Music Theory

Svara saptah:
Intonation in Vaisnava Music

by Dasanudas Vanacari a.k.a. David B. Hughes (1985)
Co-chairman, Music Faculty, Bhaktivedanta Gurukula, Sridham Mayapur, India
Introduction
The Vedic scripture Srimad Bhagavatam is the epitome of Vaisnava knowledge.
Encyclopedic in scope, poetic in composition, profound in significance, it contains all knowledge
of importance to a Vaisnava; indeed, it contains—at least in seed form—all that is knowable.
Just as from the vantage of a great height, features that look impressive from the ground become
insignificant, so from the elevated Krsna-conscious viewpoint of Srimad Bhagavatam, great
sciences of deep import are often summed up in a few verses or even a single line.
Take for example the science of music, specifically the issue of intonation in music, from
which all other Vedic musical concepts are derived. We find many erudite tomes in the great
libraries of the world containing complex expositions and conflicting arguments on this subtle,
highly technical subject. Yet the entire topic is summed up in the following line from the Srimad
Bhagavatam:
...Brahma's sensual activities were manifested as the seven notes of music
[svara saptah].1
This sloka (which inspires both the content and the title of this essay) is commented upon in
the following purport by Srila Prabhupada:
“...The musical notes [svaras] are sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha and ni. All these
vibrations are originally called sabda-brahma, or spiritual sound. It is said, therefore,
that Brahma was created in the maha-kalpa as the incarnation of spiritual sound. The
Vedas are spiritual sound, and therefore there is no need of material interpretation for
the sound incarnation of the Vedic literature... In the ultimate issue there is nothing
material because everything has its origin in the spiritual world. The material
manifestation is therefore sometimes called illusion in the proper sense of the term.
For those who are realized souls there is nothing but spirit.”
These statements occur in the context of an elaborate discussion of the creation of the
material universe, summarized as follows: The Supreme Lord, in His form as Maha-Visnu, is the
master and controller of the total material substance (pradhana or mahat-tattva). By His will,
material substance emanates from His pores and breathing in the form of innumerable material
universes (brahmandas) like the one in which we find ourselves today. The Lord then enters
within each of the universes as Visnu, and differentiates the pradhana into the categories of
material elements: earth, water, air, fire, space (akasa), mind, intelligence and false ego
Copyright 1967-1999 by David B. Hughes. All Rights Reserved. 1

Svara Saptah: Intonation in Vaisnava Music David B. Hughes
(ahankara). Lord Brahma then takes birth directly from the lotus navel of Visnu and continues
the material creation, fashioning the various planetary systems from the inchoate material
elements by the use of spiritual sound vibration (sabda brahma).
According to Srimad-Bhagavatam the svarah sapta are the basis of the Vedic spiritual
sound vibration used by Brahma to create the material worlds. Therefore the technical terms
svarah sapta and sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha and ni used in the verse and purport quoted above are
much more than simply Sanskrit names for the notes of the musical scale. They embody in
capsule form the complete Vedic cosmological and spiritual world view, include a
comprehensive understanding of psychoacoustics and the psychophysiology of sound, and
provide a working knowledge of the creative potency of spiritual sound vibration to the aspiring
devotee and musician.
Finally, for the serious yogi, these same seven sounds offer a means for withdrawing the
soul from the entanglement of matter, for they hold the key to the creation, and therefore also the
annihilation, of the material universe. This paper attempts to elucidate the esoteric concept of
svara, revealing it as a vitally important requirement for successfully chanting the Vedic
mantras.
Research Background
In 1968-71, this author designed and performed a comprehensive series of experiments with
different kinds of music to determine their effects on living beings. Analysis of the results
revealed that of all musical styles, none is so beneficial to living beings as Vedic sound vibration
(raga and mantra). Of the varieties of Western music tested, only very early European classical
music (madrigals and Gregorian chant) had any positive effect at all on living beings. All other
forms of modern music were shown to be deleterious to various degrees. These experiments are
briefly summarized in the Appendix. 2
A comprehensive survey and analysis of Vedic musical form revealed it to be composed of
three elements: svara (tuning), matra or tala (poetic meter or rhythmic cycle) and raga (melodic
species) in support of a sacred text (mantra). An additional series of experiments, utilizing these
elements separately, determined that the major cause of the observed beneficial and therapeutic
effects of Vedic music is its precise tuning, different from that of the Western scale. Further
research in the Vedic literatures revealed that this system of tuning—called Just Intonation in
Western music theory—is explicitly and scientifically explained in the Vedic literature as the
sapta svarah, and has deep philosophical and spiritual significance.
Vaisnava Music Theory

“Chanting the holy name, dancing in ecstasy, singing and playing musical
instruments, the spiritual master is always gladdened by the sankirtana movement of
Lord Caitanya Mahaprabhu. Because he is relishing the mellows of pure devotion
within his mind, sometimes his hair stands on end, he feels quivering in his body,
and tears flow from his eyes like waves. I offer my respectful obeisances unto the
lotus feet of such a spiritual master.” 3
As our studies of authentic Vedic music deepen, so does our understanding of, and
appreciation for the wonderful example of our spiritual master Srila Prabhupada's expert kirtan
and bhajan styles. His masterful recordings always express the highest Vaisnava sentiments in a
style at once simple, profound, and in tune with the highest and most esoteric principles of

Vaisnava music theory. For music is by no means an unimportant part of Vaisnava devotional
service. As described above, singing, dancing and playing musical instruments according to the
Vedic principles is an integral part of the temple-worship duties of the spiritual master and his
disciples. Therefore an essential part of the instructions of the Gaudiya Vaisnava spiritual master
to his disciples is Vedic music theory.
In general, music theory is the science of the raw materials of the art of music. It is
necessarily a multi-dimensional discipline because music itself is multi-dimensional. Therefore,
music theory must include a theory of aesthetics, a bit of psychology, a smattering of cosmology
and physics; and playing music well demands a practical knowledge of acoustics, psychology,
physiology and performance arts as well. Vaisnava music also has the spiritual dimension, which
is deep and unlimited, a perfect dimension of dimensions. Therefore the theory of Vaisnava
music is a superset of ordinary music theory, because it is actually the science of pleasing the
Supreme Personality of Godhead through the art of music.
Music theory contains a technical language for talking about music. In the study of English,
a sentence diagram uses technical symbols to analyze the grammatical parts of a sentence:
subject, object, phrases, etc. Similarly, music theory contains musical notation, and many other
technical symbols and terms for notating and discussing the various elements of the universal
language of music. For example, tone, note and slur are all musical terms, and the musical staff,
bars and clefs are symbols that help us notate music.
Figure 1: The musical clef, staff, bars and notes.
To enlarge upon the concept of music as a language: Music theory, like the grammar and
syntax of language, also has something to say about the origin, derivation, quality, and correct
usage of musical elements. The proper tuning of the notes, the correct application of rhythm and
melody, the right technique of singing and playing various musical instruments are all part of
music theory, as are the complex rules of musical composition. Following the rules and
conventions of music theory ensures the musician that he is using the finest quality musical
materials in his artistic endeavors. A painting will look better and last longer if the artist uses
first-class pigments; similarly, a spiritual musician who has thoroughly mastered the fundamental
materials of his art—the svaras, talas, ragas and mantras of Vedic sound vibrations—will
produce a better final product.
Vaisnava music theory aims to produce music that will be pleasing to Lord Krsna, and that
will help His devotees to advance toward the spiritual perfection of pure love of Godhead. This is
not "art for art's sake," but art for God's sake. Therefore the prime necessity for understanding
and practicing Vaisnava musical theory is a firm grounding in the devotional principles of Vedic
Krsna-conscious spiritual life. Any musical practice whose aim or effect is to increase material
consciousness, or which is prohibited by Vedic injunction or Gaudiya Vaisnava usage is
therefore summarily rejected by Vaisnava music theory.
Vaisnava music should be fine enough to be offerable to the Deities of the Supreme Lord,
and understandable enough to the listeners to help them remember Krsna. It must be based upon
authorized Vedic mantras and poetry of pure Vaisnavas and acaryas (spiritual masters), which
contain the siddhanta (philosophical conclusions) of Gaudiya Vaisnava philosophy and the

narrations of the pastimes of the Lord in ecstatic loving relationship with His innumerable
devotees. Its notes must be pure and pleasing to the ear, and its melodies sweet and full of the
spiritual rasas (spiritual mellow or ecstatic emotions) appropriate to the lyrics and to the time of
day and season. Its rhythms must be expressive and appropriate, giving support to the lyrics and
melody. It should use traditional Vedic instruments, such as tamboura, kohl, karatalas, sarangi,
vina, etc. to accompany the voice. It should avoid ostentatious displays of personal virtuosity,
and concentrate instead on enhancing the mood of the Lord and His devotees in their pastimes of
loving affairs.
Vaisnava musicians are not self-centered, whimsical ‘artistes’ engaged in amplified sense
enjoyment, but highly disciplined and spiritually advanced Vedic bhakti-yogis who understand
the purports of scriptures like Bhagavad-gita, Srimad-Bhagavatam, Caitanya-caritamrta, etc.
Without these preliminary qualifications, no one can be accepted as a first-class Vaisnava
musician. So from the outset, Vaisnava music theory assumes that the musician is a pure soul
with brahminical spiritual qualifications, whose aim in music and in life is to please Lord Krsna
and His devotees with his art, and ultimately to go back to home, back to Godhead, and serve
Krsna eternally in his constitutional spiritual identity.
Origins of Vaisnava Music

The origin of Vaisnava music is Krsna's rasa dance. In the rasa dance, Lord Krsna and His
most intimate devotees, the gopis (cowherd damsels) meet together in the forest of Vrndavan
(Krsna’s spiritual kingdom) and share nights of pleasurable loving affairs in the conjugal mood.
Descriptions of the rasa dance in Vaisnava scriptures mention many different instruments, and
many beautiful songs, sung both by Krsna and the gopis. The Govinda Lilamrta by Krsnadas
Kaviraj Gosvami mentions the following instruments:
“muraja, damaru, dampha, mandu, mamak, murali, pabika, vamsi, bipanchi,
mahati, vina, kacchapi, kavinasika, svara mandalika, rudra vina, etc.”
Govinda Lilamrta also mentions several of the prominent ragas and raginis, such as:
“Sri, Gujari, Ramakiri, Gauri, Asabari, Ghandakiri, Todi, Belabali, Mangal,
Boratika, Magdha, Kaushiki, Shali, Lalita, Pala Manjari, Subhanga, Sindhura,
Mallar, Karnatak, Natta, Sama Kedar, Kamod, Bhairav, Gandar, Deshag, Vasant,
Malab, etc.”
In another place, Krsnadas Kaviraj describes the use of:

“22 sruti, 149 tanas, 21 murchchana, 3 types of gramas, plus gandha grama,
which is beyond [human] comprehension.”
and:
“There are two types of singing: nibada and anibada (measured and
unmeasured or rhythmic and a tempo).” 4
The following is a description of Krsna’s musical activities in the rasa dance:

