Florante D.

Cenas, LPT, MAMT

Abigail V. Santisteban, LPT
Baby Jean Baligasa, LPT

This course deals with the nature of mathematics, appreciation of its practical, This course
deals with the nature of mathematics, appreciation of its practical, intellectual, and
aesthetic dimensions, and application of mathematical concepts in daily life.

This course begins with an introduction to the nature of mathematics as an exploration of

patterns (in nature and the environment) and as an application of inductive and deductive
reasoning. By exploring these topics, students are encouraged to go beyond the typical
understanding of mathematics as merely a set of formulas but as a source of aesthetics
in patterns of nature, for example, and a rich language in itself (and of science) governed
by logical reasoning.

The course then proceeds to survey ways in which mathematics provides a tool for
understanding and dealing with various aspects of present-day living, such as managing
personal finances, making social choices, appreciating geometric designs, understanding
codes used in data transmission and security, and dividing limited resources fairly. These
aspects will provide opportunities for actually doing mathematics in a broad range of
exercises that bring out the various dimensions of mathematics as a way of knowing, and
testing the students' understanding and capacity. (CMO No. 20, series of 2013)

Brief Description of the Module

Lesson 1 focuses on the nature of mathematics. This will talk about patterns and
numbers in nature and the world, the Fibonacci sequence and mathematics for our
world. Mathematics helps figure out patterns and regularities in the world. Mathematics
helps predict the behavior of nature and phenomena in the world. Hence, Mathematics
helps control nature and occurrences in the world for our own ends. As such,
mathematics has numerous applications in the world making it indispensable.

Lesson 2 deals with speaking mathematically using variables, the language of sets, and
the language of relations and functions. Like any language, mathematics has its own
symbols, syntax and rules. This will introduce some of the special language that is a
foundation for much mathematical thought.

Lesson 3 focuses on problem solving. This lesson will help you become a better problem
solver aside from demonstrating that problem solving can be an enjoyable experience.

Lesson 4 deals with Statistics. Statistical tools are useful in processing and managing
numerical data in order to describe a phenomenon and predict values.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES

Welcome to Mathematics in the Modern World! This is about mathematics as a system

of knowing or understanding our surroundings. It is similar to an English literature
textbook, an introduction to philosophy book, or perhaps an introductory psychology
textbook. These books provide glimpses into the thoughts and perceptions of some of the
world’s greatest writers, philosophers, and psychologists. In similar way, Mathematics in
the Modern World provides glimpses into the nature of mathematics and how it is used to
understand our world. The central purpose of this module is to explore those dimensions
of mathematics that will strengthen your quantitative understandings of our environs. We
hope you enjoy the journey.
At the end of this module, you are expected to:

Knowledge

1. Discuss and argue about the nature of mathematics, what it is, how it is expressed,
represented, and used .
2. Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made about
mathematics and mathematical concepts.
3. Discuss the language and symbols of mathematics.

Skills
1. Use a variety of statistical tools to process and manage numerical data.
2. Analyze codes and coding schemes used for identification, privacy, and security
purposes.
3. Use mathematics in other areas such as finance, voting, health and medicine,
business, environment, arts and design, and recreation.

Values

1. Appreciate the nature and uses of mathematics in everyday life

2. Affirm honesty and integrity in the application of mathematics to various human
endeavors

At the beginning of the module, you are to take the pre-assessment test to see how
much background information and knowledge you have in Mathematics.

This module is self-instructional. You can read, analyze concepts and ideas
presented, and reflect on them. The Activities and Self-Check Questions will help you
assess how you progress as you go through the module.

Your answers to the Self-Check Questions (SCQs) and activities may be evaluated
by the teacher and these form part of the formative evaluation. DO NOT WRITE YOUR
ANSWERS ON THE MODULE BUT ON A SEPARATE SHEET. The answer key to the SCQs
is found at the end of the module. The post-assessment will be given in a separate
booklet upon completion of the module.

Remember that you have to work on this module by yourself. However, feel free to
contact your teachers on this number or email address should you have
questions/concerns which may need your teachers’ assistance.

1. Mobile #: 09677144753

Email address: abigail.santisteban@mdci.edu.ph

 Pre-assessment

A. Let’s have a quick review of the basic fundamental operations. (Be cautious with the
signs (negative -, positive +)

1. 5+8= 6. 3(6)=

2. 7-9= 7. 25÷ 5=

3. -2+5= 8. 42÷ 7=

4. -7+3= 9. 5(6-3) ÷ 5=

5. 4(-5)= 10. (4-9)× 3=

B. What comes next?

1. 3, 5, 7, 9, 6.

2. A, C, E, G, 7.

3. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 8.

4. 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 9. BGNW, CHOX, DIPY,

5. H, I, A, J, K, B, L, M, 10. 1102, 3104, 5106,

5
c. Place the numbers where they belong on the number line: 2, -1, , 40%, 0.9
2

-3 0 3

D. What is the pattern rule?

Input Output
23 46
25 50
9 18
47 94

E. Solving Equations: Find the unknown.

1. 34 =  + 9

2. 𝑥 + 5 = 11

3. 3𝑥 = 12

4. 2𝑥 + 3 = 5

F. Simplify the expressions.

a. 7s + 2 + 8s − 12

b. x · 5 · x · x · x

c. 3(a + b − 2)
d. 0.02x + x

e. 1/3(6w − 12)

f. −1.3a + 0.5 − 2.6a

G. Factor the expressions (write them as factors)

a. 7x + 14 =

b. 15 − 5y =

c. 21a + 24b − 9
 NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

INTRODUCTION

“Most people do the same routine tasks every day and the fundamental
concepts that make these activities possible are often overlooked. In this fast-
paced society, how often have you stopped to appreciate the beauty of the
things around you? Have you ever paused and pondered about the underlying
principles that govern the universe? How about contemplating and analyzing
how to make life less complicated, if not more comfortable or easier?”
(Mathematics in the Modern World: Richard N. Aufmann, Joanne S. Lockwood,
Richard D. Nation, Daniel K. Clegg and Susanna S. Epp.).

This chapter introduces the emergence of digital technology that has

sparked a monumental rise in the rate at which we consume and produce
data. It could take hours to get several volumes of resources from the library
for a research paper before the Internet existed. With the advent of modern
technology and the Internet, now it only takes a few minutes (or seconds,
depending on the speed of your connection) to take some information, or even
more. Before the Internet, it took hours for photographs to be printed and
shared. Now, it only takes a matter of seconds for photographs to be uploaded
and viewed by your family, relatives and friends in any part of the world.

Endowed with intelligence, we tend to identify and follow patterns

because of routinary task or events, whether consciously or subconsciously.
Even our forefathers could easily recognize the repeating interval of day and
night, the cycle of the moon, the rising of and falling of tides, and the changing
of the seasons. These regularity of events helped and allowed humans to
survive. Many plants and animals follow certain patterns such as the
arrangement of leaves and stems in a plant, the shape of a snowflake, the
flowers’ petal, or even the shape of a snail’s shell.

Recall the days you had, do you also notice patterns around you? What
other examples can you think of?

In this chapter, we will be looking at patterns and regularities in the

world, and how mathematics come into play, both in nature and in human
endeavors.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Identify patterns in nature and regularities in the world ;

• Argue about the nature of mathematics, what it is, how it is

expressed, represented, and used;

• Appreciate the nature and uses of mathematics in everyday life

 ACTIVITY 1.1

PATTERNS AND NUMBERS

A.

B.
 READ

Patterns

▪ Are regular, repeated, or recurring forms, designs, or events.

▪ We see patterns everyday like the layout of floor tiles, designs of
skyscrapers, to the way we tie our shoelace.
▪ Patterns help to identify relationships and finding logical
connections to form generalizations and make predictions.

Take a look at this pattern:

What do you think will be the next shape in the sequence? We can see that
the pattern is made up of two shapes; the first shape is triangle and the second
shape is hexagon. Logically, the next shape to follow is

Example 1 What comes next?

Solution

Observing the behaviour of the figures, the lines seem to rotate at 90-degree
intervals in counter clockwise direction, always parallel to one side of the
square. But, from the options given, either A or be B could be the answer.
Checking the other patterns, the length of the lines inside the square became
shorter. So again, either A or B could be the answer. Finally, looking at the
number of the lines inside the box, each succeeding figure has the number of
lines increased by 1. This means that the next figure should have five lines
inside. This leads to option A as the correct choice.
 CHECK YOUR
PROGRESS

What is the next figure in the given pattern?

Example 2

What number comes next?

2, 4, 6, 8, 10, .

Solution

The above series of numbers is called a sequence. Each number of the series
is called a term. Looking at the given numbers, the sequence is increasing,
with each term being two more than the previous term:

4= 2+2

6= 4+2

8= 6+2

10= 8+2

Hence, the answer must be 12 = 10+2

ACTIVITY 1.2

What number comes next in the pattern 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ?

Patterns are created by imaginative humans producing structures,
organizations and formations. From this perspective, some people see an
“intelligent design” in the way nature forms.

Imagine yourself drawing a line across any object which results to having two
halves which are mirror images of each other. We call these figures
“symmetric” about the line drawn across each.

Spare some time to check yourself in the mirror and

observe how the left and right sides of your face closely
match. SYMMETRY
The figures above are symmetric about the axis indicated by the line/dotted
line. The right part of each figure is exactly the same as the left part. This
type of symmetry, known as line or bilateral symmetry, is evident in most
animals, even humans.

