely adjacent surfaces of the parts to be joined, by metal, which melts at temperatures between approximately
capillary attraction. 180°C to 330°C, depending on the composition of the alloy. The
lower temperature requirement, of the soft soldering process,
7.15 - 5 Nov 2017
allows the use of indirect heat.
In earlier times, the heat was provided by the application of an Using indirectly heated (electric) soldering irons
implement with a wooden handle and a smooth, flat, base or Electric soldering irons are available in a variety of sizes and
‘bit’ (originally made of iron). The ‘iron’ was directly heated in a weights with bits shaped to suit the particular application.
flame, then quickly cleaned, before being applied to the solder Typically, the 25 watt, electric soldering iron (refer to Fig. 1), is
joint, where the transference of its heat would facilitate the widely used for making joints in electric circuitry. The heating
melting of the filler metal. This process possibly needed element contained in the barrel of the iron is supplied directly
repeating several times (as the iron tended to lose its heat fairly from the mains electrical supply.
quickly) before a large task could be completed.
It was found that copper is a better heat conductor than iron, is
less prone to corrosion and is, therefore, easier to keep clean.
Copper, consequently, became the metal most preferred for use
as the soldering ‘bit’, though the implement retained its name of Rubber Grip
the soldering ‘iron’. While needing re-heating less frequently, it
remains necessary to regularly reheat the copper bit of the
directly heated soldering irons.
Protective Electric
The advent of electrically heated (and thermostatically Shroud Power
controlled) soldering irons has overcome the re-heating Lead
problem, associated with directly heated irons, and
consideration is given here only to the method of soft soldering
with the use of electrically (or indirectly) heated soldering irons.
Soldering Iron
While the method described is the most commonly used in Body
small workshops (or in DIY applications), there are, however,
three further methods which are used in industrial applications.
Those methods involve: Copper Bit
 Applying a naked flame to the joint
 Dip soldering Typical 25 Watt Electric Soldering Iron
 Heating by non-contact techniques Fig. 1

7.15 - 6 Nov 2017
The heated bit of the soldering iron must, next, be ‘tinned’. This
Larger, 40-watt (or as large as 125 watt) irons, with is achieved by, firstly, ensuring that the bit is thoroughly cleaned
proportionately larger bits, may be used when it is required to then dipping the bit in flux (if a separate flux is being used) and
create overlapping joints (lap joints) of sheet metals (though this applying solder to the bit until a thin film of solder completely
is a task, not normally done by aircraft maintenance covers the working area of the soldering bit. It is important that
technicians). the tinning of the bit is done correctly, otherwise problems will
Before any soldering operation is attempted, the joint surfaces be experienced with the soldering operation.
(and the soldering iron) must be properly prepared. It is of Each surface of the prepared joint must also be carefully tinned
paramount importance that the joint surfaces be absolutely free (refer to Fig. 2) in a similar manner, so that a thin film of solder
of dirt and grease (and surface oxides), so that the solder will be covers the total area of the joint surfaces.
able to satisfactorily form intermetallic compounds and, thus,
bond completely with the parent metals. Care must be taken, when applying solder to the joint surfaces,
to ensure that it is as thin and as smooth as possible and that
To ensure this, the approved cleaning methods must be used the heat is maintained, to allow the inter-metallic compound
for the relevant metals (abrasives, etchants de-greasants etc.) between the parent metal and the layer of solder to form.
and, finally, an appropriate flux is applied to the cleaned
surfaces, to prevent oxidation at the joint and to assist in the This compound is an important factor and contributes greatly to
flow and fusion of the solder. the strength of the joint, as it is, actually, stronger than the
solder.
Note: Some solders have a flux included in their hollow core,
while others, require the application of a separate flux material. When the two surfaces of the joint are correctly tinned, they are
placed together and the hot iron is applied to an outer surface of
After the surfaces have been carefully prepared, the electric the joint. The heat is transmitted through the metal and melts
soldering iron can be switched on and allowed to reach its the solder interfaces so that they fuse together and a typical
operating temperature. This is, usually, indicated by a small, soldered lap joint (refer to Fig. 3) of the metals is completed.
integral warning lamp but may be deduced by applying a piece
of solder to the bit and seeing the solder melt when the Note: Even when making electrical connections, using soft
temperature is adequate. solder, a type of lap joint must be made, since an end-to-end
joint in wire would be impracticable.

