Course: Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities

Topic 5: Mass, force and torque measurement

5.1 Mass (weight) measurement

Mass describes the quantity of matter that a body contains. Load cells are the most
common instrument used to measure mass, especially in industrial applications. Most load
cells are now electronic, although pneumatic and hydraulic types also exist. The alternatives
to load cells are either mass-balance instruments or the spring balance.
5.1.1 Electronic load cell (electronic balance)
In an electronic load cell, the gravitational force on the body being measured is applied
to an elastic element. This deflects according to the magnitude of the body mass. Mass
measurement is thereby translated into a displacement measurement task. Electronic load cells
have significant advantages over most other forms of mass-measuring instrument in terms of
their relatively low cost, wide measurement range, tolerance of dusty and corrosive
environments, remote measurement capability, tolerance of shock loading and ease of
installation. The electronic load cell uses the physical principle that a force applied to an
elastic element produces a measurable deflection. The elastic elements used are specially
shaped and designed, some examples of which are shown in Figure 5.1.

Fig. 5.1 Elastic elements used in load cells.

The design aims are to obtain a linear output relationship between the applied force
and the measured deflection and to make the instrument insensitive to forces that are not
applied directly along the sensing axis. Load cells exist in both compression and tension
forms. In the compression type, the measured mass is placed on top of a platform resting on
the load cell, which therefore compresses the cell. In the alternative tension type, the mass is
hung from the load cell, thereby putting the cell into tension.
One problem that can affect the performance of load cells is the phenomenon of creep.
Creep describes the permanent deformation that an elastic element undergoes after it has been
under load for a period of time. This can lead to significant measurement errors in the form of
a bias on all readings if the instrument is not recalibrated from time to time. However, careful
design and choice of materials can largely eliminate the problem.Various types of

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displacement transducer are used to measure the deflection of the elastic elements. Of these,
the strain gauge is used most commonly, since this gives the best measurement accuracy, with
an inaccuracy figure less than ±0.05% of full-scale reading being obtainable. Load cells
including strain gauges are used to measure masses over a very wide range between 0 and
3000 tonnes. The measurement capability of an individual instrument designed to measure
masses at the bottom end of this range would typically be 0.1–5 kg, whereas instruments
designed for the top of the range would have a typical measurement span of 10–3000 tonnes.
Elastic force transducers based on differential transformers (LVDTs) to measure
defections are used to measure masses up to 25 tonnes. Apart from having a lower maximum
measuring capability, they are also inferior to strain gauge-based instruments in terms of their
±0.2% inaccuracy figure. Their major advantage is their longevity and almost total lack of
maintenance requirements.
The final type of displacement transducer used in this class of instrument is the
piezoelectric device. Such instruments are used to measure masses in the range 0 to 1000
tonnes. Piezoelectric crystals replace the specially designed elastic member normally used in
this class of instrument, allowing the device to be physically small. As discussed previously,
such devices can only measure dynamically changing forces because the output reading
results from an induced electrical charge whose magnitude leaks away with time. The fact that
the elastic element consists of the piezoelectric crystal means that it is very difficult to design
such instruments to be insensitive to forces applied at an angle to the sensing axis. Therefore,
special precautions have to be taken in applying these devices. Although such instruments are
relatively cheap, their lowest inaccuracy is ±1% of full-scale reading, and they also have a
high temperature coefficient.

Fig. 5.2 Load-cell-based electronic balance.

The electronic balance is a device that contains several compression-type load cells, as
illustrated in Figure 5.2. Commonly, either three or four load cells are used in the balance,
with the output mass measurement being formed from the sum of the outputs of each cell.
Where appropriate, the upper platform can be replaced by a tank for weighing liquids,
powders etc.
5.1.2 Pneumatic/hydraulic load cells
Pneumatic and hydraulic load cells translate mass measurement into a pressure
measurement task. A pneumatic load cell is shown schematically in Figure 5.3. Application of
a mass to the cell causes deflection of a diaphragm acting as a variable restriction in a nozzle–
flapper mechanism. The output pressure measured in the cell is approximately proportional to
the magnitude of the gravitational force on the applied mass.