Leonardo da Vinci’s Vitruvian Man showing the

proportions and symmetry of the human body.
There exist other types of symmetry which depend on the number of
sides or faces that are symmetrical.

For example:

Spiderwort with 3-fold symmetry Starfish has a 5-fold symmetry

Some Santan Flowers have 4-fold symmetry

• Observe that rotating any of the three images above by several

degrees, you can still get the same appearance as its original
position. We call this behavior as rotational symmetry.
• The smallest angle that a figure can be rotated without destroying its
original formation is called the angle of rotation.
o For the spiderwort, the angle of rotation is 120 degrees while
that for the baby starfish is 72 degrees. Do you have any idea
how the angle of rotation is obtained, given the number of faces
each figure has?
• Another way or common way of describing rotational symmetry is by
order of rotation.
ORDER OF ROTATION

A figure has a rotational symmetry of order n (n-fold rotational

symmetry) if 1/n of a complete turn leaves the figure unchanged. To
compute for the angle of rotation, we use the following formula:

360°
Angle of rotation =
n
Observe images of these snowflakes.

You will notice that the patterns on a snowflake repeat six times, indicating
that there is a six-fold symmetry. To determine the angle of rotation, we
simply divide 3600 by 6 to get 600.

Another wonder of nature’s design is the structure and shape of a honeycomb.

Many people are curious as to how bees, despite their very small size, are able
to produce such arrangement while man would generally need the use of a
ruler and compass to do the same feat. We can see that such formation
enables the bee colony to maximize their storage of honey using the smallest
amount of wax.
You can try it yourself. Using several coins of the same size, try to cover as
much area of a piece of paper with coins. If you arrange the coins in a square
formation, there are still plenty of spots that are exposed. Using the hexagonal
formation, however, with the second row of coins snugly fitted between the
first row of coins, you will notice that more area will be covered.

Square Packing Hexagonal Packing

PACKING PROBLEMS
• This involves finding the optimum method of filling up a given space
such as a cubic or spherical container.
• These geometric patterns are not only simple and beautiful, but also
optimally functional (maximum utilization.
o Just like how bees have instinctively found the best solution,
evident in the hexagonal construction of their hives.

To illustrate this mathematically, suppose you have circles of radius 1 cm,

each of which will then have an area of 𝜋𝑐𝑚2 . Then, we are going to fill a plane
with these circles using square packing and hexagonal packing.
For square packing, each square will have an area of 4𝑐𝑚2 . Remember, from
the figure that for each square, it can fit only one circle (4 quarters).

The percentage of the square’s area covered by circles will be

𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝜋𝑐𝑚2

x100‰ = x 100‰ ≈ 78.54‰
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 4𝑐𝑚2

For hexagonal packing, we can think of each hexagon as composed of six

equilateral triangles with side equal to 2cm.

The area of each triangle is given by

1 1
𝐴 = 2 𝑏ℎ = 2 2𝑐𝑚(√3 cm)=√3 cm2
This gives the area of the hexagon as 6√3𝑐𝑚2 . Looking at the figure, there are
3 circles that could fit inside one hexagon (the whole circle in the middle, and
6 one-thirds of a circle), which gives the total area as 3𝜋𝑐𝑚2 . The percentage
of the hexagon’s area covered by circles will be

𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 3𝜋𝑐𝑚2

x100‰ = x 100‰ ≈ 90.69‰
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛 6√3𝑐𝑚2

Comparing the two percentages, we can clearly see that using hexagons will
cover a larger area than when using squares.
WORLD POPULATION

As of 2017, it is estimated that the world population is about 7.6 billon.

Mathematics can be used to model population growth. Remember that
the formula for exponential growth is

𝐴 = 𝑃𝑒 𝑟𝑡
Where

A= size of the population after it grows

P= initial number of people

r= rate of growth

t= time

e=2.718

Example

.02𝑡
The exponential growth model A=30𝑒 describes the population of a city
in the Philippines in thousands, t years after 1995.

a. What was the population of the city in 1995?

b. What will be the population in 2017?

Solution

a. Since our exponential growth model describes the population t years after
1995, we consider 1995 as t=0 and then solve for A, our population size.

.02𝑡
A=30𝑒

(.02)(0)
A= 30𝑒 Replace t with t=0

0
A= 30𝑒

A= 30(1) 𝑒0 = 1
A=30

Therefore, the city population in 1995 was 30,000

b. We need to find A for the year 2017. To find t, we subtract 2017 and
1995 to get t=22, which we substitute in our exponential growth model.

.02𝑡
A=30𝑒
 (.02)(22)
A= 30𝑒 Replace t with t=22

0.44
A= 30𝑒

A= 30(1.55271) 𝑒 0.44 ≈ 1.55271

A=46.5813

Therefore, the city population would be about 46,581 in 2017.

Try to answer this on your own ACTIVITY 1.3

.07𝑡
The exponential growth model A= 50𝑒 describes the
population of a city in the Philippines in thousands, t years
after 1996.

a. What is the population after 25 years?

b. What is the population in 2029?

EXERCISE 1.1
Observing the pattern, find what comes next?

1. W, T, Q, N, K, .

2. 4, 3, 8, 3, 12, .

3. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, .

4. 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, .

5. 49, 42, 35, 28, 21, .

Substitute the given values in the formula 𝐴 = 𝑃𝑒 𝑟𝑡 to find the missing

quantity.

A. P= 280,000; r= 10‰ per year; t= 6 years

B. P= 160,000; r= 13‰ per year; t= 9 years

SEQUENCE
• An ordered list of numbers, called terms, which may have repeated
values.
• The arrangement of these terms is determined by a definite rule.
Example 1 Generating a Sequence

Determine the rule for each of the sequences below and give the next three
terms.

a. 1, 10, 100, 1000

b. 2, 5, 9, 14, 20

Solution

a. Analyzing the numbers given, we can see that each term is a power of 10:

1=100 , 10=101 , 100=102 , 1,000=103 . Following this rule, the next three
terms are 10,000=104 , 100,000=105 , 1,000,000=106 .

b. The difference between the first and the second term (2 and 5) is 3. The
difference between the second and third terms (5 and 9) is 4. The difference
between the fourth and the fifth terms is 6. Following this rule, it can be
deduced that to obtain the next three terms, we should add 7, 8, 9,
respectively, to the current term. Hence, the next three terms are

20+7=27,

27+8=35,

35+9=44.

THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE

• This sequence is named after an Italian mathematician Leonardo of Pisa,
who was popularly known by his nickname Fibonacci. Fibonacci discovered
this sequence as he observed that a pair of baby rabbits, a baby boy rabbit
and a baby girl rabbit, were fully grown after a month. The next month two
more baby rabbits (again a boy and a girl) were born. After a month these
babies were fully grown and the first pair had two more baby rabbits (again,
a boy and a girl). The next month, the two adult pairs each have a pair of
a baby rabbits and the babies from last month mature. Due to this scenario,
Fibonacci the asked how many rabbits a single pair can produce after a
year with this highly impressive and unbelievable breeding process.
• He then noted that the set of numbers could be extended by getting
the sum of the two previous terms.
• Observe the behaviour of the following Fibonacci sequence:

1,1,2,3,5,8,13,…

Since there is no number before the first term 1, it is understood to be

0. You will notice that the 2nd term 1 is obtained by adding 0 to the 1st term
1; the 3rd term (2) by adding the two terms before it, 1 and 1; the 4th term
 (3) by adding the two terms before it, 1 and 2, and so on. Let us write
these in vertical order as follows:

Order of Term Term The two terms before it that are added

1st 1

2nd 1 0+1 (0 is understood)

3rd 2 1+1

4th 3 1+2

5th 5 2+3

6th 8 3+5

7th 13 5+8

Can you get now the next three terms of the sequence?

Fibonacci sequence has many interesting properties. One of which is that

this pattern can be easily seen in nature, such as in the following: the spiral
arrangements of sunflower seeds, the number of petals in a flower, and the
shape of a snail’s shell.
• It is also interesting to observe that the ratios of successive Fibonacci
numbers approach the numbers ф (Phi), also known as the Golden
Ratio. This is approximately equal to 1.618.

𝟏 𝟏𝟑
• = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝟏 𝟖
𝟐 𝟐𝟏
• = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟏𝟓𝟒
𝟏 𝟏𝟑
𝟑 𝟑𝟒
• = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟏𝟗𝟎
𝟐 𝟐𝟏
𝟓 𝟓𝟓
• = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟕 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟏𝟕𝟕
𝟑 𝟑𝟒
𝟖 𝟖𝟗
• 𝟓
= 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟓𝟓
= 𝟏. 𝟔𝟏𝟖𝟐

• Mathematically, we can generate patterns by performing one or several

mathematical operations repeatedly
• Suppose we choose the number 2 as the first number in our pattern. We
then choose to add 4 to our first number, resulting in 6, which is our second
number. Repeating this process, we obtain 10, 14, 18, 22, 26,… as the
succeeding numbers that form a pattern. If you recall, we classify any
sequence of this type as arithmetic, wherein every term is obtained by
adding a constant value to the preceding term.