7.15 - 7 Nov 2017
Active and Passive Fluxes

Direction of Soldering
Metal surfaces become more reactive to oxygen when they are
heated and, as previously discussed, to prevent this oxidation,
during the soldering process, a suitable flux is applied to the Solder Stick
surfaces being joined.
The flux should possess certain characteristics in that it:
 Forms a liquid film over the joint and excludes Copper Bit
the gases in the atmosphere
 Prevents any further oxidation during the heating B C D E
cycle
F G
 Assists in dissolving the oxide film on the metal A
surface and the solder
 Is displaced from the joint by liquid filler metal.
Parent Metal Pa
A oxide film on parent metal

B flux solution above oxidized metal surface
C boiling flux solution removing oxide film
D bare metal in contact with fused flux
E liquid solder
F tin reacting with base metal to form
Inter-metallic compound
G solidifying solder
Tinning the Joint Surface
Fig. 2

7.15 - 8 Nov 2017
Fluxes for soft soldering are often classified into two groups,
Phosphoric Acid: used, primarily, on stainless steels.
which are the:
Note: Flux residues of acid fluxes remain active after soldering
Active group: which are corrosive or acid fluxes
and will cause corrosion unless removed by thorough cleansing,
Passive group: which are non-corrosive fluxes. - first in a weak solution of caustic soda - and then in water.
The flux can be applied separately, or as a constituent with, in Passive (Non-Corrosive) fluxes are divided into three types,
the solder. Fluxes may take the form of a liquid, paste or solid, which are:
and the application, for which they are being used, will govern
 Natural resin: dissolved in suitable organic solvents, it is
the type selected.
the closest approximation to a non-corrosive flux and is
Active (corrosive) fluxes are used where conditions require a particularly suitable for use in the electrical industry
rapidly working and highly active flux. The common active fluxes  Tallow: used by plumbers, for the jointing of lead sheet
are listed below. and pipes. Similar to resin, it is only slightly active when
WARNING: These fluxes can cause burns to flesh and clothing. heated to the temperature of the soldering process
Protect the eyes with goggles and wear rubber gloves and  live Oil: used for soldering pewter items.
apron when using a corrosive flux.
Zinc Chloride (ZnCl): commonly called ‘killed spirits’. This used
on general sheet-metal work and may be obtained commercially
under its trade name of ‘Baker’s Soldering Fluid’
Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl): commonly called sal ammoniac.
This used, in block form, for cleaning the face of the soldering
bit before tinning, or in powdered form, with Zinc Chloride, for
tinning cast iron.
Hydrochloric Acid (HCI): used in the raw state for pickling the
surfaces of the metal and rendering them clean. As a flux it is
extremely active and is suitable for soldering zinc and
galvanised mild steel

7.15 - 9 Nov 2017
Flux Removal INSPECTION AND TESTING OF SOLDERED JOINTS

It is essential that all flux residues be removed, since they can
present a corrosion hazard. The method of removal will be The inspection of soldered joints is done mainly by visual
determined by the type of flux used, but will entail the use of means, though, in some applications, tensile testing is
one, or a combination of, the following: recommended.
Electrical contacts, using soft soldering methods, may be tested
 A solution of caustic soda
by gently pulling on the wires to confirm the security of the joint.
 A solution of sulphuric acid These joints may also be tested for electrical continuity and
 A supply of warm water resistance, using appropriate instruments.
Inspection of the completed soldered connections should
 Physical abrasion.
include the following: -
 Joints should be clean, smooth, bright and free from
sharp projections, and the wire easily discernible
through the solder.
 As far as can be detected visually, the joint should be

filled with adhering solder.
 Insulation should undamaged (i.e. not burned or affected

by solvent).
 There should be no pitting, scale or other evidence of

poor workmanship.
 Where electrical tests are specified, the results obtained

should be within the prescribe limits.