“Sruti became known to this world through Krsna when He sang songs
containing sruti with His lovers in the rasa dance. O Srinivasa, in the rasa-mandala
(arena of the rasa dance) all the types of music became personified. Krsna most
feelingly manifested sruti from nada (subtle sound). Nada transformed into 22 srutis
with the help of air. These 22 nadis have taken refuge in the heart. Those srutis
gradually manifest themselves in the vina and other instruments, because they cannot
manifest themselves in voices that are stricken with cold and diseases...
“O Srinivasa, who knows the real entity of sruti? It has been only expressed in
the songs sung in the rasa dance, as Krsna-candra had introduced sruti, Sri Radhika
(Krsna’s female counterpart) had expressed it accurately. Lalita and the others used
to take great pleasure in listening to it. The srutis had to thank their own fortune, for
the gods used to shower flowers while listening to it. So sruti with svara used to
please everyone. That which gives pleasure to the heart is called svara, for it is
pleasing to all listeners. Svara is of seven kinds: sadaja, rishaba, gandhara,
madhyama, panchama, dhaivata and nisada [sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, and ni].
“All the instruments became personified in the rasa-mandala. O Srinivasa, on

hearing the instruments playing in the rasa dance, Brahma and the other demigods
became hypnotized. The expert in all sorts of instruments, the son of the King of
Braja, along with all His lady-loves, began to enchant millions of Kandarpas
(Cupids). The way He was playing the flute is unparallelled in all three worlds. His
flute playing in mandara, madhya and tara svara used to mesmerize Maheswara
(Siva). Radha, the enchantress of Govinda and the image of rasa, began to play
alavani instruments in a pure way. The three gramas, sadaj, madhyam and gandham,
had been perfectly used, both in songs and instrumental music. Lalita most playfully
played brahma-vina, for she was an expert in using srutis, etc. in the instruments.
Visaka, the fair maid, began to most skilfully play the kacchapa-vina. Sucitra, the
fair maid, began to play rudra-vina in a beautiful way, with the use of svara, jati,
etc. Campakalatika began to play vipanchi with murcchana and tala, etc. Rangadevi
began to play yantric vilas with gamakas, Sudevi-sundari began to play sarangi in
different ragas, in which various parvandhas became visible. Tungavidya began to
play kinnari, which began to shower nectar in the rasa arena, and Indulekha most
easily began to play the svara-mandala. So all the associates of Sri Radhika were
experts in playing all sorts of instruments. Some of them began to play mardala,
mrdanga, etc. Some of them began to play muraja, etc. And some of them began to
play damaru, which is a favorite of Lord Siva. Some of them began to play
karatalas, and the sound of the instruments covered the whole area of the rasa-
mandala. Sri Radhika and her associates looked very beautiful with their
instruments. The sound in a chorus used to shower nectar in the rasa-mandala. Sri
Vrnda-devi was so happy that she began to play different types of instruments that
have not been mentioned even in the scriptures. Then Raya and Kanu, being
absorbed in the melody of the instruments, began to dance joyfully.” 5
There are many other scriptural quotations describing the music of Goloka Vrndavan as the
origin of all other music. For example, there is one sloka that “the ankle bells on Srimati
Radharani's feet generate thousands of ragas and talas.” Radharani is elsewhere described as
being the pinnacle of the singing and dancing arts. She's considered to be the topmost original
artiste of singing, dancing and playing musical instruments. And this is part of the charm that She
holds for Krsna—it’s one of Her extraordinary qualities. Although Krsna is known as Natabara

(master of dancing), He says in a sloka by Rupa Gosvami quoted in the Caitanya-caritamrta that
“Radharani is My dancing mistress. She makes Me dance because She has hundreds of qualities
that I don’t have.” And therefore She can captivate His mind.
One of the aims of Vaisnava music theory is to produce musicians who can satisfy the
Deities by their nice presentations of music. That means we are trying to cultivate some of the
qualities that Radharani has that are so attractive to Krsna. Of the eight principal gopis, who are
considered expansions of Radharani, Tungavidya is primarily responsible for providing musical
background for Radha and Krsna's pastimes. Of course, she has hundreds and thousands of
sakhis and manjaris to assist her. So we can imagine that in the spiritual world, when Radha-
Krsna and Their associates are performing their pastimes, there is always some appropriate music
playing—vocal or instrumental—to enhance Their mood.
Actually, to encourage Radha-Krsna in Their pastimes and to enhance Their ecstatic moods
is the duty of the manjaris. And the Rupanuga Vaisnavas are especially interested in manjari-
bhava, as the svarupa of the great Vaisnava acaryas in our line is predominantly the manjari-
svarupa. The manjaris' mood is: “Let us assist Radha-Krsna and the gopis in their pastimes. We
do not desire to enjoy with Krsna directly, but our highest bliss is to bring Them together for
Their confidential conjugal pastimes.”
Pastimes of Radha-Krsna
So we can understand from this line of meditation that music appropriate for offering to
Radha-Krsna Deities would be intimately linked with the rasas of Their asta-kalia-lila, or
eightfold daily pastimes. What are the eightfold daily pastimes? We are somewhat familiar with
them already, in the form of the daily schedule of Deity worship, bathing and dressing, offering
bhoga, aratis, etc. But what do these activities of Deity worship really mean in terms of the
activities of Goloka Vrndavan? There is a nice sloka by Rupa Gosvami:
“The daily lila of the Supreme Lord is divided into eight periods as follows:
1. Nisanta-lila, the last part of the night;
2. Prata-lila, morning pastimes;
3. Purvahna-lila, forenoon pastimes;
4. Madhyana-lila, noon pastimes;
5. Aparahna-lila, afternoon pastimes;
6. Sayam-lila, twilight pastimes;
7. Pradosha-lila, evening pastimes; and
8. Naisha or Madhyaratri-lila, night pastimes.
The Madhyana-lila and Naisha-lila take place for six muhurtas (48 x 6 = 288 minutes
or 4 hours 48 minutes); the other lilas run only for three muhurtas (2 hours 24
minutes) each. In the Sanatkumara Samhita, Sri Sadashiva has narrated about this
Asta-kalia-lila of Sri Krsna, the Supreme Lord par excellence. Through that
narration we may realize this exalted subject matter.” 6
There is a similar set of eightfold daily pastimes in Gaura-lila, which we will not set forth
here; but the principle is the same. In fact, Lord Caitanya is always remembering the Radha-
Krsna asta-kaliya-lila as He performs His daily pastimes. As He enjoys this ecstatic
remembrance, His associates like Ramananda Raya and Svarupa Damodara Gosvami sing the
appropriate songs to enhance His devotional mood. This is discussed in Caitanya-caritamrta.
Therefore, the art of singing appropriate devotional songs is an integral part of the worship of

Lord Caitanya, and all the acaryas in our line, especially Narottama das Thakur and Srila
Prabhupada, are expert in rendering this particular service.
We again encounter the eightfold division of Krsna’s pastimes in the division of ragas
according to suitability for different times of day:
Nisanta-lila Ragas (3:36 am - sunrise [nominally 6:00])

Name Thata Scale Vadi Samvadi
Lalita Shri Sr GmM d NS M S
Bangala Bhairava Sr Gm Pd S M S
Vibhasa Marava Sr G M D S D+ G
Prata-lila Ragas (sunrise [6:00] - 8:24 am):
Bhairava Bhairava Sr Gm Pd NS d r-
Ramakali Bhairava Sr Gm Pd NS P S
Gunakali Bhairavi Sr m Pd S d r-
Yavanapuri Todi S Rg m Pd n S d g
Asavari Bhairavi Sr g m Pd n S d r
Purvahna-lila Ragas (8:24 am - 10:48 am):
Shat Bhairavi Sr g m Pd n S P S
Bhairavi Bhairavi SrRg mMPd n S S M
Bhupala Bhairavi Sr g Pd S d- g-
Madhyama-lila Ragas (10:48 am - 3:36 pm):
Bilaval Bilaval S R Gm P D NS D G
Alhaiya Khamaj S R G MP DnNS P R
Saranga Khamaj S R M P nn+ S P R
Gauda Kalyana SRG+mM-PD+N+S G N
Aparahna-lila Ragas (3:36 pm - sunset [nominally 6:00 pm]):
Shri Puravi Sr G MPd NS r- G
Bhimapala Kafi S Rg m P Dn S m S
Multani Todi S r g+M+P d N+S g N+
Sayam-lila Ragas (sunset [6:00] - 8:24 pm):
Pilu Pilu SrRgGmMPdDnNS g N+
Puravi Marava S r GmMP D NS G N+
Marava Marava S r G M D NS G D
Pradosha-lila Ragas (8:24 pm - 10:48 pm)
Yamuna Kalyana S R G MP D NS G N
Kamoda Kalyana S R G mMP D NS R P
Kedara Kedara S R GmMP D NS m S
Bhupali Bilaval SRGPDS G D
Chhayanata Khammaja S R GmMP DnNS R P
Khammaja Khammaja S R Gm P DnNS G N
Naisha-lila Ragas (10:48 pm - 1:12 am)
Kanada Yavanapuri S Rg m Pd n S R P
Bageshri Kafi S Rg m P Dn S M S
Jayajayanti Kafi S RgGm P DnNS R P
Bahar Kafi S Rg m P DnNS S M
Kafi Kafi S Rg m P Dn S P S
Malakosha Bhairavi SgmdnS m S
Bihaga Kalyana S R GmMP D NS G N
Paraj Shri Sr GmMPd NS S P
Kalingada Bhairava Sr Gm Pd NS d G
Note: For an explanation of the notation used in this table please see the companion essay
Acoustic and Mathematical Derivation and Rasa Expression of the Svaras.

So the music in Goloka is a sweet, simple, spontaneous outpouring of love in intimacy with
Radha-Krsna. Here, spontaneous means that the devotees in Vrndavana are situated on the
platform of eternally liberated devotional service (nitya-siddha) above the regulative principles
of vaidi-bhakti. Since they are endowed with perfect spiritual intelligence by Srimati Radharani,
Krsna's pleasure potency, for them there is no need for a separate music theory. Their
spontaneous ecstatic love for Krsna is enough. In Goloka, all the devotees are situated in their
eternal identity in ecstatic relationship with the Lord (svarupa), and express their rasa with
Krsna in perfect spiritual art. In Goloka, “every step is a dance, and every word is a song,” 7 so
there is no need of music theory as such, since the inhabitants of Goloka are perfect and
infallible.
However, we residents of the material world require an elaborate and complete theory of
Vedic music because, unlike the inhabitants of Goloka, our intelligence is imperfect. Therefore if
we simply play music in our own way, we are certain to make mistakes. By simply speculating or
improvising, we will never approach the quality of music required to offer to the Deities.
Therefore Srila Prabhupada apparently discouraged musicians sometimes. We believe that his
deeper purpose in this was to train us properly in the science of Vedic music so that we could
offer nice music to the Deities, instead of offending Them by our well-intentioned but barbarous
creative efforts.
Definition of Sound Vibration

Before beginning a study of any subject, it is necessary to define the technical terms used in
the discussion. This prevents any ambiguity in terminology from clouding one’s understanding of
the phenomena under analysis. For the purpose of this discussion of Vedic music:
Vibration is defined as a pattern of periodic alternating quantitive changes
(oscillations) in a medium, induced by the passage of energy through the
medium.
For example, when a stone drops into the quiet waters of a lake, the water is the medium.
The splash of the falling stone injects mechanical energy into the water, inducing it to vibrate in
waves; this energy travels through the water in the form of ripples, or oscillations, that spread out
from the point of impact. These waves are alternating (up and down) changes in a quantitative, or
measurable, aspect of the water: its depth. The cross-section of the waves, and the concentric
circles made by them, is the pattern. That each wave follows the previous one by the same
distance or time interval indicates that the phenomenon is periodic; each up-and-down cycle of a
wave takes the same amount of time. The terms oscillation and vibration are almost synonymous;
however, a vibration is usually composed of more than one oscillation.
Sound vibration, as discussed in the Vedic literatures, is of two kinds: anahata nada
(unstruck or subtle sound in ether) and nada (ordinary sound in air). Anahata nada is the sound
one hears while reciting a mantra mentally; the same mantra chanted aloud is nada. The only
difference between nada and anahata nada is the medium: nada is sound vibration travelling
through the air, while anahata nada is travelling through the ether. For example, telephone and
radio convert nada into anahata nada for transmission to a distant point, then convert it back into
nada for listening.