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 Fig. 5.3 Pneumatic load cell.
The instrument requires a flow of air at its input of around 0.25 m3/hour at a pressure
of 4 bar. Standard cells are available to measure a wide range of masses. For measuring small
masses, instruments are available with a full-scale reading of 25 kg, whilst at the top of the
range, instruments with a full-scale reading of 25 tonnes are obtainable.
Inaccuracy is typically ±0.5% of full scale in pneumatic load cells. The alternative,
hydraulic load cell is shown in Figure 5.4. In this, the gravitational force due to the unknown
mass is applied, via a diaphragm, to oil contained within an enclosed chamber. The
corresponding increase in oil pressure is measured by a suitable pressure transducer. These
instruments are designed for measuring much larger masses than pneumatic cells, with a load
capacity of 500 tonnes being common. Special units can be obtained to measure masses as
large as 50 000 tonnes.

Fig. 5.4 Hydraulic load cell.

Besides their much greater measuring range, hydraulic load cells are much more
accurate than pneumatic cells, with an inaccuracy figure of ±0.05% of full scale being typical.
However, in order to obtain such a level of accuracy, correction for the local value of g
(acceleration due to gravity) is necessary. A measurement resolution of 0.02% is attainable.
5.1.3 Intelligent load cells
Intelligent load cells are formed by adding a microprocessor to a standard cell. This
brings no improvement in accuracy because the load cell is already a very accurate device.
What it does produce is an intelligent weighing system that can compute total cost from the
measured weight, using stored cost per unit weight information, and provide an output in the
form of a digital display. Cost per weight figures can be pre-stored for a large number of
substances, making such instruments very flexible in their operation.
In applications where the mass of an object is measured by several load cells used
together (for example, load cells located at the corners of a platform in an electronic balance),
the total mass can be computed more readily if the individual cells have a microprocessor
providing digital output. In addition, it is also possible to use significant differences in the
relative readings between different load cells as a fault detection mechanism in the system.

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 5.1.4 Mass-balance (weighing) instruments
Mass-balance instruments are based on comparing the gravitational force on the
measured mass with the gravitational force on another body of known mass. This principle of
mass measurement is commonly known as weighing, and is used in instruments like the beam
balance, weigh beam, pendulum scale and electromagnetic balance.
Beam balance (equal-arm balance)
In the beam balance, shown in Figure 5.5, standard masses are added to a pan on one
side of a pivoted beam until the magnitude of the gravity force on them balances the
magnitude of the gravitational force on the unknown mass acting at the other end of the beam.
This equilibrium position is indicated by a pointer that moves against a calibrated scale.

Fig. 5.5 Beam balance (equal-arm balance).

Instruments of this type are capable of measuring a wide span of masses. Those at the
top of the range can typically measure masses up to 1000 grams whereas those at the bottom
end of the range can measure masses of less than 0.01 gram. Measurement resolution can be
as good as 1 part in 107 of the full-scale reading if the instrument is designed and
manufactured very carefully. The lowest measurement inaccuracy figure attainable is
±0.002%.
One serious disadvantage of this type of instrument is its lack of ruggedness.
Continuous use and the inevitable shock loading that will occur from time to time both cause
damage to the knife edges, leading to problems in measurement accuracy and resolution.
A further problem in industrial use is the relatively long time needed to make each
measurement. For these reasons, the beam balance is normally reserved as a calibration
standard and is not used in day-to-day production environments.
Weigh beam
The weigh beam, sketched in two alternative forms in Figure 5.6, operates on similar
principles to the beam balance but is much more rugged. In the first form, standard masses are
added to balance the unknown mass and fine adjustment is provided by a known mass that is
moved along a notched, graduated bar until the pointer is brought to the null, balance point.