7.15 - 10 Nov 2017
Soldering of aluminium
Proprietary brands of cored wire solders are available, which
may be used for soldering aluminium and many aluminium
alloys, and a method of ultrasonic soldering may also be used.
The normal soldering technique is similar to that used with other
materials but, because of the material’s high specific heat and
thermal conductivity, a greater heat input is required. An
advantage of these properties is that uneven expansion and
contraction are avoided, and heating of complex structures is
simpler than with the other materials. A soldering temperature of
2800C to 3700C is required, and may be obtained using a hand
iron, gas torch, furnace or induction coil. Solder should be
prepositioned or hand fed to the edge of the joint, and heat
applied adjacent to the joint to bring it quickly to the soldering
temperature, so that the solder melts by indirect heating. As
aluminium expands more than most materials, light jigging,
which will allow the parts to expand and contract, should be
used when necessary. A joint clearance of 0.05 mm to 0.1 mm
(0.002 inch to 0.004 inch) will allow the solder to fit the gap by
capillary action, and give maximum strength.
Caution
Pungent fumes are given off by the flux, and soldering should
be carried out in a well-ventilated working area.

7.15 - 11 Nov 2017
(B) WELDING
Welding may be defined as the permanent joining, by fusion, of The oxy-acetylene method can be used for welding ferrous or
two pieces of material (usually metals), by the progressive non-ferrous metals but, when welding non-ferrous metals, it is
melting and subsequent solidification of the materials at the site necessary that an additional material (a flux) be used, usually
of the joint. with a filler metal, to assist in the fusion process.
The basic principle, of fusion welding of metals, is the same for The purpose of the flux is to prevent oxidation of the joint site so
all processes, in that the surfaces, or edges, of the metal to be that the molten metals can fuse together more easily and, thus,
joined, are brought to a molten state and allowed, or caused, to eliminate brittleness in the joint.
intermix (with or without the addition of a filler metal), so that the
parent metal and filler metal (if used) form a homogeneous Manual metal arc
molten pool which, when cooled, forms the complete weld. This welding process uses an electric arc as the heat source.
The arc is established between a flux-coated, filler metal rod
Methods of Welding and the workpiece, which are connected to an electrical power
Welds require the application of sufficient heat energy to melt source so that they are the anode and cathode electrodes of the
the metals involved in the joint and the high temperatures are circuit. When the power is switched on, the heat, generated by
achieved by various methods. the resulting arc, melts the flux-coated electrode and the edges
of the parent material to form a weld pool. The temperature of
Oxy-Acetylene Flame the arc is approximately 4000°C to 4500°C.
The cutting of steel sections and plate material may be done by
means of a flame torch, using a mixture of oxygen, with one of
the appropriate fuel gases (acetylene, hydrogen, natural gas or
propane).
For welding, however, only an oxygen and acetylene mixture

will provide a sufficiently, high heat input, needed for the
welding process. The temperature of the oxy-acetylene flame is
approximately 3150°C.