Figure 2: Anatomy of a vibration
The practice of music is mostly concerned with ordinary sound, or nada. In nada,
atmospheric air is the usual medium. Nada can also travel through solid objects, such as the
strings and wood of musical instruments. The energy behind nada is human muscular or
mechanical energy, acting through either the voice or a musical instrument to induce sound
vibrations in the air. The alternating qualitative changes are oscillations in atmospheric pressure;
in other words, a wave of sound in air is composed of a compression of the air immediately
followed by a rarefaction (the opposite of compression). The pattern is both the exact degree and
manner of compression and rarefaction, and the geometric design of the sound vibrations set up
in the acoustic space enclosing the sound vibration. Therefore a sound vibration (nada) is
defined as a periodic pattern of alternating changes in atmospheric pressure induced by the
passage of mechanical energy through the air.
Figure 3: Sample of a string instrument sound viewed on a computer.
The Vedic Science of Sound Vibration

The story of the Vedic science of sound vibration in the material universe is intimately
linked with the creation of the universe by Lord Visnu and Brahma. This is because the scientific
cosmological principles of Vedic sound vibration are identical with those used in the creation of
the material universe by Lord Brahma.
When the Lord desires to create the material world, He lies down in the Causal Ocean in His
form as Maha-Visnu. He then glances over the total material energy (mahat-tattva), which,

although eternal, is in an inactive state without His glance. The Lord's glance is the catalyst of all
material transformations because it is identical with the material time potency. By the influence
of the time potency, the material elements gradually evolve from subtle to gross. This is all
nicely described in the Third Canto of Srimad-Bhagavatam.
The material energy then manifests an unlimited number of seed-like material universes
(brahmandas), which expand from the pores of the body of Maha-Visnu. He then expands
Himself into each universe in His form as Garbhodakasayi Visnu. He then lies down on the
snakelike form of Ananta-sesa and a lotus stem sprouts from His navel. When the lotus blossoms,
Lord Brahma, the first created being in the material universe, appears in the flower.
At first Lord Brahma is bewildered by the material energy. Although he has a desire to
create, he lacks the knowledge and potency to do so because he is conditioned by the material
energy. Therefore Brahma undergoes penance (tapah) by chanting a Vedic mantra (kama-
gayatri), until he achieves spiritual realization by the grace of the Lord. At this time he sees
Krsna face-to-face and is granted a vision of Goloka Vrndavan. He also receives the four original
slokas of Srimad-Bhagavatam from the Lord.
Armed now with realization and the seeds of transcendental knowledge in the form of the
catuh-slokas, Lord Brahma is able to take up his duty of second-order material creation. Simply
by chanting the Vedas, Brahma creates 14 orders of planetary systems grouped about the stem of
his lotus flower. Thus by spiritual sound vibration, Brahma turns the unmanifest material
elements into forms suitable for the inhabitants of the various planetary systems. Brahma also
creates the bodies of various species of living entities, beginning with Narada and the Kumaras.
It is interesting to note that Brahma has no tools for creation other than sound vibration, which he
uses to create everything from planetary systems to a new body for himself.
The Creative Potency of Sound Vibration

The normal condition of the soul is to be in association with the Supreme Lord in the
spiritual world. At any given moment, 75% of the living entities are in the normal condition.
Because of the bliss experienced in love of Godhead, whose eternal form is like an ocean of
ananda, the soul's energy is unified by intense feelings of spiritual pleasure. Thus the soul enjoys
the pastimes of his eternal identity (svarupa) in eternal association with the Lord.
However, when the living entity, deluded by false desires for independent enjoyment,
material possessions, false prestige, adoration and distinction, comes to the material world, in
order to fulfil his desires he must create a new body of material energy. When the energy of the
soul, in the form of desire, contacts the material energy, it loses its unity and instead manifests an
unlimited number of material desires in seven basic categories: sex, sensation, movement,
emotion, communication, intellect and enlightenment.
These categories of energy are exactly like the colors of the spectrum observed when white
light passes through a prism. They become the subtle foundation of the material body. In this
respect, they are like the anatomy of the subtle body that accompanies the soul in his wandering
from body to body in the material world. According to the Vedic literatures on Astanga-yoga,
these seven subtle energy vortexes are called chakras.
In the spiritual world, the soul's energy is unified by concentration on the all-attractive form
of the Lord. But in the material world, the conditioned soul pursues enjoyment by means of sense
gratification. In this perverted state of existence, the soul's energy is focused artificially through
the identification of false ego, projecting his life energy into the material world through the seven
windows of the chakras.

This false ego manifests the material mind, which is full of illusory thoughts such as, “I am
my body,” “My name is so-and-so,” “I am a man (or a woman),” “I am very beautiful and
attractive,” etc. The soul tries to relish these dreamlike illusions, which depend upon temporary
conditions of the unstable material energy. Therefore he sometimes thinks himself to be
enjoying, and at other times feels himself to be suffering. Actually, all this is simply illusion, like
the images projected in a cinema show.
In any case, the life energy of the soul, now disunified by projection through the material
energy, forms seven chakras which become centers of various material transformations, just like
the seven bands of color in the spectrum. Under suitable conditions in the womb of a material
body, the energy transformations of the chakras cause the surrounding material energy to
condense into a new material body just suitable for the soul's misadventures in the material
world.
All this happens by the catalytic action of the Paramatma expansion of the Lord, who has
accompanied the living entity to the material world as his eternal Friend. Therefore the body
created by the soul is determined by the Paramatma according to the desire of the soul and his
current account of material karma, both good and bad, due to his past actions in the material
world.
The Metaphysics of Spiritual Sound

How does the action of the chakras create the material body? All energy is vibration.
Therefore the life energy of the soul (prana) is also vibration, although very subtle and of an
extremely high frequency. When this energy is focused on the material energy, it is broken into
its component frequencies, just as white light is refracted into colors by a prism. The soul's
energy is desire, which is transcendental or timeless; therefore the soul's energy cannot directly
affect the material energy, which is moving under the spell of material time.
The energy of the soul is spiritual, and therefore cannot directly affect matter. Spirit is so
subtle that it can interpenetrate matter like an aroma penetrates the air. The link between the
energy of the soul and the formation of the material body is once again the merciful glance of the
Paramatma in the form of the material time potency. When the soul's desire is focused on the
material energy by false ego, the Paramatma assists His friend by modulating this energy with the
material time potency, which is also called the merciful glance of the Lord in the revealed
scriptures. By the grace of the Supersoul, the desires of the soul can modulate the material time
potency, and in this way acquire the ability to affect gross matter.
Modulation is the superimposition of one vibration upon another. An example would be to
drop a large stone into the ocean. The ocean is already full of waves (vibrations), but the stone
dropping into the ocean generates a new set of waves that is superimposed upon the already
existing ones. The already existing and far more powerful set of vibrations is called the carrier,
and the modulating vibration is called the signal.

Figure 4: Modulation of a carrier by a signal
By the arrangement of an electronics engineer, the vibrations of a song can modulate a radio
carrier wave, and therefore a radio in a distant place can receive the signal. Similarly, by the
sanction of the Supersoul the soul's vibrations of desire can modulate material time, and induce
various transformations in the material energy. In this way, the soul's energy is able to affect the
material energy to the degree permitted by the Supersoul. However, in the process, the original
unified energy of the soul becomes many, and his original consciousness is lost.
The energy of the soul in contact with the material energy centers around seven energy
vortexes, or chakras. These chakras emanate vibrations, just like the ripples that spread when a
stone falls into a pond. These vibrations affect the surrounding material energy that has a related
resonant frequency, animating it and causing it to precipitate into the structure and internal
systems of a material body.
Frequency is the number of vibrations per unit of time that a vibrating body naturally
produces. For example, most orchestras in the West tune to a standard frequency of A-440. This
means that the A-string of the violin is tuned to 440 vibrations per second, and the other strings
and instruments are tuned accordingly. The human ear can hear sounds in a frequency range of
about 20-20,000 vibrations per second.
Every object has a natural or resonant frequency of vibration and harmonics. For example,
when a violin string is tuned to A-440, it naturally tends to vibrate at 440 vibrations per second
and whole-number multiples thereof (A-880, E-1320, etc.). These whole-number multiples of the
fundamental resonant frequency are called harmonics. All natural vibrations contain harmonics.
The proportionate strength of the harmonics gives the vibration its characteristic sound, or
timbre. A violin sounds different from a flute because the proportionate strength of the
harmonics is different in each instrument.

When two objects linked by the same medium have the same natural frequency of vibration,
the vibrations of one object will tend to set the other vibrating as well; this is called resonance or
sympathetic vibration. For example, if I have a violin tuned to A-440 sitting on my table, and I
loudly sing an A-440, the violin will be heard resonating at the same frequency. The same
phenomenon will also occur, but to a lesser degree, if I play an A-880 or an E-1320 on my flute.
This is called resonance of related frequencies, or harmonic resonance.
By the processes of resonance and harmonic resonance, the vibrations of the chakras induce
similar vibrations in the surrounding matter whose natural frequency of vibration is the same as,
or harmonically related to, the vibrations of the chakras. This gradually causes the formation of
the material body in the womb. It is very interesting to note that this is exactly the same method
used by Lord Brahma to create the planetary systems of the material universe, as described
above. Therefore this is the principle of material creation in general. This simple principle has
profound implications for human existence, the healing of individuals and society, and the
development of consciousness, most of which are beyond the scope of this paper.
Brahma, after receiving spiritual knowledge from his divine Father Garbhodakasayi Visnu,
vibrates this knowledge in the form of the four Vedas and their corollary literatures. By this
complex sound vibration, assisted by the supreme intelligence of the Lord (Paramatma) acting
from within, Brahma, although fundamentally a spirit soul just like ourselves, is able to create all
material forms, from the 14 orders of planetary systems to the various species of organic life.
Within the second-order creation of Brahma, we create bodies by the same process of
expanding sevenfold vibrations. Our desires for material enjoyment form mental image
projections when artificially focused onto the material energy by false ego. Desires are formed of
mental pictures (samskaras) that symbolize the act or situation we desire. A mental picture is
frozen energy, or crystallized vibrations, like a photographic image. Thus there is no time or
transformation within a single mental image picture. These static projections, when modulated by
the time potency of Paramatma, form energetic, moving vibrations in material time, just like a
series of still pictures, when projected in rapid sequence by a motion picture projector, form the
illusion of a moving image on the cinema screen.
These subtle vibrations organize the ambient matter into a body fit for action in a particular
biosphere according to the soul's karma. In both cases (Brahma and the living entities), energy is
converted into matter by intelligent modulation of energetic vibrations. Thus the most powerful
attribute of any vibrations is that they influence matter according to their specific creative
potency. Whatever state of mind we model by our music will tend to be induced in the minds of
all the people who hear it, directly or indirectly.
We can therefore influence our environment for the highest good if we know the science of
sound vibrations. By playing music correctly, we can create an atmosphere of heavenly bliss and
felicity; on the contrary, by singing or playing music that is not in accordance with Vedic
directions, we create a disharmonious and discordant atmosphere. Just as we become enmeshed
in the trap of illusion through the action of vibrations based upon material desire, we can become
free from illusion by vibrations based upon the principles of sabda-brahman, culminating in the
regular congregational chanting of the holy names of the Lord:
Hare Krsna, Hare Krsna, Krsna Krsna, Hare Hare/Hare Rama, Hare Rama,
Rama Rama, Hare Hare.