• You may also be familiar with another type of sequence wherein every term
is obtained by multiplying a constant value to the preceding term. We
call such sequence as geometric. Examples of this type are the following:
 1. 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, …. (multiply the preceding by 2 to get the next term)
1
2. 243, 81, 27, 9, 3, 1, ….( multiply the preceding by 3 to get the next
term)

Try to answer this on your own EXERCISE 1.2

A. Identify each of the following sequences as arithmetic, geometric,

Fibonacci, or unclassified and give the next three terms.
1. 7, 14, 28, 56, …
2. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, …
3. 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, …
4. -5, -4,-2, 1, 5, 10, 16, …
5. 17, 14, 11, 8, 5, 2, …
B. In the Fibonacci sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, …, the 1st term or Fib (1) =
1; the 2nd term or Fib (2) = 1; the 3rd term or Fib (3) = 2, and so on.
1. Find Fib (8).
2. Find Fib (19).
3. If Fib (22)= 17, 711 and Fib (24) 46,368, what is Fib (23)? (Hint:
Observe and analyze the Fibonacci sequence in no. 2 of letter A.)
4. Evaluate the following sums:
a. Fib (1) + Fib (2) = _
b. Fib (1) + Fib (2) + Fib (3) = _
c. Fib (1) + Fib (2) + Fib (3) + Fib (4) = _
5. What will be the sum of Fib (1) + Fib (2) + … + Fib (10)? (From 1st term
to 10th term)
6. If you have a wooden board that is 0.75 meters wide, how long should you
cut it such that the Golden Ratio of 1.618 is observed? In other words, fill up
the following:
____ = 1.618
0.75
 MATHEMATICS FOR OUR WORLD
❖ From the previous lesson we had, you observed that mathematics is very
evident in the natural world.
❖ We observed how the patterns in nature follow logical and mathematical
structures.
❖ Hence, it is a must that we learn mathematical concepts and use them to
solve problems of our society.

Mathematics for Organization

Many events happen around us. In just a moment of time, hundreds of
babies have already been born, litres of water and baskets of fruits have been
consumed, or even hundreds of pictures on instagram, facebook and twitter
have been posted. Analyzing all relevant information requires mathematical
tools which help us make sound and better decisions. Mathematics for
organization helps people to be updated of any situation in a most convenient
way. For instance, a particular store can gather data on the shopping habits
of its customers and make necessary adjustments to help drive sales.

Mathematics for Prediction

• Based on observation, we can safely say that history repeats itself.
In relation to this, mathematical tools help us not only to analyze
and interpret data but also to make logical predictions .
• The concept of probability enables experts to calculate the chance
of an event occurring. A good example is weather forecasting.
• Recording historical patterns, meteorologists can make forecasts
to warn us of weather disturbances that can affect our activities.
• Astronomers also use patterns to predict the occurrence of
heavenly phenomena, such as the Draconid Meteor Shower and
“The Great American Eclipse” in 2017. Further, they are able
to tell us the details of any occurrence.

Total Solar Eclipse

Mathematics for Control
• Given the example we had, patterns are definitely present in the universe.
• There is an underlying mathematical structure in the way that natural
objects and phenomenon behave.
• These observations of nature, as well as their interactions and
relationships, could be more elegantly described by means of mathematical
equations.
• “With a few symbols on a page, you can describe a wealth of physical
phenomena”, by Brian Greene, an astrophysicist.
• There have been instances when a natural phenomenon has been
speculated to exist because mathematics says so even with no hard
evidence to support its existence.
• It will only be proven when advancements in technology have allowed us
to expand our horizons.
• In 1916 Albert Einstein hypothesized the existence of gravitational waves
based on his theory of general relativity. This is when “ripples” are formed
in the fabric of space-time due to large and violent cosmic events, the
evidence of which was found a hundred years later.

Mathematics is Indispensable
“How is it possible that mathematics, a product of human thought that is
independent of experience, fits so excellently the objects of reality?”

-Albert Einstein

• In this chapter, it was highlighted how mathematics plays a huge role in

the underpinnings of the world.
• The study of mathematics should be embraced as it paves the way for more
educated decisions and in a way, brings us closer to understanding the
natural world.

Activity 1.4: Write an essay on how mathematics can

help you in your daily life.
 Chapter 2 - SPEAKING MATHEMATICALLY

This chapter will introduce you to a mathematical way of thinking that

helps you in many situations. When you’re working on a mathematical
problem you tend to ask how to proceed. You may begin by looking at the
examples, drawing pictures, playing around with notation, rereading the
problem to focus on more of its details, and so forth. Your thinking should be
clearer and more definite when you’re getting closer to a solution. To
understand better, you need language that expresses mathematical ideas
clearly, precisely, and definitely.

In this chapter, you will learn some of the special language that is
a foundation for much mathematical thought - the language of variables, sets,
relations, and functions. Its goal is to warm up your mental muscles to
maximize your skills.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Discuss the language, symbols, and conventions of mathematics.

• Explain the nature of mathematics as a language.
• Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly.
• Acknowledge that mathematics is a useful language.

VARIABLES
• A variable is a letter, a symbol, or even a blank or an empty box
used to represent an unknown value or values.
Examples:
1. X + 2 = 5 (where x represents 3)
2. Y > 5 ( read as “ y is greater than 5”; all values greater than
5)
• We can convert a sentence into a mathematical sentence.

• Example 1: Adding three to twice a number is the same as squaring

the number.
Mathematical sentence: 2x+3=𝑥 2

• Example 2:
No matter what number might be chosen, if it is greater than 2, then
its square is greater than 4.

Mathematical sentence:
No matter what number n might be chosen, if n is greater than 2,
then 𝑛2 is greater than 4.
 • Example 3: Three more than a number.
Mathematical sentence: 3 + x - let x be the unknown number
and we use the operation addition because of the phrase “more
than”.
Example 4: A number increased by nine is fifteen.
Mathematical sentence: y+9=15 - let y be the unknown number.
We use addition as an operation because of the phrase “increased
by” and = for the word “is”.

Try to answer this on your own ACTIVITY 3.1

Use variables to translate the following into mathematical sentences.

1. Twice a number is eighteen.

2. A number divided by six is eight.
3. Twice a number, decreased by twenty-nine, is seven.
4. Thirty-two is twice a number increased by eight.
5. Twelve is sixteen less than four times a number.
6. Chan is x years old. In thirteen years she will be twenty-four years old.
7. A large pizza pie with 15 slices is shared among some students so that
each student’s share is 3 slices.
8. Twice a number is 28.
9. Five less than three times a number is forty-six.
10. The quotient of fifty and a number is 10.

Some Important Kinds of Mathematical Statements

1. Universal statement- says that a certain property is true for all elements
in a set.
Example: All positive numbers are greater than zero.
2. Conditional Statement- says that if one thing is true then some other
thing also has to be true.
Example: If 378 is divisible by 18, then 378 is divisible by 6.
3. Existential Statement- says that there is at least one thing for which the
property is true.
Example: There is a prime number that is even.

*The detailed discussion of these three kinds of statements will be done in

later sections. Our goal here is for you to understand that combinations of
these statements can be expressed in a variety of different ways.
1. Universal Conditional Statements
• Are statements that are both universal and conditional.
• Universal statements contain some variation of the words “for all”
while conditional statements contain versions of the words “if-then”.
• Example: For all animals a, if a is a dog, then a is a mammal.
• One important characteristic about universal conditional statements is
that they can be rewritten in ways that make them appear to be purely
universal or purely conditional
• Example: (from the previous statement, it can be written in a way that
makes its conditional nature explicit and universal nature implicit:
• If a is a dog, then a is a mammal.
• Or: If an animal is a dog, then the animal is a mammal.
• The statement can also be expressed so as to make its universal nature
explicit and its conditional nature implicit:
For all dogs a, a is a mammal.
Or: All dogs are mammals.

Example: Rewriting a Universal Conditional Statement

1. Any student with a GPA better than 3.5 must have studied a lot.

students x, if x's GPA is better than 3.5, then x must have studied a lot.

2. If a polygon has 3 sides, then it must be a triangle.

polygons p, if p has 3 sides, then p is a triangle.

Note: “ ” is read as “For all”.

2. Universal Existential Statements

• A universal existential statement is universal because its first part

says that a certain property is true for all things of a given kind, and
it is existential because the second part claims the existence of
something.

For example:

Every real number has an additive inverse.

In this statement the property “has an additive inverse” applies universally

to all real numbers. This claims the existence of something, an additive
inverse, for each real number.

The nature of the additive inverse depends on the real number; different
real numbers have different additive inverses.

We can rewrite this in several ways, some less formal and some more
formal:

1. All real numbers have additive inverses.

2. For all real numbers r, there is an additive inverse for r.

3. For all real numbers r, there is a real number s such that s is an additive
inverse for r.

*Note: The Additive Inverse of a number is the same number but of the
opposite sign. So a is the additive inverse of –a; and –a is the additive
inverse of a.

Introducing names for the variables simplifies references in further discussion.

One of the most important reasons for using variables in mathematics is that
it gives you the ability to refer to quantities definitely from a lengthy
mathematical argument/statement, while not restricting you to consider only
specific values for them.

3. Existential Universal Statements

• This is basically the opposite of universal existential statement in

a way that the first part claims the existence of something while second
part says that the object satisfies a certain property for all objects of a
certain type.

For example:

There is a positive integer that is less than or equal to every positive

integer.

This statement is true because the number one is a positive integer, and it
satisfies the property of being less than or equal to every positive integer.
We can rewrite this statement in several ways:

1. Some positive integer is less than or equal to every positive integer.

2. There is a positive integer m that is less than or equal to every positive

integer.

3. There is a positive integer m such that every positive integer is greater

than or equal to m.