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 Fig. 5.6 Two alternative forms of weigh beam.
The alternative form has two or more graduated bars (three bars shown in Figure 5.6).
Each bar carries a different standard mass and these are moved to appropriate positions on the
notched bar to balance the unknown mass. Versions of these instruments are used to measure
masses up to 50 tonnes.
Pendulum scale
The pendulum scale, sketched in Figure 5.7, is another instrument that works on the
mass-balance principle. The unknown mass is put on a platform that is attached by steel tapes
to a pair of cams. Downward motion of the platform, and hence rotation of the cams, under
the influence of the gravitational force on the mass, is opposed by the gravitational force
acting on two pendulum type masses attached to the cams. The amount of rotation of the cams
when the equilibrium position is reached is determined by the deflection of a pointer against a
scale. The shape of the cams is such that this output deflection is linearly proportional to the
applied mass.

Fig. 5.7 Pendulum scale.

This instrument is particularly useful in some applications because it is a relatively
simple matter to replace the pointer and scale system by a rotational displacement transducer
that gives an electrical output. Various versions of the instrument can measure masses in the
range between 1 kg and 500 tonnes, with a typical measurement inaccuracy of ±0.1%.
One potential source of difficulty with the instrument is oscillation of the weigh
platform when the mass is applied. Where necessary, in instruments measuring larger masses,
dashpots are incorporated into the cam system to damp out such oscillations.
A further possible problem can arise, mainly when measuring large masses, if the
mass is not placed centrally on the platform. This can be avoided by designing a second
platform to hold the mass, which is hung from the first platform by knife edges. This lessens
the criticality of mass placement.
Electromagnetic balance

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 The electromagnetic balance uses the torque developed by a current-carrying coil
suspended in a permanent magnetic field to balance the unknown mass against the known
gravitational force produced on a standard mass, as shown in Figure 5.8. A light source and
detector system is used to determine the null balance point. The voltage output from the light
detector is amplified and applied to the coil, thus creating a servosystem where the deflection
of the coil in equilibrium is proportional to the applied force. Its advantages over beam
balances, weigh beams and pendulum scales include its smaller size, its insensitivity to
environmental changes (modifying inputs) and its electrical form of output.

Fig. 5.8 Electromagnetic balance.

5.1.5 Spring balance
Spring balances provide a method of mass measurement that is both simple and cheap.
The mass is hung on the end of a spring and the deflection of the spring due to the downwards
gravitational force on the mass is measured against a scale. Because the characteristics of the
spring are very susceptible to environmental changes, measurement accuracy is usually
relatively poor. However, if compensation is made for the changes in spring characteristics,
then a measurement inaccuracy less than ±0.2% is achievable. According to the design of the
instrument, masses between 0.5 kg and 10 tonnes can be measured.

5.2 Force measurement

If a force of magnitude, F, is applied to a body of mass, M, the body will accelerate at
a rate, A, according to the equation:
F = MA
The standard unit of force is the Newton, this being the force that will produce an
acceleration of one metre per second squared in the direction of the force when it is applied to
a mass of one kilogram. One way of measuring an unknown force is therefore to measure the
acceleration when it is applied to a body of known mass.
An alternative technique is to measure the variation in the resonant frequency of a
vibrating wire as it is tensioned by an applied force.
5.2.1 Use of accelerometers
The technique of applying a force to a known mass and measuring the acceleration
produced can be carried out using any type of accelerometer. Unfortunately, the method is of
very limited practical value because, in most cases, forces are not free entities but are part of a
system (from which they cannot be decoupled) in which they are acting on some body that is
not free to accelerate. However, the technique can be of use in measuring some transient
forces, and also for calibrating the forces produced by thrust motors in space vehicles.
5.2.2 Vibrating wire sensor

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 This instrument, illustrated in Figure 5.9, consists of a wire that is kept vibrating at its
resonant frequency by a variable-frequency oscillator. The resonant frequency of a wire under
tension is given by:

where M is the mass per unit length of the wire, L is the length of the wire, and T is the
tension due to the applied force, F. Thus, measurement of the output frequency of the
oscillator allows the force applied to the wire to be calculated.

Fig. 5.9 Vibrating-wire sensor.