The Law of the Octave

The perfection of the science of Vedic sound vibration is expressed in the saptaka dharma
(the Law of the Octave). All energy is vibration. These vibrations are never still; motion is their
very essence. Energetic vibrations exist in packets or bunches called quanta; each quantum is the
minimum amount of a particular energy that possesses all the qualities of that energy. For
example, one oscillation of A-440 would be so short a sound that, if audible at all, it would sound
like a tiny click instead of a tone. So a quantum of A-440 would be the minimum number of
oscillations necessary to produce an auditory impression of the tone, about 10 milliseconds or
about 5 oscillations for a highly trained human ear.
Quanta can be amalgamated into more complex structures that have more qualities that the
sum of the parts; this is called synergy. For example, a piece of canvas, a few tubes of paint and a
brush, when combined into a painting by the skill of an artist, can convey volumes of meaning
that were absent in the original raw materials. Similarly, when many people combine together in
pursuit of an aim, they can attain goals that are beyond the reach of a single man. This is
quantum synergy.
Quanta can also be broken up into more fundamental constituents ad infinitum; this is called
quantum decomposition. For example, the white light of the sun is apparently broken up into
seven major colors by a prism. However, if we examine the spectrum scrutinizingly, we can see
that actually there are an unlimited number of colors in it. Similarly, material scientists now
know that the atom is not the smallest division of matter; atoms can be divided into electrons,
protons, etc. And these tiny particles can be broken up into smaller and smaller parts without
limit.
A chakra is a quantum of living energy. Chakras have different energy states that change
their qualities, intelligence and modes of operation. A chakra can emit quanta of energy,
lowering its energy state; conversely, a chakra can absorb quanta of related energy, raising its
energy state and consciousness, and increasing its range of influence. The emission or absorption
of quanta of energy by a chakra is called a quantum energy transaction. Quantum energy
transactions may take place between chakras within the same body, between chakras in different
bodies, or between chakras and other energy quanta, such as internal or external sense objects.
The creation, maintenance and dissolution of each material cosmic unit is nothing more than
a continuous series of quantum energy transactions about a central point, called a locus. In living
units, the soul is the locus. In non-living units, the locus is determined by structural
considerations. Therefore quantum synergy, energy transactions and decomposition are
structurally identical to the fundamental universal processes of creation, maintenance and
dissolution, respectively.
The quantum structure of the human body is the microcosmic reflection of the original
seven chakras (svaras, or cosmic vibrations) of the sensual activities of Lord Brahma.8 Other
bodies, such as those of animals and plants, are incomplete reflections of these seven vibratory
nodes, and therefore contain less than seven chakras. Each complete microcosmic unit of living
energy, or human body, consists of seven chakras, or intervals of vibrations existing in time.
These vibrations sound continuously for the complete duration of the unit, or lifetime.
Thus the microcosmic vibratory range of the human body exactly mirrors the macrocosmic
vibrations of the entire universe. These vibrations span a frequency range of exactly 2/1, which
in musical terminology is called an octave or saptaka. In other words, the vibratory frequency of
the highest svara in the saptaka is exactly twice that of the lowest svara.

Within the octave or saptaka are seven vibratory loci or chakras called svaras. When the
octave of white light is broken up into a spectrum by a prism or a rainbow, it appears to have
seven bands of color. However, upon closer examination, one can see that the spectrum is
actually a continuous band of finely graduated colors without any break. Therefore the sevenfold
bands of colors are due not to the objective nature of the spectrum but to the reflection of the
structure of our perceptive apparatus. This is called a perceptive artifact, and it confirms the
sevenfold chakra structure of the human body.
In the saptaka of the human body the energy is divided into seven nodes, or svaras; these
svaras are the chakras. Therefore, we tend to perceive everything in terms of these seven svaras
or divisions. In the musical scale, the sapta svaras are the seven notes of the scale. Therefore
since music is structured in exactly the same way as the macrocosmic octave and its microcosmic
reflection in the human body, it can serve as a model of the various vibratory effects found in all
cosmic manifestations. This is the origin of the spiritual meaning of music and the cause of its
physical, psychological and spiritual effects.
The Law of the Octave, summarized briefly above, has such profound implications that an
entire book can be written about it; indeed, many already have. The is because the concept of the
octave, or saptaka, and its seven svaras is so fundamental that it can serve as a universal
measuring rod that remains absolute in all circumstances, regardless of the prior or subsequent
transformations of the measuring and measured cosmic units. Because it is a measure of process
(quantum energy transactions) instead of substance (quantity), the octave or saptaka is as
applicable in the subjective world of psychology and spiritual life as the ruler or stopwatch is in
the objective physical sciences.
The octave is therefore the ideal measuring rod for all living quantum phenomena, because
its use does not interfere with the transactions under observation. Please note that this violates
the so-called Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, which states that in any quantum transaction, an
observer can only measure with certainty a maximum of [n-1] out of n total properties of the
transaction, because the observer must necessarily interfere with the transaction in order to
observe it. While this aspect of saptaka dharma has profound implications for theoretical physics
and many other disciplines, including the attainment of complete spiritual realization, its full
discussion is beyond the scope of this short paper.
All phenomena can be measured by the octave because it synergistically contains more than
the sum of the possibilities of its constituent vibrations. On the universal level, the saptaka is the
symbol of the transcendental relationship between Visnu and Brahma, the divine creative Father
and son who together contain more than the sum of all possibilities for this universe. It
symbolizes the transfer of knowledge and creative potency from Visnu, who emanates the
substance of the material universe and animates it by the material time factor, to Brahma, who
begins the process of manifestation by his transcendental sound vibration of the Vedas at the
beginning of creation. The octave also contains the results of those transformations, and thus it is
the measure of all material forms, both gross and subtle.
Since the octave is thus the symbol of an absolute, transcendental transformation, it is also
absolute and comprehensive within the universe generated by the same process. Therefore when
properly understood, the octave is seen to be the plan of the universe, the microcosm that
perfectly reflects the macrocosm in which it finds its ultimate origin; it is the Logos or creative
word; it is OM; it is the ultimate functional symbol of the universal manifestation of the Absolute
Truth.
Thus all cosmic units are vibrations of material energy, microcosmic images of the seven
chakras or svaras of the original cosmic saptaka or octave, and can be measured and aligned to

absolute perfection by this reflection of the original cosmic creative impulse. It is because of this
fact that great Vedic sages attribute wonderful results to the contemplation of the vibrations of
the octave. They also ascribe great importance to the proper tuning and alignment of these
vibrations in chanting of Vedic mantras and stotras (prayers), and in all Vedic musical practices
utilizing the svara saptah.
Harmonics and the Harmonic Series

In this section we begin to explain how the exact pitches of the 22 srutis and seven svaras
are derived from the universal laws of vibration. As explained above, every physical object has a
natural resonant frequency at which it tends to vibrate. In addition, every object has several
modes of vibration that allow it to vibrate at harmonics of the natural resonant frequency.
The harmonic mode is the number of segments in which an object vibrates. For example, if I
tie one end of a rope around a tree, then pull up and down on the other end, the rope will vibrate
in its fundamental or first-harmonic mode.
Figure 5: Fundamental and second-harmonic mode vibrations.
However, if I tie both ends of the rope to different trees, then grab the exact middle of the
rope and pull, the rope vibrates in two equal segments, each of which is half the length of the
entire rope. This is called the second-harmonic mode of vibration. If we examine the second-
harmonic mode of vibration, we find that its frequency is precisely twice as high as the
fundamental mode. As discussed above, this frequency ratio of 2/1 is called an octave. In other
words, if the fundamental mode vibration of a guitar string is tuned to 100 vibrations per second,
the second harmonic mode will vibrate at 200 vibrations per second.
If we can get the guitar string to vibrate in modes with three, four or more harmonics, the
frequency of vibration will continue to increase as the multiple of the number of segments:


In the figure above, the starting point of 100 vibrations per second are chosen for
simplicity's sake. Actually the starting point can be at any frequency or note; it is the frequency
ratios and tonal relationships among the harmonics that are significant. These same harmonic
frequency relationships can be found in every vibration in the universe. Every vibration, from the
extremely low frequencies of galactic rotation to the extreme highs of cosmic rays, follows
exactly the same law of harmonics as described above. In fact, all harmony, whether of color,
sound or form, follows the simple integral (whole number) ratios of the Harmonic Series.
From this follows the principle that the closer a harmonic vibration is to the fundamental,
the more harmonic or consonant it is said to be. Conversely, the further from the fundamental a
vibration falls on the Harmonic Series, the less harmonic or more dissonant it is said to be.
Finally, if a vibration is not derived from the Harmonic Series at all, it is called assonant or
completely dissonant because it has no integral relationship with the fundamental.
Figure 6: The Harmonic Series in Musical Notation
Harmonics are extremely important in music. The timbre or characteristic tone color of a
particular instrument or voice is determined by the proportion and relative intensities of its
harmonics. But even more important is the role of the Harmonic Series in determining the
musical scale, because the srutis and svaras are derived from the Harmonic Series.
Derivation of the Svaras

How are the seven notes of the scale derived? We're all used to hearing the musical scale—
sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa—but how did the notes get the way they are? Why aren't they some
other way? As we have seen so far in the discussion, this is an extremely deep question that goes
into physics, mathematics, the cosmic laws of the universe, how the universe was originally
created by Lord Brahma, and so on. Actually this whole subject is contained in the Srimad-
Bhagavatam verse quoted in the beginning of this paper:
“Brahma's sensual activities were manifested as the seven notes of the musical
scale [svara saptah].”
The seven svaras are sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, and ni. And Prabhupada's purport declares:
“All these vibrations are transcendental sound vibrations.” So all music performed according to
Vedic principles is spiritual. In discussing the meaning of this verse, first of all we had to go into
a long series of definitions. We spent a long time defining and discussing our terms: from
vibration up to the Law of Octaves (saptak dharma).