4. There is a positive integer m with the property that for all positive
integers n, m≤n.

The Language of Sets, Relations and Functions

SET

• A set is an unordered collection of distinct objects, which we call its

elements.
• A set is uniquely determined by its elements. If an object a is an element
of a set A, we write a ∈A, and say that a belongs to A or that A contains
a. The negation of this statement is written as a ∉A, i.e., a is not an
element of A.
 *Note that both statements cannot be true at the same time

• If A and B are sets, they are identical (this means one and the same
set), which we write as A=B, if they have exactly the same elements.
In other words A=B if and only if for all a ∈A we have a ∈B, and for all b
∈B we have b ∈A. Equivalently, A≠B if and only if there is a difference
in their elements: there exists a ∈A such that a ∉B or there exists b
∈B such that b ∉A.
• On the other hand, the set consisting of all elements in a particular
discussion is called the universal set and is denoted by U. For example,
in a discussion of places to see in the Philippines, a universal set may
be the list of all provinces in the Philippines.

NOTATION

• The empty set (a.k.a. the null set), is what it sounds like: the set with
no elements. We usually denote it by ∅ or sometimes by { }. The empty
set, ∅, is uniquely determined by the property that for all x we
have x∉∅. Clearly, there is exactly one empty set.
• The singletons. A singleton is a set with exactly one element. If that
element is x we often write the singleton containing x as {x}. In spoken
language, ‘the singleton x’ actually means the set {x} and should
always be distinguished from the element x:x≠ {x}. A set can be an
element of another set but no set is an element of itself (more precisely,
we adopt this as an axiom). E.g., {{x}} is the singleton of which the
unique element is the singleton {x}. In particular we also
have {x}≠{{x}}.

A set may be specified using the set-roster notation by writing all of

its elements between braces. For example, {1,2,3} denotes the set
whose elements are 1, 2, and 3. A variation of the notation is sometimes
used to describe a very large set, as when we write {1,2,3,...,100} to
refer to the set of all integers from 1 to 100. A similar notation can also
describe an infinite set, as when we write {1,2,3,...} to refer to the set
of all positive integers. The symbol ... is called an ellipsis and is read
“and so forth”.)

The axiom of extension says that a set is completely determined by

what its elements are – not the order in which they might be listed or
the fact that some elements might be listed more than once.

Example: Let A = {1,2,3,}, B = {3,1,2}, and C = {1,1,2,3,3,3}. What

are the elements of A, B, and C? How are A, B, and C related?

Solution: A, B, and C have exactly the same three elements: 1, 2, and

3. Therefore A, B, and C are simply different ways to represent the same
set.

Frequently referred to sets of numbers are given special symbolic

names, as in the following:
 Symbol Set
R Set of all real numbers
Z Set of all integers
Q Set of all rational numbers, or a quotient of integers

Addition of a superscript + or – or nonneg indicates that only the positive or

negative or nonnegative elements of the set, respectively, are to be included.
Thus, R+ denotes the set of positive real numbers Z nonnegative refers to the set
of nonnegative integers: 0,1,2,3,4, and so forth. Some authors refer to the set
of nonnegative integers as the set of natural numbers and denote it as N.

The set of real numbers is usually pictured as the set of all points on a line
which when numbered, we call as the number line, as shown below:

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Between two numbers, such as 1 and 2, we can have fractions, decimals, and
roots (square root, cube root, etc.). The number 0 is called as the point of origin.
Each point to the right of 0 corresponds to a positive real number, and each
point to the left of 0 corresponds to a negative real number. The set of real
numbers is therefore divided into three parts: the set of positive real numbers,
the set of negative real numbers, and the number 0.

Another way to specify a set uses what is called as the set-builder notation.

Set-Builder Notation Read as

1.{X∈R|-2<X<5} a. The set where X is an element of the set of real
numbers such that X is less than 5 but greater than -
2, or;

b. The set where X is a real number such that X is less

than 5 but greater than -2
2.{X∈Z|-2<X<5} a. The set where X is an element of the set of integers
such that X is less than 5 but greater than -2, or;

b. The set where X is an integer such that X is less than

5 but greater than -2
3.{X∈Z+ |-2<X<5} The set of all positive integers less than 5 but greater
than -2.

Solutions:

1. The set of all numbers (integers, 0, fractions, decimals, roots) between -2 and
5, excluding -2 and 5, as the relation symbols are only <. Had the relation
symbol been < (read as ” less than or equal to”), -2 and 5 would have been
included.
2. Set {-1,0,1,2,3,4}
3. Since all the integers in Z+ are positive, it is the set {1,2,3,4}. The number 0
is not included because it is neither positive nor negative.
 SUBSET

• A set A is a subset of a set B if every element of A is an element of

B. In symbols, we write A ⊆ B if and only if x ∈A implies x ∈B. We
also say A is contained in B or B contains A, written B ⊇ A. For
example, {e, i} is subset of {a, e, i, o, u} since e ∈{a, e, i, o, u} and
i∈{a, e, i, o, u}. However, {a, b} is not a subset of {a, e, i, o, u}
since b ∈{a, e, i, o, u} but b ∉{a, e, i, o, u}.

Note: ∈ is read as “is an element of ” ; when this symbol is crossed,

it is read as “ not an element of “.

PROPER SUBSET

• Let A and B be sets. A is a proper subset of B if, and only if, every
element of A is in B but there is at least one element of B that is not
in A.

Example on Subsets

Let A = Z+, B ={n∈Z|0≤n≤100}, and C= {100,200,300,400,500}.

Evaluate the truth and falsity of the following statements.

1. B⊆A
2. C is a proper subset of A
3. C and B have at least one element in common
4. C⊆ B
5. C⊆C

Solutions:

a. True. The elements of B are {10,11,12,...,100} while A is the set

of all positive integers.
b. True. The elements in C are positive integers and, hence, are in
A. But there are elements in A which are not in C.
c. True, that is 100.
d. False. 200 is in C but not in B.
e. True. Every element in C is in C. A set is always a subset of itself.
We call this improper subset.

ACTIVITY 2.2.1

Let A= {c, d, f, g}, B={f, g, j}, and C= {d, f, g}. Support the truth and
falsity of each of the following statements.

a. B ⊆ A d. B ⊆ C
b. C ⊆ A e. C ⊆ B
c. C ⊆ C
Operations on Sets

In this section all sets A, B, C, … are assumed to be subsets of some universal

set U.

Union

The union of two sets A and B is the set of those elements which are either in
A, in B, or in both A and B, without repeating any element. In symbols,

A U B = { x | x ∈A or x ∈B }

For example, if

A={1,2,3}, B={2,5,8,9} then A U B= {1,2,3,5,8,9}.

Note: The element 2 appears in both sets, but in the union of the two sets, it
should appear only once as no element should be repeated.

Another example is if

A= { x | x is a vowel in the English alphabet}

B= { x | x is a consonant in the English alphabet}

then A U B = { x | x is a letter in the English alphabet}

Note:

1. A U A = A 3. A U U = U

2. A U ∅ = A 4. If A ⊆ B then A U B = B

ACTIVITY 2.2.2

Fin the union of the sets below.

1. A = {1, 3, 7, 5} and B = {3, 7, 8, 9}

2. X = {a, e, i, o, u} and Y = {ф} {Hint: The union of a set with a null set
(∅) is always the set itself.
3. P = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, Q = {0, 3, 6, 9, 12} and R = {2, 4, 6, 8}.

Intersection

The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of elements which are both in
A and in B. In symbols, A ∩ B = { x | x ∈A and x ∈B }. In other words, the
intersection of two sets is the set which contains the elements common to
the given sets.

Another example is if

A= { x | x is a vowel in the English alphabet}

B= { x | x is a consonant in the English alphabet}

then A ∩ B = ∅ since no letter is both a consonant and a vowel.

When A ∩ B = ∅, the sets A and B are said to be disjoint. Disjoint sets have
no elements in common.

Note:

1. A ∩ A = A 3. A ∩ U = A

2. A ∩ ∅ = ∅ 4. If A ⊆ B then A ∩ B = A

For example, if A={1,2,3}, B={2,5,8,9} then A ∩ B= {2}.

Another example is if

A= { x | x is a vowel in the English alphabet}

B= { x | x is a consonant in the English alphabet}

then A ∩ B = ∅ since no letter is both a consonant and a vowel.

When A ∩ B = ∅, the sets A and B are said to be disjoint. Disjoint sets have
no elements in common.

Note:

1. A ∩ A = A 3. A ∩ U = A

2. A ∩ ∅ = ∅ 4. If A ⊆ B then A ∩ B = A

ACTIVITY 2.2.3

Find the intersection.

1. A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and B = {1, 3, 8, 4, 6}.

2. X = {a, b, c} and Y = {ф}

3. Set A = {4, 6, 8, 10, 12}, set B = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18} and set C = {1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.
Complement

The complement of A in U is the set of elements in U which are not in A. In

symbols, A’= { x | x ∈U and x ∉ A}. A’= { x | x ∈U and x ∉ A} is read as “
The complement of A is the set of all elements in the universal set U which
are not elements of A”.

A’ is also written as 𝐴𝑐 .

For example, if U={0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}

And A= {1,3,5,7,9}

Then A’ = {0,2,4,6,8}.

Another example is if

U= { x | x is a letter in the English alphabet}

A= { x | x is a vowel}

then A’= { x | x is a constant}

Note:

1. A 𝑈 A’ = U 3. ∅′ = U (The complement of the null or empty

set is the universal set U and vice
versa.)

2. A ∩ 𝐴′ = ∅ 4. U’=∅

ACTIVITY 2.2.4

Find the complement.

1. Let the universal set U be the set whose elements are

{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}. A = {1,3,5,7,9}. Find A’.