7.15 - 12 Nov 2017
Metal arc gas-shielded (mags) Tungsten arc gas-shielded (tags)

In this semi-automatic welding process, the heat source is also This process also uses an electric arc as the heat source, but
an electric arc, but the electrode is a bare wire, which is here a tungsten non-consumable electrode is used to form the
consumable and is supplied, from a reel, to the welding gun, by arc with the workpiece. An inert shielding gas (argon) is
a wire feed unit. A shielding gas is employed; in place of a flux required to protect both the weld pool and the tungsten
material, to protect the weld pool. The type of shielding gas, electrode from the oxygen and moisture in the atmosphere.
used, will vary with the application. Some of the gases and gas
mixtures used are: For this reason, the process is sometimes called argon arc
welding and, also, Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding.
 Argon A filler rod is usually required to give reinforcement to the weld.
 Carbon dioxide
 Argon/carbon dioxide Flash butt welding
 Argon/oxygen The components to be joined are set up as opposite poles in an
 Argon/nitrogen electric circuit and, when the current is switched on, the
 Helium. components are moved into and out of contact with one
another. This action causes an arc to be struck and, when
Note: This process may also be referred to according to the welding temperature is reached, a force is applied to both
type of shielding gas (or mixture of gases) which is being used components, so that their molten surfaces are fused together.
and whether those gases are inert or active. The two types of
this process are: Spot Welding
A method used to join comparatively thin sheets of metal, spot
 Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding: where the shielding is welding is a form of resistance welding. The sheets of metal are
provided by a shroud of inert gas. sandwiched between two, pointed electrodes on which force is
exerted as the current is applied. The heat is generated at a
 Metal Active Gas (MAG) welding: where the shielding is local spot where the resistance to the flow of the electricity is at
provided by a shroud of active, or non-inert, gas or its highest and the metal fuses at these spots. The pointed
mixture of gases. electrodes are made from copper alloy and are usually water-
cooled.

7.15 - 13 Nov 2017
Seam welding BRAZING

The principle of seam welding is similar to that of spot welding
Brazing is essentially similar to soldering, but it gives a much
(namely resistance to the flow of electricity). The main
stronger joint than soldering. The principal differences are the
difference is that in place of the pointed electrodes, this method use of harder filler materials and heating to higher
uses discs or wheels, which are moved along the length of the temperatures.
weld. The supply of current is intermittent, so causing a spot
weld to overlap its neighbour and, thereby, form a continuous Filler alloys
seam weld.
Copper alloyed with other elements like zinc, silver cadmium,
phosphorus may be used as fillers for brazing copper and steel.
Filler alloys of aluminium copper silicon are suitable for
aluminium brazing.
Silver alloys (silver–copper, or silver–copper–zinc) are suitable

for brazing high nickel alloys.
Filler alloys are generally available in the form of rod, wire and
strip and in some instances in granular form the form selected
depending on the brazing method used.
Fluxes
The friction of the flux is to dissolve oxides; it also has the
effects of reducing the surface tension of the molten filler alloy
and of assisting the alloy to flow readily between the surfaces of
the joint. The flux used should be compatible to the filler alloy
used. Borax is very widely used as flux in brazing.

7.15 - 14 Nov 2017
Preparation of joints Furnace heating

All scale, grease dirt paint and other foreign matter must be
removed from the area to be brazed. Cleaning may be done by As the name implies, furnace-brazing method comprises a
sand, shot or alumina (Al2O3) blasting or brushing with wire furnace maintained at correct temperature. A conveyor may be
brush. Aluminium and its alloys may also be cleaned by pickling used to pass the work through the furnace.
process (10% Sulphuric acid).
Torch heating
Capillary attraction is the major factor in making a brazed joint
and this is dependent on the dimensions of the joint. The best Torch heating is done using brazing torches. These are different
results are obtained where the joint gap of 0.002 – 0.004 inch is combinations of gases commonly used.
used.
 Air with coal gas
Heat application  Oxygen with coal gas
The methods of applying heat in brazing can be classified into  Oxygen and acetylene
four categories induction, resistance, furnace and torch.
Induction heating Flux removal
Water-cooled coil is placed around the part to braze and high Flux residue will cause corrosion when exposed to atmospheric
frequency current is passed through the coil. This induces eddy conditions and its complete removal is essential. Where a borax
currents to flow in the part producing heat. type flux is used, prolonged boiling in water or a short pickling
(10% sulphuric acid) followed by thorough washing in water will
Resistance heating be necessary. Fluoride type fluxes can be removed by washing
in water and wire brushing. Soaking in hot water or boiling
Is used where localized heat is required. Two electrodes are water, followed by brushing will be more effective.
used which make contact with the assembly and connected to a
low voltage, high current supply. The passage of current causes
the electrodes to glow and heat the part.