The Law of Octaves describes how different svaras in the octave are like chakras or loci of
different energies, how they can trade energy in quantum transactions and so forth. In astanga-
yoga the svaras are called the seven chakras, in art they are the seven colors of the rainbow, and
in music they are the seven tones of the scale, but they are the same in principle. On the material
level, the seven svaras symbolize the cosmic process of creation, maintenance and dissolution.
And on the spiritual level, they express the divine rasas of devotional love between the Lord and
His eternal devotees.
In this section we explore the connecting link among these apparently different sevenfold
vibratory phenomena. How is it that when we see a rainbow, there are apparently seven bands of
color? Or how come when we hear music, we naturally tend to think in terms of a seven-note
scale? Why are there seven? Because there is one universal law that ties all these together. All
musical phenomena have to do with vibrations—in fact all phenomena—so if we can understand
the laws of vibration we can understand what's behind all phenomena.
Harmonic Interval Ratios

So far we have defined the Harmonic Series, and how to calculate the harmonics of a given
fundamental. An interesting and useful way to express the intervals amongst the harmonics is in
the form of frequency ratios. A ratio means one number divided by another number, as in the
fraction:
 f 2
 f 1
 
Where the denominator f1 of the fraction represents the frequency of the lower tone of the
harmonic interval, and the numerator of the fraction f2 represents the frequency of the upper
harmonic tone.
The first harmonic, or fundamental, has a frequency of ƒ, or 1 times ƒ. The second harmonic
2f 2
is twice the frequency of the fundamental, 2 times ƒ or a ratio of = .
f 1
This is more easily expressed as 2/1. The third harmonic is 3ƒ or a ratio of 3/1, and so forth. In
other words, the frequency of the second harmonic is twice the frequency of the fundamental
harmonic, and expressed as a ratio that is 2/1. Then the 3rd harmonic's frequency is 3 times that
of the fundamental, so that's a 3/1 ratio, et cetera.
An interval is the ratio of the frequencies of two vibrations. The harmonic intervals all have
integral ratios. An integer means a whole number, so an integral ratio is a ratio or a fraction that's
made up of whole numbers. That is, the frequencies of the Harmonic Series can all be
represented by the whole numbers 1, 2, 3, ... therefore the ratios of the Harmonic Series are made
of whole numbers like 2/1, 3/1, 4/3, 5/4, 6/5.
Ratios like 3/1 express a harmonic's interval with the fundamental, but what about the
intervals between the different harmonics? To get the ratio of these intervals, take the higher
harmonic's ratio and divide it by the ration of the lower one. For example, say we want to
calculate the ratio between the third harmonic and the second harmonic. According to our

3
method, that would be 1 = 3 . Similarly, the ratio between the third and fourth harmonic is
2 2
1
4/3.
The following table illustrates all possible ratios of the first 12 harmonics. Out of these 144
ratios, we first may eliminate the limiting factors (1/1 and 2/1) shown in green . Next we may
eliminate all ratios that evaluate to <1 or >2 ( gray ). Finally we eliminate the ratios between 1/1
and 2/1 that are factorable ( blue ). The remaining 22 intervals shown in white are the ratios of
the 22 Vedic Srutis as derived from the first 12 harmonics.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 1/1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6 1/7 1/8 1/9 1/10 1/11 1/12
2 2/1 2/2 2/3 2/4 2/5 2/6 2/7 2/8 2/9 2/10 2/11 2/12
3 3/1 3/2 3/3 3/4 3/5 3/6 3/7 3/8 3/9 3/10 3/11 3/12
4 4/1 4/2 4/3 4/4 4/5 4/6 4/7 4/8 4/9 4/10 4/11 4/12
5 5/1 5/2 5/3 5/4 5/5 5/6 5/7 5/8 5/9 5/10 5/11 5/12
6 6/1 6/2 6/3 6/4 6/5 6/6 6/7 6/8 6/9 6/10 6/11 6/12
7 7/1 7/2 7/3 7/4 7/5 7/6 7/7 7/8 7/9 7/10 7/11 7/12
8 8/1 8/2 8/3 8/4 8/5 8/6 8/7 8/8 8/9 8/10 8/11 8/12
9 9/1 9/2 9/3 9/4 9/5 9/6 9/7 9/8 9/9 9/10 9/11 9/12
10 10/1 10/2 10/3 10/4 10/5 10/6 10/7 10/8 10/9 10/10 10/11 10/12
11 11/1 11/2 11/3 11/4 11/5 11/6 11/7 11/8 11/9 11/10 11/11 11/12
12 12/1 12/2 12/3 12/4 12/5 12/6 12/7 12/8 12/9 12/10 12/11 12/12
Key:
= Limits: unison and octave (1/1 and 2/1)
= Ratio out of limits (ratio < 1/1 or ratio > 2/1)
= Reducible ratio falling between 1/1 and 2/1
= Unique, irreducible integral ratios falling between 1/1 and 2/1 (the 22 Srutis)
Figure 7: Interval Ratios of the Harmonic Series
The figure above shows a mathematical proof for the derivation of the srutis from the
harmonic series. The following figure demonstrates a geometric proof of the same principle. In
this figure, the first 12 harmonics are shown in ascending order on the musical staff. Then by a
process of elimination, we show first the unique ratios of the adjacent harmonics, then ratios
using every other harmonic, ratios using every third harmonic and so forth. The largest ratios are
11/6 and 12/7, both of which span five harmonics. All other possible ratios are reducible by
factoring, limiting the number of integral intervals (srutis) among the first 12 harmonics to 22.

Figure 8: Geometric proof of the 22 srutis.
The following table illustrates the 22 srutis derived above in descending scale order, and
how they map to the seven svaras (sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni) and the tones of the Western scale:
Sruti Integral Decimal Sruti Svara Western
# Ratio Ratio Interval
2/1 2.000 Sa Sa Perfect Octave
22 11/6 1.833 Shuddha Ni + Ni Major Seventh +
21 9/5 1.800 Shuddha Ni Ni Major Seventh
20 7/4 1.750 Komal Ni Ni Minor Seventh
19 12/7 1.711 Komal Ni - Ni Minor Seventh -
18 5/3 1.667 Shuddha Dha Dha Major Sixth
17 8/5 1.600 Komal Dha Dha Minor Sixth
16 11/7 1.577 Komal Dha - Dha Minor Sixth -
15 3/2 1.500 Pa Pa Perfect Fifth
14 10/7 1.433 Tivra Ma + Ma Aug. Fourth +
13 7/5 1.400 Tivra Ma Ma Augmented Fourth
12 11/8 1.375 Tivra Ma - Ma Aug. Fourth -
11 4/3 1.333 Shuddha Ma Ma Perfect Fourth
10 9/7 1.299 Shuddha Ga + Ga Major Third +
9 5/4 1.250 Shuddha Ga Ga Major Third
8 11/9 1.222 Shuddha Ga - Ga Major Third -
7 6/5 1.200 Komal Ga Ga Minor Third
6 7/6 1.167 Komal Ga - Ga Minor Third -
5 8/7 1.144 Komal Ga - - Ga Minor Third - -
4 9/8 1.125 Shuddha Ri Ri Major Second
3 10/9 1.111 Komal Ri Ri Minor Second
2 11/10 1.100 Komal Ri - Ri Minor Second -
1 12/11 1.088 Komal Ri - - Ri Minor Second - -
1/1 1/1 Sa Sa Perfect Unison

These 22 harmonic intervals (srutis) are the palette from which are drawn the svaras of the
Vedas. Each raga draws on this palette of srutis for its svaras (scale tones) and uses them to
color its expression. Just as the gamut of artistic colors are ranked in order of their position in the
spectrum, brightness, saturation, and other qualities, the srutis are also ranked and classified in
terms of their musical and emotional qualities, as we shall see below.
Harmony, dissonance and assonance

The intricate question of the origin and structure of the svara saptah is inextricably bound
up with the question of the nature of harmony. We all hear the word harmony and think we know
what it means, but what is the actual scientific definition? Harmonic value is a function of the
complexity of the interference pattern made up by two or more vibrations. One could think of the
interaction of two vibrations as a landscape that the listener must traverse. A simple, stable
landscape is easier to navigate than a complex, unstable one.
Harmonic value can be defined most easily in terms of a ratio of two or more harmonic
vibrations. The measure of harmonic value of an interval or svara (or any harmonic musical
structure) is the reciprocal of the average of the denominator and the numerator of the integral
fraction describing the frequency ratios of its component harmonics.
 
 
 
 1 
V
h =  


f 1+ f 2... f n  

  

 n 
The closer to unity Vh is, the greater the harmonic value, and the closer to zero the less the
harmonic value. For example, if I play two notes of the exact same frequency, this is called a
unison. This svara can be expressed as the fraction 1/1. The Vh of a unison is 1.0. However, the
harmonic value of the interval bewteen the 11th and 12th harmonics is only 0.087, making this
interval the least harmonic of all 22 srutis. In between these extremes of harmony and
dissonance, there are 21 other srutis of varying harmonic value:

Srutis in descending scale order: In descending order of Vh:

Sruti Sruti Svara Integral Vh Sruti Integral Vh
# Ratio Ratio
Sa Sa 2/1 0.667 Sa (unison) 1/1 1.000
22 Shuddha Ni + Ni 11/6 0.118 Sa (octave) 2/1 0.667
21 Shuddha Ni Ni 9/5 0.143 Pa 3/2 0.400
20 Komal Ni Ni 7/4 0.182 Shuddha Ma 4/3 0.286
19 Komal Ni - Ni 12/7 0.105 Shuddha Dha 5/3 0.250
18 Shuddha Dha Dha 5/3 0.250 Shuddha Ga 5/4 0.222
17 Komal Dha Dha 8/5 0.154 Komal Ni 7/4 0.182
16 Komal Dha - Dha 11/7 0.111 Komal Ga 6/5 0.182
15 Pa Pa 3/2 0.400 Tivra Ma 7/5 0.167
14 Tivra Ma + Ma 10/7 0.118 Komal Dha 8/5 0.154
13 Tivra Ma Ma 7/5 0.167 Komal Ga - 7/6 0.154
12 Tivra Ma - Ma 11/8 0.105 Shuddha Ni 9/5 0.143
11 Shuddha Ma Ma 4/3 0.286 Komal Ga - - 8/7 0.133
10 Shuddha Ga + Ga 9/7 0.125 Shuddha Ga + 9/7 0.125
9 Shuddha Ga Ga 5/4 0.222 Shuddha Ni + 11/6 0.118
8 Shuddha Ga - Ga 11/9 0.100 Tivra Ma + 10/7 0.118
7 Komal Ga Ga 6/5 0.182 Shuddha Ri 9/8 0.118
6 Komal Ga - Ga 7/6 0.154 Komal Dha - 11/7 0.111
5 Komal Ga - - Ga 8/7 0.133 Komal Ni - 12/7 0.105
4 Shuddha Ri Ri 9/8 0.118 Tivra Ma - 11/8 0.105
3 Komal Ri Ri 10/9 0.105 Komal Ri 10/9 0.105
2 Komal Ri - Ri 11/10 0.095 Shuddha Ga - 11/9 0.100
1 Komal Ri - - Ri 12/11 0.087 Komal Ri - 11/10 0.095
Sa Sa 1/1 1.000 Komal Ri - - 12/11 0.087
The implications of this analysis are both profound and complex. For example, it is no
accident that the tamboura, the drone instrument that supplies the harmonic context for Vedic
music, is tuned to the tonic, octave and fifth. These are precisely the intervals with the greatest
harmonic value. Thus the tamboura serves as a harmonic foundation for all the other instruments
and singers.
The harmonic value of ragas and Western musical pieces may also be evaluated with the
same mathematical tool. The devotional ragas used in temple worship are often pentatonic,
composed of the intervals with high harmonic value and low dissonance. Ragas that express
desire, pain and suffering are typically septatonic (all seven svaras) and emphasize dissonant
srutis with lower harmonic value. In Western music, chords of lower harmonic value tend to
resolve into chords of higher harmonic value. Thus musical expression and practice have a firm
theoretical basis in acoustics.
If one of the notes of the interval is out of tune, then there is no integral ratio with the tonic.
This is even more dissonant, even less harmonious, even less pleasing than the most dissonant
harmonic interval. Harmonious actually means pleasing; if everyone is in harmony then they are
pleased with one another. But if a tone is inharmonious, or to use the musical term, dissonant,
there is a feeling of conflict and discomfort. In the case of totally out of tune notes we have the
inharmonious relation of assonance, where there is no integral harmonic ratio between the notes
at all.
Unfortunately the term assonance also describes equal temperament, the tuning system used
in Western music. In equal temperament, scale tones are calculated with a formula that uses an