2. Let U = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16} and A = {6, 10, 4, 16}. Find A’.

3. Let the set of natural numbers be the universal set and A is a set of
even natural numbers. Find A’.

Difference

The difference of two sets A and B is the set of elements in A which are not
in B. In symbols,

A-B= { x | x ∈A and x ∉ B}.

For example, if A ={ 1,2,3} and B= { 2,5,8,9} then

 A-B ={1,3}

B-A ={5,8,9}

Another example is if

A= { x | x is a vowel in the English alphabet}

B= { x | x is a consonant in the English alphabet}

then A-B=A and B-A=B.

In the difference A-B, the elements of A which are not in B may be regarded
as the complement of B in A. Therefore, A-B = A ∩ B’.

The Cross Product or Cartesian Product

• An ordered pair (a,b) is a set with two elements in which we

distinguish between a first and a second element.
• As sets, {a,b} is the same as {b,a}. However, the ordered pair
(a,b) and (b,a) are not equal since their first and second elements,
respectively, are not the same. An ordered pair is denoted by (a,b)
with a parenthesis and

(a,b) = (x,y) if and only if a=x and b=y.

• The cross product or Cartesian product of two sets A and B is the

set of ordered pairs (a,b) where a ∈A and b ∈B. In symbols,

A x B = {(a,b) | a ∈A and b ∈ B}.

For example, if

A= {1,2,3} and B={a,b}

Then

AxB= {(1,a), (1,b), (2,a), (2,b), (3,a), (3,b)}

While

BxA= {(a,1), (b,1), (a,2), (b,2), (a,3), (b,3)}.

Test Yourself

Test I. Write the correct relation symbols (=, <, or >) to make the
statements true.
a. -3__-1
b. 5___-6
2 2
c. __
5 3
1
d. __0.5
2
e. -2.5 ___-2.3
f. -4 __ -1
g. -25 ___ 2
h. -19 __ -5
i. 2/3 ___3/2
j. 2/4 ___ 15/30

Test II. List the elements of the following sets.

1. The set of the first three months of the year

2. The set of words in this phrase that have four letters

3. The set of odd integers between 2 and 20

4. The set of vowels in the word MISSISSIPPI

5. The set of even prime numbers.

Test III.

Let U = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} C= {x| x is prime}

A= {0,1} D= {x| x is a divisor of 8}

B= {x| x is odd} E= {x| x is a multiple of 3}

1. List the elements of B, C, D, and E.

2. Find

(a) B U C U D

(b) (B U C U D)’

(c) A’ U C’

(d) (D U E ) ∩ C

(e) A ∩ ( B U D )’

(f) A U B U C U D U E

(g) (B ∩ E)‘
(h) A x D

(i) n ( A U B U C U D U E)‘

(j) n (D ∩ E)

The Venn Diagram

• These are diagrams that make use of geometric shapes to show

relationships between sets.
• Venn Diagram helps us visualize sets, their relations and
operations.
• In this, the Universal set U is represented by a rectangle. An
element of U is represented as a point inside the rectangle. Any set
A is pictured as a set of points inside some closed region, (that is, a
circle) in the rectangle U.

Example 1 :

In a class of 50 students, each of the students passed either in

mathematics or in science or in both. 10 students passed in both and
28 passed in science. Find how many students passed in mathematics?

Solution :

Let M = The set of students who passed in Mathematics

S = The set of students who passed in Science

We may solve the given problem using two methods.

(i) Using formula

(ii) Using Venn diagram

Method 1 : (Using Formula)

Total number of students n (M U S) = 50 (math and science)

Total number of students who passed in science n (S)= 28

Number of students who passed in both subjects n(MnS) = 10

So, the number of students who passed in science only = 18

From this, we have to find the total number of students who passed in
mathematics.
Let n (M) be the total number of students who passed in
mathematics. So,

n(M U S) = n (M) + n (S) - n (M n S)

50 = n (M) + 28 - 10

50 = n (M) + 18

Subtract both sides by 18

50 - 18 = n (M) + 18 - 18

32 = n (M)

So, the total number of students who passed in Mathematics is 32,

including the 10 who passed in both Mathematics and Science. But the
number of students who passed in mathematics only is 22 (32 – 10).

Method 2 : (Using the Venn Diagram)

Let "x" be the number of students who passed in Mathematics only.

By representing the given details in Venn diagram, we get

From the Venn diagram

x + 10 + 18 = 50

x = 50 - 28 = 22

Total number of students who passed in Mathematics

= x + 10 = 22 + 10 = 32
Example 2 :

The population of a town is 10000. Out of these 5400 persons read

newspaper A and 4700 read newspaper B. 1500 persons read both the
newspapers. Find the number of persons who do not read either of the
two papers.

Solution:

Let A = the set of persons who read newspaper A

B = the set of persons who read newspaper B

Number of persons who read at least one news paper

= 3900 + 1500 + 3200

= 8600

Total population = 10000

To find the number of persons who do not read either of the two
papers, we have to subtract number of persons who read at least one
from total population.

= 10000 - 8600

= 1400

So, the number of persons who do not read either of the two papers is
1400.
 Example 3:

In a school, all the students play either football or Volleyball or both.

300 students play football, 270 students play Volleyball and 120
students play both games. Find

(i) The number of students who play football only

(ii) The number of students who play Volley ball only

(iii) The total number of students in the school

Solution:

Let A = the set of students who play foot ball

B = the set of students who play volley ball

(i) The number of students who play Football only is 180

(ii)The number of students who play Volley ball only is 150

(iii) The total number of students in the school

= 180 + 120 + 150

= 450

Test Yourself
Draw a Venn diagram for each of the following.

Test I.

1. U = {set of letters in the word HANDSOME}

A = {N, A, M, E, S}
2. U = {set of colors in the rainbow}
A = {set of primary colors}
 B = [set of secondary colors}
3. U = {set of odd numbers less than 15}
A = {set of prime numbers between 2 and 10}
B = {11,13}
C= {7,9,11}

Test II.

1. 𝑈 = {0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
𝐴 = {2, 3, 5, 7}
𝐵 = {2, 4, 6, 8}
Find:
(a) 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵
(b) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵
(c) A’
(d) B’
2. Given: U={1,2, 3,4, 5,6, 7, 8,9,10,11,12}
𝐴 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10}
𝐵 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 8}
𝐶 = {1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9}
Find:
1. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵
2. (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶
3. B U A
4. B U C
5. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵
6. 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶
7. (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) ∩ C
8. A’
9. B’
10. C’

Test III. The table below shows the comparison of the features of a moth
and a butterfly. Use Venn diagram to show similarities and differences. Let A
be the features of a moth, and B, the features of a butterfly.

MOTH BUTTERFLY

dull colored brightly colored

flies at night flies during day

has two wings has two wings

rests with wings spread rests with wings up

eats nectar from flowers eats nectar from flowers

came from a caterpillar came from a caterpillar

Test IV. Solve the following problem.

1. Among the 70 kids in Barangay Suba, 53 like eating in Jollibee while

42 like eating in Mang Inasal. How many like eating in both Jollibee
and Mang Inasal? In Jollibee only? In Mang Inasal only?
2. Among 200 pizza lovers surveyed, 96 of them like Nano’s pizza and 124
of them like Alberto’s pizza. How many like both?
3. On Sunday, 144 people bought French fries or coke float or both at
Jollibee Sands Danao. If 82 people bought French fries and 96 people
bought Coke float. How many bought both?
4. Of the thirty-two students in Ms. Saura K. Malibanco’s class, nineteen
play guitar, twelve play the piano and six play both. How many play
neither?
5. There are 50 students in Mr. Johnny Thor’s class. Thirty-six students like
Math, 23 students like Science, 6 students don't like Math or Science. How
many students like
a. Math only?
b. Science only?
c. both subjects?

The Language of Relations and Functions

“Relations” and “functions” are concepts in Mathematics which are
both similar and different, in a way, because a function is always a relation
but a relation is not always a function. Before we dig deeper, let us first define
what a relation is.

A relation is a correspondence between two sets. The 1st set is called

the domain while the 2nd set is called the range. Let us call the 1st set A and
the 2nd set B. We use the letter R to denote a relation. Thus, A R B is read as
“set A is related to set B” or “set A corresponds to set B”. In Mathematics,
there are four (4) kinds of correspondence. Let us study the following figures.

Figure 1

A B

1 2

2 4

3 6

You will observe that, for every element in A, there corresponds one
and only one element in B. That is, 1 corresponds to 2, 2 corresponds to 4,
and 3 corresponds to 6. Thus, we call this as one-to-one correspondence
from A to B. We can represent the above correspondence as a set of ordered
pairs, wherein the 1st element of every pair is an element of set A, the
1st set. Hence, A R B = {(1,2), (2,4), (3,6)}. Observe the three ordered pairs.
What do you notice? Is the 1st element repeated?

Figure 2

A B

1 2

4
2
6

9
3 3

As the arrows indicate, for every element in A, there correspond

many elements in B, namely: 1 corresponds to 2,4,and 6; 2 corresponds to
2,4,and 6 also; and 3 corresponds to 6,9,and 3. Hence, we call this as one-
to-many correspondence from A to B. The above correspondence can be
expressed as a set of ordered pairs, wherein the 1st element of every pair
is an element of set A, the 1st set. Thus, A R B =
{(1,2),(1,4),(1,6),(2,2),(2,4),(2,6),(3,6),(3,9),(3,3). Note that the 1st
element 1 appears thrice, 2 is also repeated thrice, and 3 is paired with
different numbers three times.