7.15 - 15 Nov 2017
INSPECTION OF WELDED AND BRAZED JOINTS BONDING
The wide use of welding in industry has resulted in an Bonding, by the use of adhesives, is the third method of
increasing demand for standards relating to welded achieving permanent joints between surfaces, to be considered
constructions in various branches of engineering. in this part of the course.
These standards generally include requirements for certain
welding tests to be conducted, primarily for the qualification of Comprehensive coverage of adhesives and sealants is provided
welding procedures and operators. in Module 6 - (Materials and Hardware), along with details of
composite materials, the detection of typical defects and the
Sophisticated methods of non-destructive testing of welds methods used in their repair, therefore consideration here will
include the use of Radiographic, Ultrasonic and Magnetic be limited merely to a summary of:
Particle testing procedures, all of which are done by specially
trained, and approved, personnel. Specimen welds are also  Bonding terminologies
destructively tested, by fracturing or sectioning, to test the  Methods of bonding
integrity of a specific welding procedure.  The inspection and testing of bonded joints.
These methods are beyond the scope of unqualified personnel,
so that aircraft maintenance technicians are, usually, Bonding, in the aerospace industry, is employed to form
constrained solely to the visual inspection of welds (following permanent joints between materials ranging from composites,
thorough cleaning of the relevant areas). fabrics, metals and metal alloys, to plastics, - all of which are
It may, however, be possible that, after suitable training, some referred to as ‘adherends’.
technicians can be granted approval to conduct limited Dye
Penetrant inspection procedures on certain welds, which will be The surface texture of a particular adherend, the type of joint
specified in the appropriate servicing manual. required, and the manner in which loads are applied to the joint
will dictate the type of adhesive to be used, and the method to
be employed, in effecting the joint.
Synthetic resins (and some elastomers) are mainly used as

adhesives in the bonding of aircraft structures and associated
components and, while most of them are used at the
manufacturing stages, some may well be used, by aircraft
servicing technicians, during routine maintenance tasks.

7.15 - 16 Nov 2017
WARNING: CONTROLLED VENTILATION, PROTECTIVE BONDING METHODS

CLOTHING, AND ANTI-FIRE/EXPLOSION PRACTICES, ARE
ABSOLUTELY ESSENTIAL, WHEN WORKING WITH While the two major groups of adhesives are designated as
ADHESIVES AND SEALANTS. flexible or structural, they are further classified as being of the
ALTHOUGH MANY OF THE ADHESIVES IN CURRENT USE thermoplastic or of the thermosetting types. Each type’s
ARE SUPPLIED IN FILM FORM, SOME ARE LIQUIDS OR characteristics will influence the method employed in its use as
PASTES, FROM WHICH, TOXIC AND FLAMMABLE a bonding agent.
VAPOURS ARE EMITTED, PRIOR TO CURING.
MANY OF THE NECESSARY, SURFACE PREPARATION Thermoplastic adhesives
SOLVENTS, ALSO GIVE OFF TOXIC/FLAMMABLE Thermoplastic materials are those which soften on heating and
VAPOURS. harden when cooled but will, again soften and harden as often
as the heat/cool cycle is repeated.
The warning is reproduced from Module 6 – (Materials and
Hardware), where it also states that the two major groups of Thermoplastic adhesives consist of thermoplastic materials
adhesives, are: (which may be either acrylic-, cellulose-, epoxy-, rubber- or
vinyl-based), in solution with a volatile solvent and which may
 Flexible adhesives: used where some flexing or slight be applied to the surface of adherends in the form of:
relative movement, of the joint is required, and where high  Direct application adhesives
load-carrying properties are not paramount. These
 Contact (or impact) adhesives.
adhesives are, generally, based on flexible plastics or
elastomers
Direct application adhesives, are spread over the area of both
 Structural adhesives: used in applications where high loads surfaces of the joint before the joint is closed and the solvent
must be carried without excessive creep and which are continues to evaporate. This method can create problems if the
relatively rigid without being excessively hard or brittle. joint area is large, as all of the solvent may not evaporate and a
These adhesives are based on resins (commonly of the weak joint will result.
epoxy or of the polyester types).
Contact adhesives are also applied to both surfaces to be joined
Note: Another group of adhesives is the two-polymer type, but, with these adhesives, the solvent is allowed to evaporate
which has a reasonably even balance of resin and elastomer. until the adhesive feels ‘tacky’, when the surfaces are, then,
This results in a flexible, yet fairly strong, adhesive. brought into contact and a complete joint is achieved.