irrational number, the twelfth root of two. The notes of the Western chromatic scale are cut off
from their natural integral harmonic relationships with the fundamental. This assonance is the
least pleasant of all kinds of tonal relationship, for it expresses a feeling of profound alienation,
restlessness and discomfort.
Altogether we have three categories of intervals: assonant, dissonant, and consonant or
disharmonious, inharmonious and harmonious relationships between a note and the fundamental.
Vedic music is the most consonant and harmonious, and therefore pleasing, because it is based
entirely upon intervals with an integral frequency relationship.
This rich, multidimensional harmonious relationship is the svara saptah. It can be expressed
as an integral fraction. Some fractions are more complex than others. As we go into more and
more complex fractions, we go farther and farther away from the simple harmony that gives us a
natural feeling of aural pleasure when we hear it. In other words, harmony, harmonic value and
musical pleasure are synonymous.
We also found that the harmonic value of any interval or svara is inversely proportional to
the sum of the numerator and denominator of its fraction, its ratio or relationship of frequencies.
In other words the simpler the relationships of the frequencies that go to make up our music, the
more pleasant it will be to hear.
Q: Wouldn't that be boring though? A: No, why should it be boring? If everything I do gives
you pleasure, even if I do very simple things it will never become boring. Krsna never becomes
bored with the gopis. Boredom means that we perceive the possibility for perfection in something
but it falls far short of our expectation.
Q: Then why don't we just have music where everyone plays the same note? A: Because
variety is another aspect of pleasure. So what you are talking about is monotony, not boredom. In
fact monotony means mono + tone. Someone who speaks in a flat tone is called mono-tone-ous.
But Vedic music is very rich in variety. Just think of all the varieties of pitch, tone, vibrato and
attacks, gamakas, alankaras, grace notes, slides (portamento) and other ornamentation in Indian
music.
The real issue here is the quality of the basic materials that we are using for our art. If I am a
painter and I am going to make a big painting, I may go down to the second-hand store and for a
few dollars I buy a few old, dried-up, crumpled-up tubes of paint. And then I come home and get
some regular turpentine and I start mixing paints. We can understand that is a very low-class way
of painting. But if I go downtown to the best art store and I buy fresh tubes of the best
Grumbacher oil and special thinner with linseed oil in it, the best and finest brush and canvas, I
will start with the best material possible. I may have or not have talent, but the fact is that using
such nice materials is going to give me a better result. I may be the same artist, but if I have a
better instrument or if I am using better materials I can do better work.
Therefore the purest, most naturally pleasing vibrations are those whose relationship of
frequencies can be described in simple whole numbers, and the simpler the numbers the better.
All Vedic sound vibration is based on this principle, all the svaras are based on this principle:
that the intervals of the notes should be composed of as simple a vibrational landscape as
possible.
Maybe a bit of physics will help to clear this up. When we create sound energy, just like
when we drop a rock into the pond out there, waves spread out in all directions. If we drop two
rocks into the pond, then two sets of vibrations will spread across the pond. At a certain point the
two sets of vibrations will meet. What happens when they meet? They are going to form a pattern
of vibrations. Whether the frequencies of the vibrations are the same or different, a pattern will

be created. At some points the vibrations will reinforce each other, and at certain other places
they will tend to cancel each other out. In physics this is called the interference of vibrations.
The interference of two vibrations creates an interference pattern, or grid of high and low
points. If the frequencies are harmonically related to each other or harmonious, they will form a
stable interference pattern. If the frequencies are very dissonant or assonant, the pattern will be
unstable.
This is just like being out in the ocean in a small boat, and there are two currents, two sets of
waves, coming together. One set is coming from one side, the other waves are coming from the
other side. To pilot a boat safely through this kind of place, you have to make the boat hit the
waves from different directions at the same time. Otherwise the boat will pitch and roll
uncomfortably. In other words, you have to guide the boat properly through the interference
pattern of the waves. Otherwise the boat will be unstable and may even capsize.
If you have a stable interference pattern of sound vibrations, it's comfortable. You can rely
on the pattern being regular and predictable. But if the interference pattern is unstable, there will
be a lot of uncertainty, which the ear interprets as noise, or assonant vibrations. Just like in the
example above we don't want the waves to rock the boat, we feel the same way about sound
vibrations.
The vibrations that are related by integral ratios of frequencies create stable, regular patterns
of vibrations, just like the arches of a classical architectural design. The arches of Prabhupada's
samadhi are all regular. What would we think if we saw a samadhi where each arch was a
different width? Therefore the regular pattern is beautiful. Regularity and proportion are two
elements of beauty. So when the interference pattern created by two sets of vibrations is regular
and geometric, we automatically think that it is beautiful.
There is also an objective verification of this same truth (the beauty of integral ratios of
vibrations). It is an obscure physiological phenomenon called combination tones. This is a
phenomenon that occurs in the human body and mind when hearing two different frequencies at
the same time. Let's take the Harmonic Series for example. The first two notes in the Harmonic
Series form a perfect octave, frequency ratio 2/1. If the fundamental is 200, the second harmonic
will be 400 vibrations per second.
When these two sounds come into our ears, our mind performs a frequency analysis on the
sound. It subtracts one frequency from the other and compares the result to the original tones. In
the present case, 400 - 200 = 200. The result is identical to one of the original tones. Therefore
my mind can recognize that this interval is an octave, because that's the only interval with that
particular configuration of combination tones. And that's how we recognize any interval, by
unconsciously analyzing the structure of its combination tones. People who are “tone deaf”
simply cannot hear these subtle vibrations.

Figure 9: Intervals and their Combination Tones
In Vedic terminology, combination tones are called sananana. Sananana is a vibration that
is created by our own hearing apparatus. It's not present in the air as acoustic energy, but it is
present in the inner ear. If you listen carefully to a perfect interval, you can hear the sananana.
They sound like faint bass tones in the background. It takes a special kind of hearing, because the
combination tones are coming from inside your own head. Scientists are not sure whether they
come from the inner ear or the brain itself. In fact they cannot explain the presence of this faculty
at all. It is like a special software program in the brain for listening to music! It seems to exist
only to analyze musical intervals. But anyone can learn to hear combination tones by regular
practice.
To produce combination tones, the brain calculates the difference between the two directly
produced sounds of the interval, and gives the result as a third tone. Not only that, it also
calculates the difference between the combination tone and one of the original tones, and so on.
Up to 15 levels or orders of combination tones have been observed, and theoretically their
number is unlimited.
The combination tones allow our minds to establish if the interval is actually in tune or not.
If the interval is in tune, the combination tones will form harmonic intervals to the original
directly produced tones. In the most common harmonic intervals, one of the combination tones
will be exactly an octave below one of the original tones. All the combination tones of the
intervals naturally found in the Harmonic Series are also tones of the same Harmonic Series.
If you can't hear sananana, there is no way you can sing in tune. You can approximate the
notes but you can't really hit them exactly. To tune the intervals properly we have to hear two
separate instruments simultaneously. There have to be two sound sources to get the combination
tones or sanananas. It doesn’t work if you only have one sound source. Just like if you have a
radio with one speaker, and you're hearing one speaker giving out these two tones
simultaneously, you won't be able to hear any combination tones. That's one thing that's really
bad about radio and television: there's only one source of sound, so you can't have combination
tones. Our ears require two separate sources for the two different sounds. It's part of the
conditions for the phenomenon of sanananas.
That means monophonic recording systems amplification or P.A. systems cannot reproduce
the sounds required for hearing sananana. But if you can hear these sanananas, just one tone
contains a whole ocean of music, it contains symphonies, it contains all colors of the rainbow. If
you listen really deeply to a perfect fifth, it will put you into a trance. In the olden days people
could hear these things. All authentic Vedic srutis generate perfect sanananas. In fact srutis are
described in the sastras like Srimad-Bhagavatam 3.12.47.

"Srutis became known to this world through Krsna when He sang songs containing srutis
with His lover in the rasa dance. Oh Srinivas, in the Rasa Mandal all the types of music became
personified. Krsna most humorously manifested sruti from nada (sound in air). Nada
transformed into sruti with the help of air. These twenty-two nadis have taken refuge in the
heart." [reference]
Now when Bramha's sensual activities are mentioned in the Bhagavatam verse, it also
means that the human body begins from nadis. The word nadi means sound channel, like a vein,
for example the sushrumna through which the mystic yogis are supposed to leave their bodies.
The word nadi comes from the word nada which is sound, material sound vibrations, so this nadi
or nada is composed of 22 srutis. The srutis became the original nadis. Actually there are
thousands of srutis, but the Vedic system only uses the 22 most pure ones.
“Those srutis gradually manifest themselves in the vinas and other instruments because they
cannot manifest themselves in voices that are stricken with cold and diseases. O Srinivas! Who
knows the real entity of sruti? It has only been expressed in a song sung in the rasa dance. As
Krsna Chandra introduced sruti, Sri Radhika expressed it accurately. Lalita and the others used
to take great pleasure in listening to her.
“The srutis had to thank their own fortune for the gods used to shower flowers while
listening to them. So sruti with swara used to please everyone. The definition of svara is that
which gives pleasure to the heart, for it is pleasing to all listeners. Svara is of seven kinds, sataja,
risabha, gandhara, madhyama, panchama, dhaivata and nishada [sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha and ni].
All the instruments became personified in the rasa mandala.
“O Srinivasa! on hearing the instruments playing in the rasa dance, Bramha and the other
demigods became hypnotized. The expert in all sorts of instruments, the son of the King of Braja,
along with His ladyloves began to enchant millions of Kandarpas. The way He was playing the
flute is unparalleled in all the three worlds. His flute playing in mandar, madyar and taresvara—
meaning the lower, middle and the higher octaves—used to mesmerize Mahesvara.
“Radha, the enchantress of Govinda and the image of rasa, began to play alamarni
instruments—stringed instruments you play with a bow—in a pure way. The three gramas: sata
grama, madhan grama and gandha grama—that means tonalities starting from sa, pa and ga—
had been perfectly used both in songs and instrumental music. Lalita most playfully played the
Brahma Vina because she was an expert in using srutis etc. in the instruments.” [reference]
How expert all the different gopis were! And all the different instruments they played!
So all these technicalities really mean that the essence of rasa is contained in these svaras
and srutis. The svaras are tuned according to the srutis, the srutis are the integral ratios of sound
vibrations within the range of the octave. Actually there are thousands of srutis, but the main
ones—the ones that are used more frequently—are the ones with the lowest sum of ratio
numbers. These have the greatest harmonic value, as we discussed before, and are therefore the
most sattvic, harmonious and pleasing.
Svara means that which is pleasing to the heart of all living entities. Because the srutis or
the nadis begin from the heart, when you hear these intervals or svaars they naturally vibrate the
nadis and please the heart. They actually give rasa within the heart. There is eternal nectar
within every svara. Every note that is tuned according to the srutis has a specific rasa and these
are illustrated in the table in the Appendix.
In other words, every interval of two notes perfectly in tune has a specific spiritual potency
or rasa. The different ragas are calculated according to how they express certain combinations of