Figure 3

A B

2 2

4 3

In this figure, you will notice that more than one element of A are
paired with only one element of B. That is, 2,4, and 8 of A are paired with
only 2 of B; and 3 and 9 of A are paired with only 3 of B. Thus, we call this as
many-to-one correspondence from A to B. This correspondence can also
be represented as a set of ordered pairs, wherein the 1st element of every
pair is an element of set A, the 1st set. Then, we have A R B = {(2,2),
(4,2), (8,2), (3,3), (9,3)}. Observe the 1st elements of every pair. Is the 1st
element repeated?

Figure 4

A B

q u

r v

Looking at the arrows in Figure 4, you will note that many elements in
set A are paired with many elements in set B, as p, q, and r correspond
to u and v. Hence, we call this as many-to-many correspondence from A
to B. This correspondence can also be represented by a set of ordered pairs,
wherein the 1st element of every pair is an element of set A, the 1st set.
Thus, A R B = {(p,u), (p,v), (q,u),(q,v),(r,u),(r,v)}. You will notice that the
1st elements are repeated.

Functions
As we have earlier said, a function is always a relation, but a relation is
not always a function. A relation can be expressed as a correspondence. You
have already learned the four (4) kinds of correspondence, namely: one-to-
one (OTO), many-to-one (MATO), one-to-many, and many-to-many. In
which of these four correspondences, expressed as sets of ordered pairs, is
the first element NOT repeated? Of course, if you go over, the first element
is not repeated in only two correspondences, namely: one-to-one and many-
to-one. Hence, these two kinds of correspondences are the ONLY kinds of
relations classified as functions. Do you know why? A relation is a function if
and only if the 1st element is not repeated when the relation is
expressed as a set of ordered pairs.

Examples.

1. {(2,3),(3,4),(4,5),(5,6),(2,7)} – Not a function; 1st element 2 is

repeated
2. {(1,2),(2,4),(3,6),(4,8),(5,10) - A function. (OTO)
 3. {(1,12),(2,12),(3,12),(4,12) - A function. (MATO)
4. {(4,2),(-3,2),(-7,5),(4,-6) - Not a function; 1st element 4 is repeated

Exercise 2.3
I

1. What is a relation? How do we call the 1st set? The 2nd set?
2. What are the four (4) kinds of correspondences? Describe each briefly.
3. What is a function?
4. Which correspondences are functions? Why?

II Tell whether each is a function or not. If a function, identify what type of

correspondence. If not a function, why not.
1. {(-1,5),(-2,5),(-3,5),(-4,5)}
2. {(2,3),(3,4),(4,5),(5,6),(3,7)}
3. {(1,5),(2,7),(3,9),(4,11),(5,13)}
4. {(0,1),(0,2),(0,3),(0,-1),(0,-2),(0,-3)}
5. {(1,1),(2,0),(3,-1),(4,-2),(5,-3,(6,-4)}

PROBLEM SOLVING
This chapter will help you build good problem-solving skills. At the same
time it will help you demonstrate that problem solving can be a pleasant
experience. This will require you to have good reasoning ability, and good
judgment in arriving at logical conclusions.

Objectives

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Identify different problem solving styles

2. Identify methods appropriate for solving problems

3. Write clear and logical proofs.

4. Solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems following
Polya’s four steps.
5. Organize one’s methods and approaches for proving and solving
problems.
George Polya – Father of Problem Solving

*Key Ideas

“How to Solve It”

1. UP- Understand the Problem

2. DP- Devise a Plan

3. COP- Carry Out the Plan

4. LB- Look Back

Specific Steps

1. Illustration

2. Representation

3. Create a table, if possible

4. Formulate an equation

5. Solve for the unknown

6. Conclusion

Strategies of Problem Solving

1. Guess and Check

2. Make an orderly list

3. Eliminate possibilities

4. Use symmetry

5. Consider special cases

6. Use direct reasoning

7. Solve an equation

8. Look for a pattern

9. Draw a picture

10. Solve a simpler problem

11. Use a model

12. Work backwards

13. Use a formula

14. Make a table

15. Logical reasoning

16. Explore it-act it-try it method

I will give you an example of some of these strategies.

Look for a Pattern

Problem:

Laura was given an ant farm by her grandparents for her 13th birthday. The
farm can hold a total of 100,000 ants. Laura’s farm had 1500 ants when it
was given to her. If the number of ants in the farm on the day after her
birthday was 3000 and the number of ants the day after was 6000, in how
many days will the farm be full?

Find out:

We need to know when the art farm will be full. How many ants can the farm
hold? 100,000

How many ants are in the farm the first day? 1500

How many ants are in the farm the second day? 3000

How many ants are in the farm the third day? 6000

Choose a strategy:

Is a pattern developing? Yes, each day twice as many ants are in the farm as
the day before. Make a table to count the ants systematically.

Solve it:

Draw a table with two lines for numbers. The top line is the number of days
after Laura’s birthday, and the bottom line is the number of ants in the farm
on the day.

# 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Days

# Ants 1500 3000 6000 12000 24000 48000 96000 192000

Look Back:

Read the questions again. Did we answer all of the questions? Yes

Does our answer seem reasonable? Yes

We observe that there is a pattern - the number of ants doubles each day and
continues indefinitely.

Use Equations
Problem:

Loyd has a total of $82.00 consisting of an equal number of pennies, nickels,

dimes and quarters. How many coins does he have all in all?

Find out:

We want to know how many coins Loyd has.

How much total money does he have? $82.00

How many of each denomination does he have? We don’t know exactly, but
we know that he has an equal number of each denomination.

Choose a strategy:

We know how much each coin is worth, and we know the total amount of his
coins, so we can write an equation that expresses the situation.

Solve it:

Let,

p= number of pennies

n= number of nickels

d= number of dimes

q= number of quarters

Note that:

A penny is worth 1 cent In decimal = 0.01

A nickel is worth 5 cents In decimal = 0.05

A dime is worth 10 cents In decimal = 0.10

A quarter is worth 25 cents In decimal = 0.25

We then have the equation 0.01p+0.05n+0.10d+0.25q= 82.00

We know that he has an equal number of each coin, so p=n=d=q. Substituting
for the other variables gives an equation in just one variable. The equation
above becomes 0.01p+0.05p+0.10p+0.25p = 82.00.

0.41p 82.00
=
0.41 0.41

p = 200

Loyd has 200 pennies. Since he has an equal number of each denomination,
he also has 200 nickels, 200 dimes and 200 quarters. Therefore, he has 800
coins.

Look Back:

Did we answer the question asked? Yes

Does our answer seem reasonable? Yes

We know that the answer must be less than $ 82.00 (if the coins were all
pennies) and greater than $ 82.00 (if the coins were all quarters).

Solve a Simpler Problem

Problem:

On your way to visit a friend, you leave your house at 2:45 pm and travel 1
3/4 miles to the train, 12 1/2 miles on the train, and 3/4 miles to your friend’s
house from the train station. If you get there at 4:15 pm, how many miles per
hour did you travel, granting that your speed in the three instances is the
same?

Solve using simpler numbers:

I left the house at 1:00 p.m., travelled 12 miles, and arrived at 4:00 p.m..
How many miles per hour did I travel?

*I travelled 12 miles - distance

*It took me 3 hours to travel - time

Write down the steps to solve the problem:

-Find the distance travelled

-Find the time spent

-Find the miles per hour

𝒅
Use the formula 𝒓=
𝒕

t
 𝟏𝟐 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒔
= 𝟑 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓

= 4mph (4 miles per hr)

We then use the actual numbers from the given problem.

1. 1 3/4 + 12 1/2 + 3/4 = 1 3/4 + 12 2/4 + 3/4

= 13 8/4

= 15 miles = distance

2. 1 ½ hours = 3/2 hours = time

𝒅
3. Using the formula 𝒓=
𝒕

𝟏𝟓 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒔
= 𝟑
𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔
𝟐

𝟏𝟓(𝟐)
= 𝟑
(When we divide a number, such as 15, by
𝟑
a fraction, such as , we multiply the numerator (15) by the reciprocal of
𝟐
𝟐
the denominator, which is .
𝟑

𝟑𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒔
= = 10 miles per hour
𝟑 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔

Use a Formula
Using a formula is a problem-solving strategy that students can use to find
answers to Math problems involving geometry, percents, measurements or
algebra. To solve these problems, students must choose the appropriate
formula and substitute data in the correct places of a formula.

Problem:

The perimeter of a rectangle is 26 meters. If the length is 3 more than the

width, find the length and the width.

Before we go to the solution, let us first use variables to represent the

unknown in the given.

So,

Let X = the width

X+3 = the length (the length is 3 more than the width)

Solution:

Based on the given and the unknown, the formula that we should use is
the perimeter formula.

P = 2L + 2W
 26 = 2 (X+3) + 2X (Substitute our representation for the length and
width in the formula)

26 = 2X+6 + 2X (Simplify)

26 = 4X+6 “

26-6 = 4X (Transpose)
𝟐𝟎 𝟒𝑿
=
𝟒 𝟒

5 = X or X =5

Make an Orderly List

Problem:

Sam has 2 pants: black and green.

He also has 4 shirts: a red shirt, a white shirt, a gray shirt and a striped
shirt.

How many different outfits can be put together?

Finding the answer:

Black-White Green- White

Black- Red Green- Red

Black- Gray Green- Gray

Black- Striped Green- Striped

Therefore, Sam can make 8 different outfits.