7.15 - 17 Nov 2017
Thermosetting adhesives INSPECTION OF BONDED JOINTS
Thermosetting materials (thermosets), once set, cannot be The inspection of bonded joints may be done (as discussed in
reformed by the application of heat and they create permanent Module 6) visually, usually in good lighting conditions and,
heat-resisting bonds. possibly, with the aid of magnifying glasses or small
microscopes.
Thermosetting adhesives consist of epoxy- and phenolic-based
materials in addition to polyesters, polyurethanes, and silicones. Delamination and de-bonding of aircraft honeycomb panels and
Thermosets require a ‘curing’ process (which is achieved by the control surfaces may be detected by percussion (ring) testing or
application of heat), to cause them to harden. coin tapping, while more sophisticated methods, such as
ultrasonic and radiographic procedures, may be used by
The heat can be obtained by placing the components being suitably trained and approved personnel.
joined into an oven or into an autoclave (a pressurised oven).
Alternatively, the adhesive in the joint can be heated by the Where repairs are done to composite structures, then samples
chemical (exothermic) reaction of a hardening agent, which is of the adhesives used are kept for testing, while ‘peel’ tests are
added to the adhesive, prior to the joint being made. done on adhesives which are used to attach de-icing or anti-
icing elements to the leading edges of propellers or flying
Thermosetting adhesives are the types most widely used in the control surfaces.
aerospace industry.

7.15 - 18 Nov 2017

Module 7 (Maintenance Practices) Sub Module 7.15 (Welding

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What are the different types of soldering irons?

What are the different types of soldering irons?

What are the main types of adhesives?

What are the main types of adhesives?

PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 7A - MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

WELDING, BRAZING, SOLDERING AND BONDING

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

(A) SOLDERING ------------------------------------------------------- 1

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

This type of iron was originally introduced for ‘outside” use

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Precautions  Never put it down on your workbench, even for a

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Temperature change does not affect the solder alloy. It

This is a solder composed of 50% lead, 48% tin, and 2%

This solder is composed at 40% lead and 60% tin; it is supplied

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Active and Passive Fluxes

A oxide film on parent metal

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Flux Removal INSPECTION AND TESTING OF SOLDERED JOINTS

 As far as can be detected visually, the joint should be

 Insulation should undamaged (i.e. not burned or affected

 There should be no pitting, scale or other evidence of

 Where electrical tests are specified, the results obtained

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

For welding, however, only an oxygen and acetylene mixture

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Metal arc gas-shielded (mags) Tungsten arc gas-shielded (tags)

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Seam welding BRAZING

Silver alloys (silver–copper, or silver–copper–zinc) are suitable

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Preparation of joints Furnace heating

Induction heating Flux removal

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

INSPECTION OF WELDED AND BRAZED JOINTS BONDING

Synthetic resins (and some elastomers) are mainly used as

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

WARNING: CONTROLLED VENTILATION, PROTECTIVE BONDING METHODS

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Thermosetting adhesives INSPECTION OF BONDED JOINTS

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

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