rasas. Therefore the ragas themselves are considered male and most of them are pentatonic.
They only have five notes because there is no conflict in them. The raginis are thirty in number,
six to each raga, and they have seven notes in their scales because they contain dissonant notes
like the 2nd and 7th (ri and ni).
So the whole Vedic music system is calculated according to the universal laws of sound,
which begin with the rasa dance in Goloka Vrndavan. Therefore if we play our music and sing
according to these Vedic laws of sound we will please Krsna more than if we fail to follow these
laws of sound. At this junction we run into a real problem because all of our Western instruments
are tuned in a completely wrong way according to the Vedic instructions.
The Western tuning system is called "equal temperament". Equal temperament is a
compromise based on a mathematical compromise. Each interval is the twelfth root of 2 times the
previous note. The advantage of it is that each of the twelve keys is equally impure so you don't
notice the difference when modulating from one key to another. The problem is though, you just
can't get the purity of sound of the sanananas, and so you can't get the rasa.
I believe this is a cause that the Western musicians play so loud because they're trying to get
the nectar. An interesting thing happens at high volume levels. Because of the physics of sound,
these intervals actually tend to go into tune at higher volume levels and feedback etc. It's an
interesting phenomenon that even on a grand piano, if you play a 5th, the pitches of notes bend a
little bit to be more in tune.
These cosmic laws of sound are so strong that even if you try to violate them, still you can't
get away from these laws of sound. They are very subtle, especially to our degraded senses in
Kali-yuga, but they're there. It's also said that the Vedic mantras have to be chanted properly
according to the svaras or they don't give the desired effect. So that's a very, very compelling
reason for us to learn something about the svaras because after all, our business is supposed to be
chanting Vedic mantras, and in this way approaching Krsna and rendering devotional service.
Conclusion
The tuning of an instrument may seem to be an obscure point to belabor with many pages of
dense prose. But we are convinced that the extremely precise tuning of the Vedic svaras,
accurate to more than one part in 10,000, has many documentable and objective effects that can
be verified by any interested and intelligent party. Some of these effects, observed in our own
laboratory, seem to bring the so-called myths of brahmanas lighting fires and making carpets fly
just by singing mantras much closer to reality.
If music hath no power to charm, why do thousands of large stores in the West use
background sound—music mixed with subliminal suggestions against shoplifting and employee
pilferage—as a standard procedure? The very same principles applied to the problem of spiritual
advancement can cause profound changes in consciousness, as we have experienced in the Hare
Krsna movement. The ocean of potential benefits of Vedic sound vibration remains unexplored
until some farsighted patron sponsors proper laboratory research into its effects.
Meanwhile, it is enough to begin a program of education in the Vedic musical science, so
that if necessary, the musical tradition may endure long enough to be properly studied, at a later
date, by our more enlightened successors.

Appendix 1 -- Scientific Verification

Previous to being involved with the Krsna consciousness movement, the author was a
professional writer, musician and composer. However, my fortuitous adolescent studies of yoga
philosophy fructified into a desire to know the karmic effects of my musical activities. Was I
generating good or bad karmic results in the future? To know this I had to understand the
objective effects of music upon the listener, especially the modern classical and jazz-fusion
music I was involved with.
To explore these and other questions, the author performed a series of experiments to
determine the effects of sound and music. The experiments were conducted 1968 to 1970 in a
large barn in the mountains of New Mexico; in other words, in an environment of natural silence.
Various styles of music were tested in controlled physiological and psychological experiments
with plants, animals and people. The results of these experiments are very germane to the present
discussion of intonation.
For working with plants, the experimental area was divided into eight terrariums, each with
its own separate light source, water, soil beds, etc. Conditions of lighting, humidity, soil
nutrients, etc. in each terrarium were made as uniform as possible. A control run was done to
assure environmental parity among the terrariums. The terrariums were then fitted with identical
stereo speaker systems and different kinds of music were played to the seedlings growing therein.
Other experimental facilities included a stable area in the same barn large enough to house
10 experimental animals (goats, sheep or dogs) and a standard double blind room with one-way
observing mirror constructed in adjoining bedrooms in a nearby house. All these were wired for
sound and similar experiments were performed.
Plants were tested for sprouting time, sprouting percentage, growth rate in size and weight,
nutrient and water consumption, time to blossoming, quality of taste and overall vigor. Animals
were tested for growth rate, appetite, milk production and quality, temperament and overall
health and vigor. People were tested for intelligence, self-image and other personality traits such
as self-liking and self-respect.
Of all the types of music and sounds tested, from Gregorian chants to New York traffic
noise to psychedelic rock, Vedic styles of music had by far the best effects. Of Western styles,
the only ones that showed any positive effects at all were Gregorian Chant and Madrigals. Vedic
ragas and especially devotional music were tested and repeatedly outperformed all other types of
music and sound, including natural sounds like waterfalls, wind and surf.
Another series of experiments analyzed the Vedic music into its components—melody,
harmony and rhythm—to discover the active ingredient responsible for these effects. The final
conclusion was that the extremely precise intonation of the Vedic svaras was responsible for the
bulk of the effects observed in both sets of trials. The scientific reasoning behind this tuning,
passed down in the Vedic tradition for thousands of years from one expert musician to another, is
the subject of this report.

Appendix 2 – Expressions of the 22 Srutis as Svaras in the 36 Ragas of the

Asta-kaliya-lila Daily Cycle
Svara Lila Raga Description

N+ Nisanta Lalita Brilliant, gay, coming sunrise, tender, unstable, undecided,
expecting
N+ Prata Bhairava Intense, self-assertive, gay, active
N+ Prata Ramakali (Sparing use means no selfishness)
N+ Madhyama Alhaiya Selfish pleasure, demand
N+ Madhyama Gauda Brightness, strength, sensuousness
N+ Aparahna Shri Sharp, ambitious, tense, desire
N+ Aparahna Multani Selfish, pleasure-loving, forcible, active
N+ Sayam Pilu Bright, joyful
N+ Sayam Puravi Acute, obstinate
N+ Pradosha Yamuna Active, forceful
N+ Pradosha Khammaja Acute, sensuous
N+ Pradosha Bahar Stubborn, sensuous
N+ Pradosha Bihaga Acute, sensuous, desire
N+ Pradosha Paraj Acute, sensuous
N Nisanta Bangala (Absence indicates dreaminess)
N Prata Bhairava Soft, loving
N Madhyama Bilaval Soft, voluptuous
N Madhyama Gauda Doubt, aspiration, softness
N Sayam Pilu Soft, aspiration
N Sayam Marava Soft, doubtful, pleasure-loving
N Pradosha Kamoda Soft, pleasure loving
N Pradosha Kedara Soft, expectation
N Pradosha Bhupali (Absence shows detachment from physical pleasure)
N Pradosha Chhayanata Soft, pleasure-loving
N Pradosha Jayajayanti Soft, pleasure-loving
N Pradosha Bihaga Tender, unsatisfied
N Pradosha Kalingada Soft, pleasure-loving
N- Pradosha Jayajayanti Anguish, laziness
N-- Pradosha Bahar Uncertain, doubtful
n+ Prata Yavanapuri Selfish, erotic desire
n+ Madhyama Saranga Desire, love
n+ Aparahna Bhimapala Complete abandon
n+ Sayam Pilu Desire, appeal
n+ Pradosha Khammaja Passionate, desire
n+ Pradosha Kanada Anxiety, desire
n+ Pradosha Bageshri Anxiety, desire
n+ Pradosha Bahar Intense, desire, love
n+ Pradosha Kafi Desire, passion, pleasure
n+ Pradosha Malakosha Desire, love
n Prata Yavanapuri Appeal, love, beauty
n Prata Asavari Ambition, desire
n Purvahna Shat Anxious, appealing
n Purvahna Bhairavi Tender, interrogative
n Madhyama Alhaiya Tender, loving, charming


n Madhyama Saranga Tenderness, beauty
n Aparahna Bhimapala Desire, demand, ambition
n Sayam Pilu Beautiful, charming
n Pradosha Chhayanata Beautiful, tender, supplication
n Pradosha Kanada Beautiful, pure, noble
n Pradosha Jayajayanti Beautiful, loving
n- Prata Asavari Helpless, sad, crying
n- Purvahna Bhairavi Helpless, subdued
n- Pradosha Bahar Tender, beautiful
D+ Nisanta Vibhasa Joyful, loving
D+ Madhyama Alhaiya Brilliant, playful, restless
D+ Madhyama Gauda Brightness, confidence, prayer that will be fulfilled
D+ Aparahna Bhimapala Tender appeal, hope, peace
D+ Sayam Marava Active, energetic
D+ Pradosha Yamuna Bright, confident
D+ Pradosha Kamoda Restless, playful
D+ Pradosha Kedara Contented, confident
D+ Pradosha Bhupali Satisfied, playful, charming
D+ Pradosha Khammaja Restless, playful
D+ Pradosha Bageshri Restless, playful
D+ Pradosha Bahar Joyful, contented
D+ Pradosha Kafi Restless, playful
D+ Pradosha Bihaga Restless, playful
D Madhyama Bilaval Soft, calm, tender
D Madhyama Gauda Aspiration, prayer
D Sayam Pilu Modest, prayer
D Sayam Puravi Modest, prayer, aspiration
D Pradosha Chhayanata Modest, soft, aspiration
D Pradosha Jayajayanti Prayer, soft, aspiration
d+ Prata Gunakali Loving, tender
d+ Sayam Pilu Loving, enterprising
d+ Pradosha Kanada Loving, enterprising, with passion (shake)
d+ Pradosha Malakosha Loving
d Nisanta Bangala Tender, melancholy, soft
d Prata Bhairava Plaintive, doleful, interrogative
d Prata Ramakali Tender, interrogative
d Prata Gunakali Anxious, melancholy
d Prata Yavanapuri Mild, appealing, mature, melancholy
d Prata Asavari Very tender and loving
d Purvahna Shat Tender, melancholy
d Purvahna Bhairavi Tender, pleading
d Aparahna Shri Tender, pleasing
d Aparahna Multani Tender, loving, asking but contented
d Sayam Pilu Tender, melancholy
d Pradosha Paraj Tender, appeal
d Pradosha Kalingada Tender, appeal
d- Prata Gunakali Sad
d- Prata Asavari Sorrowful
d- Purvahna Bhupala Great sadness
d- Aparahna Shri Sad
P Nisanta Vibhasa (Absence means no sun)
P Sayam Marava (Absence means something essential missing)