Eliminate Possibilities
Problem:

Alex is younger than 60 years of age. When you add the digits of his age the
sum is 9. His age lies between two prime numbers. If his age is a multiple of
6, how old is he?

Solution:

His age is divisible by 6 and less than 60. Only 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48,
54 are possible ages. If the sum of the digits of his age is 9, then we will have
to crush out (eliminate) some ages below:
If his age lies between two prime numbers, then we have to eliminate 36 and
54, as the number before 36 (which is 35) and the number after 54 (which is
55) are not prime. Remember that a number is prime only when its
factors are itself and 1.

The above leave us with only one possibility, that is 18. The number 18 is less
than 60, a multiple of 6, and the sum of its digits is 9. Hence, Alex is 18 years
of age

Use Direct Reasoning

Direct Reasoning is used to reach a valid conclusion from a series of
statements. Often, statements involving direct reasoning are of the form “If A
then B”. Once this statement is shown to be true, statement B will hold
whenever statement A does.

Statement:

If someone is driving at 80 MPH then he is breaking the Law. John is driving

at 80 MPH.

Conclusion:

Therefore, John is breaking the law.

Work Backwards
Problem:

Anne has a certain amount of money in her bank account on Friday morning.
During the day, she writes a check for $24.50, makes an ATM withdrawal of
$80 and deposit a check for $235. If after all these three transactions, the
remaining balance in her bank account was $451.25, how much money did
she have in the bank at the beginning of the day?

Solution: (Remaining balance-deposit made + withdrawals done)

=451.25-235+80+24.50

=320.75

Answer:

Anne had $320.75 in her account at the beginning of the day on Friday.
 Use a Model
Chan had 28 blocks. If she stacked them in rows starting with seven blocks
and subtract one block from each new row, how many rows would she need
to use all these blocks?

Study the figure below. The bottom row has 7 blocks and the topmost row has
only 1 block.

Chan would need 7 rows.

Use Logical Reasoning

Marco is shorter than Albert. Nico is shorter than Kyra who is shorter than
Albert. Albert and Nico are shorter than Gail. Who is the tallest?

a. Marco

b. Albert

c. Nico

d. Kyra

e. Gail

f. Cannot Say

Gail is the tallest of them all.

Test Yourself

Applying the strategies of problem solving, answer the following and show
your solution.

1. At the grocery store, a bottle of olive oil costs 7 euro. At the supermarket,
a bottle of olive oil costs 2 euro more than at the grocery store. If you need
to buy 7 bottles of olive oil, how much will you pay at the supermarket?

2. A pen and a pencil cost €5.10. The pen costs €5 more than the pencil.
How much does each cost?

3. Find the sum of the all the whole numbers from 1 and 200.

4. A rectangular garden is 12m by 5m. What is the area?

5. Kyra and Joe play tennis. On the weekend, Kyra played 4 more games
than Joe did, and together they played 12 games. How many games did Alex
play?

6. Clinton bought a shirt on sale for $18, which is one half the original price.
What was the original price of the shirt?

7. Chia asked her Aunt Amber how old she was. She said she would give her
3 clues and see if she could guess her age. Aunt Amber advised Chia to write
out all the possible answers and then eliminate answers that did not fit.

Clue #1: I’m between 19 and 30

Clue #2: I’m a multiple of 3

Clue #3: I’m an even number

So how old is Aunt Amber?

8. If three miles is equivalent to 4.83 kilometers, then 11.27kms is

equivalent to how many miles?
 The Nth-Term Formula for a Sequence
In Lesson 2 on “Symmetry”, you were reviewed about the two kinds of
sequences, namely, arithmetic and geometric. In an arithmetic sequence,
every term after the 1st is obtained by adding a constant number to the
term immediately preceding it. While in a geometric sequence, every term
after the 1st term is obtained by multiplying a constant number to the term
immediately preceding it. Observe the following examples.

1. Arithmetic Sequence

Study the sequence 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16,.... You will observe that

4 is obtained by adding 3 to 1
7 is obtained by adding 3 to 4
10 is obtained by adding 3 to 7, and so forth.

The number 3, the number that is being added constantly is

called the common difference, and is represented by the letter
d.

In this sequence, 1 is the 1st term; 4 is the 2nd term; 7 is the 3rd
term, and so forth. In symbols, we represent the:

1st term as a1
2nd term as a2
3rd term as a3, and so forth.

As you have done it, it is easy to find the next three terms of the
sequence. But, how about finding the 20th term? the 50th term? or
any nth term? Do we have a formula? Of course, we have the
following formula.

an = a1 + d(n-1)

Where, an = the nth term

a1 = the 1st term
d = the common difference

In our example, the 1st term is 1 and the common difference is

3. Substituting these values in the formula, we have
an = a1 + d(n-1)
= 1 + 3(n-1)
= 1 + 3n-3
an = 3n-2 as the nth-term formula.

Let us check our nth-term formula.

1. The 4th term is 10. Using our nth-term formula,
an = 3n-2
a4 = 3(4)-2
a4 = 10, the 4th term is still 10.
2. The 6th term is 16. Using our nth-term formula,
an = 3n-2
a6 = 3(6)-2
a6 = 16, the 6th term is still 16.

Sample Problem
Given the sequence 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21,...
1. Find the nth term.
2. What is the 25th term? 33rd term?
3. Which term is 241? (Or what is the position of the term “241”)

Solutions
1. Use the nth-term formula. The 1st term is 1 and the common
difference or d is 4. So,
an = a1 + d(n-1)
= 1 + 4(n-1)
= 1 + 4n-4
an = 4n-3
2. In this problem, we use the nth-term formula an = 4n-3, and
substitute the given positions (25 and 33).
a. a25 = 4(25)-3 = 100-3 = 97 (The 25th term is 97.)
b. a33 = 4(33)-3 = 132-3 = 129 (The 33rd term is 129.)

3. To find the position of the term “241”, we still use our nth-
term formula an = 4n-3 and replace an with 241. So,
an = 4n-3
241= 4n-3
241+3 = 4n (Transpose 3 from right side to left side)
244 4𝑛
=
4 4
61 = n (241 is the 61st term of the given sequence.)

Exercise 3.2.1
1. Given the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17,..., find
a. the nth-term formula
b. the 23rd term? the 40th term?
c. the position of the term “227”?
2. If the sequence is -1, 3, 7, 11, 15, 19,..., find
a. the nth-term formula
b. the 22nd term? the 41st term?
c. the position of the term “319”?
 3. Of the sequence -8, -3, 2, 7, 12, 17,...,find
a. the nth-term formula
b. the 20th term? the 48th term?
c. the position of the term “437”?

B. Geometric Sequence
Examine the sequence 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32,.... You will note that

2 is obtained by multiplying 2 to 1
4 is obtained by multiplying 2 to 2
8 is obtained by multiplying 2 to 4, and so forth.

The number 2, the number that is being multiplied constantly

is called the common ratio, and is represented by the letter r .

In this sequence, 1 is the 1st term; 2 is the 2nd term; 4 is the 3rd
term, and so forth. In symbols, we represent the:

1st term as a1
2nd term as a2
3rd term as a3, and so forth.

As you have done it, it is easy to find the next three terms of the
sequence. But, how about finding the 15th term? the 25th term? or
any nth term? Do we have a formula? Of course, we have the
following formula.

an = a1 (rn-1)

Where, an = the nth term

a1 = the 1st term
r = the common ratio

In our example, the 1st term is 1 and the common ratio is 2.

Substituting these values in the formula, we have
an = a1 (rn-1)
= 1 (2n-1)
an = 2n-1 as the nth-term formula.

Let us check our nth-term formula.

1. The 4th term is 8. Using our nth-term formula,

an = 2n-1
a4 = 24-1
a4 = 23 = 8 , the 4th term is still 8.
2. The 6th term is 32. Using our nth-term formula,
 an = 2n-1
a6 = 26-1
a6 = 25 = 32 , the 6th term is still 32.

Sample Problem
Given the sequence 1, 3, 9, 27,...
1. Find the nth term.
2. What is the 6th term? 8th term?

Solutions
1. Use the nth-term formula. The 1st term is 1 and the common
ratio or r is 3. So,

an = a1 (rn-1)
= 1 (3n-1)
an = 3n-1 as the nth-term formula.
2. In this problem, we use the nth-term formula an = 3n-1, and
substitute the given positions (6 and 8).
a. an = 3n-1 = 36-1 = 35 = 32 (33) = 9 (27) = 243
b. an = 3n-1 = 38-1 = 37 = 34 (33) = 81(27) = 2,187

Exercise 3.2.2

1. Given the sequence 2, 4, 8, 16, 32,...,

a. Find the nth term.
b. What is the 8th term? the 12th term?
2. If the sequence is 1, 3, 9, 27, 81,...,
a. Find the nth term.
b. What is the 7th term? the 10th term?
 STATISTICS
It is a branch of mathematics with its own concepts, methods and values,
which find many applications in geography and other disciplines. The basic
aim of this lesson is to provide methods of organizing and simplifying data
so that their significance is comprehensible.

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Comprehend the concepts on the measures of central tendency for

ungrouped data values and the measures of dispersion for samples of a
population.
2. Find the mean, median, and mode of a set of values or numbers.
3. Determine the weighted mean.
4. Compute the range, standard deviation, and variance of population
samples.
5. Appreciate the importance of these statistical tools in analyzing raw data
and making decisions.

Measures of Central Tendency

In statistics, the three most common measures of central tendency are the
mean, median, and mode. Each of these measures calculates the location of
the central point using a different method.

Mean

• Otherwise known as the arithmetic average, it is probably the measure

of central tendency that you are most familiar with.
• Calculating the mean is very simple. Just add up all of the values and
divide the sum by the number of values.
• The calculation of the mean incorporates all values in the data. If you
change any value, the mean changes.

Example: Let’s say that the following are your grades when you graduated
from high school:

English - 89
Mathematics - 85
Science - 90
Filipino - 92
Aral Pan - 87
MAPEH - 95
TLE - 88
Values - 91
 89+85+90+92+87+95+88+91 717
Your mean or average = = = 89.625
8 8

Many times, it is necessary to find the sum of a set of numbers. The

usual way of indicating a summation is by using the Greek letter sigma, Σ.
Thus, Σx, called the summation notation, indicates the sum of all the
numbers in a given set.

The mean or average of n is the sum of the numbers divided by n.

Σx
In symbols, mean = .
𝑛

In many cases, small portions of a large group are used to obtain

information about the entire group. The entire group is known as the
population while the small portions are known as the samples. The mean of
a sample is denoted by x̄ (which is read as “x bar”) while the mean of a
population is denoted by the Greek letter µ (lower case mu).

Exercise 4.1.1

Find the mean of each of the following.

1. The following are the grades of six biology students: 92, 84, 65, 76,
88, 90.
2. The blood cholesterol levels of a patient are 245, 235, 220, 210.
3. The price of one bottle of alcohol from 7 stores are 90, 95, 75, 80,
85, 87, 83.

EXTRA. (If you can not answer, not counted; but if you can answer,
EXTRA points.)

Johnny was told by his adviser, Mr. Canlas, that his average upon
graduation from high school is 87. He had 8 subjects but he was given
the grades of only 5 subjects, namely: 90,86,89,88, and 85. What do
you think is his average for the remaining 3 subjects? Show your
solution.

Median

• The middle value

• It is the value that splits the dataset in half.
• To find the median, arrange your data from smallest to largest or from
largest to smallest. The median is the middle value if the number of
values is odd; the median is the mean of the two middle values if the
number of values is even.
 Examples:
A. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 - the number of values is odd; the middle value
is 4. Hence 4 is the median.
B. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 - the number of values is even; the middle
values are 4 and 5. Hence, the mean of 4 and 5, which is 4.5 is the
median.

Exercise 4.1.2

Find the median of each of the following.

1. 4, 8, 1, 14, 9, 21, 12
2. 46, 23, 92, 89, 77, 108
3. 14, 27, 3, 82, 64, 34, 8, 51
4. 21.3, 37.4, 11.6, 82.5, 17.2

Mode

• The value that occurs most frequently in a list of values.

Example. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 3 - 3 is the mode because it occurs more
frequently than any other number in the list.

• If the list has multiple values that are tied for occurring the most
frequently, then we have a multimodal distribution.

Example. 4, 2, 6, 2, 7, 9, 2, 4, 9, 8, 9, 7.
Arrange first the numbers from smallest to largest – 2, 2, 2, 4, 4, 6, 7,
7, 8, 9, 9, 9. The number 2 occurs three times and the number 9 also
occurs three times. Hence, 2 and 9 are the modes for this list. As such
this list is multimodal.

Note: 4 and 7 occur twice, but these are overridden by 2 and 9 which
occur three times.

• If no number occurs more often than the other numbers, the list does
not have a mode.

Exercise 4.1.3

Find the mode of each of the following.

1. 18, 15, 21, 16, 15, 14, 15, 21
2. 2, 5, 8, 9, 11, 4, 7, 23
3. 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 8
4. 12, 34, 12, 71, 48, 93, 71
The Weighted Mean
• Many times, some data values are more important than others.
• In these instances, we use the weighted mean.
• The weighted mean, in a way, is similar to the arithmetic mean. The
only difference is that, in the weighted mean, we multiply each value
or number by the weight assigned to it, get the sum of all the products,
and divide the sum by the total number of weights.

The weighted mean of the n numbers x1, x2, x3, ..., xn with the
respective assigned weights w1, w2, w3, ..., wn is

Σ(x.w)
Weighted mean =
Σw

where Σ(x. w) is the sum of the products formed by multiplying each

number by its assigned weight, and Σw is the sum of all the weights.

Example.

Mark is a student in Diploma in Tourism Technology. The

following are his subjects and corresponding grades. Note that nine
subjects have a weight of 3 units each, while only one subject has a
weight of 2 units. Find his GPA (Grade Point Average).

Subjects Grades Unit xw

(x) s
(w)
Purposive Communication 88 3 264
Understanding the Self 87 3 261
Tourism and Hospitality 1 90 3 270
Local Guiding 60 hrs. 92 3 276
Contact Center Services NC II 108 hrs. 89 3 267
Mathematics in the Modern World 86 3 258
Readings in Phil. History 86 3 258
Self-Testing Activity 89 2 178
Local Guiding 100 hrs. 91 3 273
Basic Computer Concepts and Operation 90 3 270
Σ(x. w) = 2,575

Σw = 29
Σ(x.w) 2,575
Weighted mean = = = 88.79 (GPA)
Σw 29
Exercise 4.1.4
Cherry is a classmate of Mark in DTOT. The following are her
subjects and corresponding grades. Find her GPA.

Subjects Grades Unit

(x) s
(w)
Purposive Communication 90 3
Understanding the Self 87 3
Tourism and Hospitality 1 90 3
Local Guiding 60 hrs. 92 3
Contact Center Services NC II 108 hrs. 91 3
Mathematics in the Modern World 88 3
Readings in Phil. History 89 3
Self-Testing Activity 89 2
Local Guiding 100 hrs. 92 3
Basic Computer Concepts and Operation 90 3

Exercise 4.1.5
Find the mean, median, and mode(s), if any for each of the following.

1. 2, 7, 5, 7, 14
2. 8, 3, 3, 17, 9, 22, 19
3. 11, 8, 2, 5, 17, 39, 52, 42
4. 101, 88, 74, 60, 12, 94, 74, 85
5. 2.1, 4.6, 8.2, 3.4, 5.6, 8.0, 9.4, 12.2, 56.1, 78.2

Measures of Dispersion

The Range

Average values do not necessarily reflect the spread or

dispersion of data. Observe the following two sets of grades.

1. 95, 92, 86, 94, 79, 88

2. 88, 91, 89, 88, 90, 88

The two sets of grades have the same average, which is 89.
But, in which set do you find consistency? Of course, you would
say the 2nd set because the grades are not widely spread, meaning,
the highest grade and the lowest grade do not differ much (which is
only 3), in contrast to the 1st set wherein the difference between 95
and 79 is 16.
 To measure the spread or dispersion of data, we use the range
and standard deviation.

The range of a set of values or numbers is the difference

between the greatest value and the smallest value.

Standard Deviation
As you have noticed, it is easy to compute the range, but it can
be misleading as it does not give information about the spread of
each value from the mean. It depends only on two extreme values,
and as such it is very sensitive. The standard deviation is a measure
of dispersion which does not depend on extreme values. It makes
use of the amount by which each individual value or number
deviates or differs from the mean. These deviations, represented by
(x-x̄), are positive when the value x is greater than the mean x̄ and
are negative when the value x is less than the mean. As you will
notice later on, the sum of all these deviations is 0 for any set of
values. Hence, we can not use the sum of all the deviations as a
measure of dispersion. The standard deviation uses, instead, the
sum of the squares of the deviations.

Standard Deviations for Samples

If x1, x2, x3, …, xn is a sample of n numbers with a mean of x̄,

Σ(x−x̄)2
then the standard deviation of the sample is s = √ .
𝑛−1

Example Find the Standard Deviation

Let us take the following: 95, 92, 86, 94, 79, 88

Solution

Step 1: The mean of the numbers is

95+92+86+94+79+88 534
x̄ = = = 89
6 6

Step 2: For each number, calculate the deviation (difference)

between the number and the mean.

x x-x̄
95 95 - 89 = 6
92 92 - 89 = 3
86 86 - 89 = -3
94 94 – 89 = 5
79 79 – 89 = -10
88 88 – 89 = -1
 Step 3: Calculate the square of each deviation (difference) in Step
2, and find the sum of these squared deviations (differences).

x x-x̄ (x − x̄ )2
95 95 - 89 = 6 62 = 36
92 92 - 89 = 3 32 = 9
86 86 - 89 = -3 (-3)2 = 9
94 94 – 89 = 5 52 = 25
79 79 – 89 = -10 (-10)2 = 100
88 88 – 89 = -1 (-1)2 = 1
Σ(x − x̄ )2= 180

Step 4: Because we have a sample of n = 6 values, divide the

sum 180 by n -1, which is 5.

180
= 36
5

Step 5: The standard deviation of the sample is s = √36 = 6.

The Variance

Another statistical tool used to measure dispersion is the

variance. For a given set of data, the variance is the square of the
standard deviation of the data.

In the preceding set of data values, the standard deviation

of the sample is s = √36 = 6. To get the variance of this sample, we
square its standard deviation. So, 62 = 36 = the variance of this
sample.

Exercise 4.1.6
Find the range, the standard deviation, and the variance of
each of the following samples. Round decimals to the nearest tenth
(ex. 20.15 20.2; 11.34 11.3).

1. 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 19, 22
2. 3, 4, 7, 11, 12, 12, 15, 16
3. 2.1, 3.0, 1.9, 1.5, 4.8
4. 5.2, 11.7, 19.1, 3.7, 8.2, 16.3
5. 48, 91, 87, 93, 59, 68, 92, 100, 81