P Nisanta Bangala Awake, brilliant
P Prata Bhairava Power, balance, strength
P Prata Ramakali Active, awake
P Prata Gunakali Activity
P Prata Yavanapuri Clear, awake
P Prata Asavari Suspense in the sadness, warmth, activity
P Purvahna Shat Active
P Purvahna Bhairavi Active
P Purvahna Bhupala Contentment, sympathy in pain, strength to bear
P Madhyama Bilaval Active, brilliant
P Madhyama Alhaiya Active, pleasing
P Madhyama Saranga Active, joyful
P Madhyama Gauda Activity, fulness, bloom
P Aparahna Shri Active
P Aparahna Bhimapala Inquisitive but commanding
P Aparahna Multani Active, calm, confident
P Sayam Pilu Gay, joyful
P Sayam Puravi Active, joyful
P Pradosha Yamuna Joyful, brilliant
P Pradosha Kamoda Joyful, active
P Pradosha Kedara Joyful, active
P Pradosha Bhupali Plentitude, life, perfection, fulness
P Pradosha Chhayanata Joyful, active
P Pradosha Khammaja Joyful, active
P Pradosha Kanada Joy, activity
P Pradosha Bageshri Joyful, active (rarely used)
P Pradosha Jayajayanti Joyful, active
P Pradosha Bahar Brilliant, active, confident
P Pradosha Kafi Joyful, active
P Pradosha Bihaga Activity, contentment
P Pradosha Paraj Joyful, active
P Pradosha Kalingada Joyful, active
M+ Madhyama Alhaiya Intense
M+ Aparahna Shri Intense, acute, interrogatory
M+ Aparahna Multani Adoration
M+ Sayam Puravi Intense, active
M+ Pradosha Paraj Intense, acute
M Nisanta Lalita Acute, promising, penetrating
M Nisanta Vibhasa Unstable, mysterious, critical time
M Purvahna Bhairavi Intensity, tension
M Madhyama Gauda Intensity, sincerity, impulse
M Sayam Pilu Intense, active
M Sayam Marava Intense, mysterious
M Pradosha Yamuna Penetrating, active
M Pradosha Kamoda Intense, mysterious
M Pradosha Kedara Intense, mysterious
M Pradosha Bihaga Intense, mysterious, desire, midnight
M- Nisanta Lalita Perturbed, sad, anxious; enhances beauty
M- Madhyama Gauda Perturbed, anxious, uncertain
M- Sayam Pilu Sad
M- Pradosha Bihaga Melancholy
m+ Aparahna Bhimapala Tender and active
m Purvahna Bhupala (Absence means dejection, unsatisfied, unreal)


m Pradosha Bhupali (Absence means non-attachment)
m Nisanta Lalita Peace, night, beauty
m Nisanta Bangala Peace, satisfaction
m Prata Bhairava Peace
m Prata Ramakali Peace, contentment
m Prata Gunakali Peace, contentment
m Prata Yavanapuri Soft, peaceful
m Prata Asavari Peace, contentment
m Purvahna Shat Contented, interrogative
m Purvahna Bhairavi Contented, interrogative
m Madhyama Bilaval Joyful, carefree (absence in ascent takes away sadness)
m Madhyama Alhaiya Peaceful, contented
m Madhyama Saranga Peaceful, contented, tender
m Madhyama Gauda Passive satisfaction, dependence
m Aparahna Bhimapala Aspiration, ambition, intensity
m Sayam Pilu Peace, calm
m Sayam Puravi Peace, moonlight
m Pradosha Kamoda Night, calm, loving
m Pradosha Kedara Peace, moonlight
m Pradosha Chhayanata Peace, loving
m Pradosha Khammaja Peace, moonlight
m Pradosha Kanada Peace, calm
m Pradosha Bageshri Peace, calm
m Pradosha Jayajayanti Peace, moonlight
m Pradosha Bahar Peaceful, calm, pleasing
m Pradosha Kafi Peace, calm
m Pradosha Malakosha Peace
m Pradosha Bihaga Moonlight
m Pradosha Paraj Peace, moonlight
m Pradosha Kalingada Peace, night
m- Madhyama Bilaval Doubt, attachment (missing in ascent takes away sadness)
m- Madhyama Gauda Aspiration, prayer, doubt, tender
G+ Nisanta Lalita Awake, penetrating
G+ Nisanta Bangala Will, independance
G+ Nisanta Vibhasa Lovely, lively
G+ Prata Ramakali Active
G+ Madhyama Bilaval Contented, calm, pleasing
G+ Madhyama Gauda Contentment, joy
G+ Aparahna Shri Contented, lively, awake
G+ Sayam Pilu Lively, independent
G+ Sayam Marava Active, energetic
G+ Pradosha Yamuna Contented, happy
G+ Pradosha Bhupali Confidence, self-reliance, tender night
G+ Pradosha Khammaja Awake, lively
G+ Pradosha Paraj Awake, lively
G+ Pradosha Kalingada Clear, sharp, satisfied, acute
G Nisanta Bangala (Absence creates dreaminess)
G Prata Bhairava Confident, calm, joyful
G Madhyama Bilaval Contented
G Madhyama Alhaiya Contented
G Madhyama Gauda Aspiration, prayer, calm, peace
G Sayam Pilu Calm, confident
G Sayam Puravi Calm, strength


G Pradosha Kamoda Calm, pleasing
G Pradosha Kedara Calm, joyful
G Pradosha Chhayanata Calm, pleasing
G Pradosha Jayajayanti Calm, pleasing
G Pradosha Bihaga Calm, pleasing, contented
g Aparahna Multani Passionate
g Sayam Pilu Sensuous, passionate
g Pradosha Kanada Sensuous, satisfied, happy but with passion (shake)
g Pradosha Malakosha Passionate, request
g- Prata Yavanapuri Very mild, appealing, interrogative, desire, questioning
g- Prata Asavari Tender and loving
g- Purvahna Shat Tender and loving
g- Purvahna Bhairavi Tender and loving
g- Aparahna Bhimapala Tender, peaceful
g- Pradosha Bageshri Tender, loving
g- Pradosha Jayajayanti Tender, loving
g- Pradosha Bahar Tender, loving
g- Pradosha Kafi Tender, lovely, affectionate, dependent
g-- Prata Asavari Melancholy
g-- Purvahna Bhupala Crying, melancholy, sadness
R Prata Yavanapuri Self-assertive, forcible, manly, commanding, stubborn, contented
R Purvahna Bhairavi Pleasure, impudent, active, self-assertive, forcible
R Madhyama Bilaval Self-assertive, forceful, brilliant
R Madhyama Alhaiya Self-confident, pleasing, active
R Madhyama Saranga Forceful, active, joyful
R Aparahna Bhimapala Resignation, tender, loving, asking
R Sayam Pilu Self-assertion, vitality
R Pradosha Yamuna Confident, gay
R Pradosha Kamoda Confident, joyful
R Pradosha Kedara Confident, active
R Pradosha Bhupali Awake, pleasing, satisfied
R Pradosha Chhayanata Confident, joyful
R Pradosha Khammaja Confident, joyful
R Pradosha Kanada Strong, clear, definite
R Pradosha Bageshri Confident, powerful
R Pradosha Jayajayanti Confident, joyful
R Pradosha Bahar Confident, joyful, straightforward
R Pradosha Kafi Self-assurance
R Pradosha Bihaga Confident, strong
R- Madhyama Gauda Anxiety, weakness
r+ Sayam Pilu Enterprising
r Nisanta Bangala Devoted, loving, confident
r Prata Bhairava Calm, not sad, confident
r Prata Gunakali Confident
r Prata Asavari Feminine, wisdom, soberness
r Aparahna Multani Tender and loving (sparing use means veiled melancholy)
r Sayam Pilu Loving, calm
r Pradosha Paraj Loving, confident
r- Nisanta Lalita Tender, indistinct, sleeping
r- Nisanta Vibhasa Subtlety
r- Prata Bhairava Tenderness, supplication
r- Prata Ramakali Tenderness, supplication


r- Prata Gunakali Tender, loving
r- Prata Asavari Very tender and loving
r- Purvahna Shat Melancholy and soft
r- Purvahna Bhairavi Tender, peaceful
r- Aparahna Shri Tender, melancholy, calm
r- Sayam Puravi Very tender, prayer
r- Sayam Marava Tender, reluctant
r- Pradosha Kalingada Love, devotion
r-- Prata Gunakali Sad, dejected
r-- Prata Yavanapuri Intensely sad
r-- Purvahna Shat Very sad
r-- Purvahna Bhupala Very sad, despair
r-- Sayam Pilu Tender, melancholy
S All All Calm, peace, confidence, energy, satisfaction
Endnotes
1
A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, Srimad-Bhagavatam 3.12.47 and purport, Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, Los
Angeles 1975.
2
Vanacari, Dasanudas, The Luna Experiments: Psychophysioloical Effects of Music. Self-published manuscript,
Atlanta, 1972.
3
Srila Visvanatha Cakravarti Thakura, Sri-Sri Gurvastaka, 2. From Vaisnava Songbook, Bhaktivedanta Book Trust,
Los Angeles 1975.
4
Krsnadas Kaviraj Gosvami, Govinda Lilamrta, Nisha Lila, Sargar (Chapter) 22, oral translation from the original
Bengali.
5
Narahari Cakravarti, Bhakti-ratnakara, Fifth Wave, p. 230. Unpublished translation of Bengali Gaudiya Math edition.
6
reference?
7
A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, Brahma-samhita 5.56. Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, Los Angeles 1975.
8
See Bhag. 3.12.47.

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Svara saptah:

Intonation in Vaisnava Music

Copyright 1967-1999 by David B. Hughes. All Rights Reserved. 1

Vaisnava Music Theory

Copyright 1967-1999 by David B. Hughes. All Rights Reserved. 2

Figure 1: The musical clef, staff, bars and notes.

Copyright 1967-1999 by David B. Hughes. All Rights Reserved. 3

Origins of Vaisnava Music

In another place, Krsnadas Kaviraj describes the use of:

The following is a description of Krsna’s musical activities in the rasa dance:

Copyright 1967-1999 by David B. Hughes. All Rights Reserved. 4

“All the instruments became personified in the rasa-mandala. O Srinivasa, on

Copyright 1967-1999 by David B. Hughes. All Rights Reserved. 5

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Nisanta-lila Ragas (3:36 am - sunrise [nominally 6:00])

Copyright 1967-1999 by David B. Hughes. All Rights Reserved. 7

Definition of Sound Vibration

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Figure 2: Anatomy of a vibration

Figure 3: Sample of a string instrument sound viewed on a computer.

The Vedic Science of Sound Vibration

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The Creative Potency of Sound Vibration

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The Metaphysics of Spiritual Sound

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Figure 4: Modulation of a carrier by a signal

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Copyright 1967-1999 by David B. Hughes. All Rights Reserved. 13

The Law of the Octave

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Harmonics and the Harmonic Series

Figure 5: Fundamental and second-harmonic mode vibrations.

Copyright 1967-1999 by David B. Hughes. All Rights Reserved. 16

Copyright 1967-1999 by David B. Hughes. All Rights Reserved. 17

Figure 6: The Harmonic Series in Musical Notation

Derivation of the Svaras

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Harmonic Interval Ratios

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Figure 7: Interval Ratios of the Harmonic Series

Copyright 1967-1999 by David B. Hughes. All Rights Reserved. 20

Figure 8: Geometric proof of the 22 srutis.

Copyright 1967-1999 by David B. Hughes. All Rights Reserved. 21

Harmony, dissonance and assonance

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Srutis in descending scale order: In descending order of Vh:

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Copyright 1967-1999 by David B. Hughes. All Rights Reserved. 25

Figure 9: Intervals and their Combination Tones

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Copyright 1967-1999 by David B. Hughes. All Rights Reserved. 28

Appendix 1 -- Scientific Verification

Copyright 1967-1999 by David B. Hughes. All Rights Reserved. 29

Appendix 2 – Expressions of the 22 Srutis as Svaras in the 36 Ragas of the

Svara Lila Raga Description

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