5.3 Torque measurement

Measurement of applied torques is of fundamental importance in all rotating bodies to
ensure that the design of the rotating element is adequate to prevent failure under shear
stresses. Torque measurement is also a necessary part of measuring the power transmitted by
rotating shafts. The three traditional methods of measuring torque consist of (i) measuring the
reaction force in cradled shaft bearings, (ii) the ‘Prony brake’ method and (iii) measuring the
strain produced in a rotating body due to an applied torque. However, recent developments in
electronics and optic-fibre technology now offer an alternative method as described in
paragraph 5.3.4 below.
5.3.1 Reaction forces in shaft bearings
Any system involving torque transmission through a shaft contains both a power
source and a power absorber where the power is dissipated. The magnitude of the transmitted
torque can be measured by cradling either the power source or the power absorber end of the
shaft in bearings, and then measuring the reaction force, F, and the arm length L, as shown in
Figure 5.10. The torque is then calculated as the simple product, FL. Pendulum scales are very
commonly used for measuring the reaction force. Inherent errors in the method are bearing
friction and windage torques.

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 Fig. 5.10 Measuring reaction forces in cradled shaft bearings.
5.3.2 Prony brake
The principle of the Prony brake is illustrated in Figure 5.11.

Fig. 5.11 The Prony brake.

It is used to measure the torque in a rotating shaft and consists of a rope wound round
the shaft. One end of the rope is attached to a spring balance and the other end carries a load
in the form of a standard mass, m. If the measured force in the spring balance is Fs, then the
effective force, Fe, exerted by the rope on the shaft is given by:
Fe = mg – Fs
If the radius of the shaft is Rs and that of the rope is Rr, then the effective radius, Re, of
the rope and drum with respect to the axis of rotation of the shaft is given by:
Re = Rs + Rr
The torque in the shaft, T, can then be calculated as:
T = FeRe
Whilst this is a well-known method of measuring shaft torque, a lot of heat is
generated because of friction between the rope and shaft, and water cooling is usually
necessary.
5.3.3 Measurement of induced strain
Measuring the strain induced in a shaft due to an applied torque has been the most
common method used for torque measurement in recent years. It is a very attractive method
because it does not disturb the measured system by introducing friction torques in the same
way as the last two methods described do. The method involves bonding four strain gauges
onto the shaft as shown in Figure 5.12, where the strain gauges are arranged in a d.c. bridge
circuit. The output from the bridge circuit is a function of the strain in the shaft and hence of

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the torque applied. It is very important that the positioning of the strain gauges on the shaft is
precise, and the difficulty in achieving this makes the instrument relatively expensive.
The technique is ideal for measuring the stalled torque in a shaft before rotation
commences. However, a problem is encountered in the case of rotating shafts because a
suitable method then has to be found for making the electrical connections to the strain
gauges. One solution to this problem found in many commercial instruments is to use a
system of slip rings and brushes for this, although this increases the cost of the instrument still
further.

Fig. 5.12 Position of torque-measuring strain gauges on shaft.

5.3.4 Optical torque measurement
Optical techniques for torque measurement have become available recently with the
development of laser diodes and fibre-optic light transmission systems. One such system is
shown in Figure 5.13. Two black-and-white striped wheels are mounted at either end of the
rotating shaft and are in alignment when no torque is applied to the shaft. Light from a laser
diode light source is directed by a pair of optic-fibre cables onto the wheels. The rotation of
the wheels causes pulses of reflected light and these are transmitted back to a receiver by a
second pair of fibre-optic cables. Under zero torque conditions, the two pulse trains of
reflected light are in phase with each other.

Fig. 5.13 Optical torque measurement.

If torque is now applied to the shaft, the reflected light is modulated. Measurement by
the receiver of the phase difference between the reflected pulse trains therefore allows the
magnitude of torque in the shaft to be calculated. The cost of such instruments is relatively
low, and an additional advantage in many applications is their small physical size.

5.4. Multi-Axis Force/Torque Sensors

5.4.1. What is a Six-Axis Force/Torque Transducer?
A device that measures the outputting forces and torques from all three Cartesian
Coordinates (x, y, and z). A six-axis force/torque transducer is also known as a multi-
axisforce/torque transducer, multi-axis load cell, F/T sensor, or six-axis load cell.
Force/Torque (F/T) sensors are critical components of robotic applications in electrical and

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mechanical assembly, product testing, material handling, and many other applications. A
sensor system helps robots verify part insertion; hold constant force during buffing, polishing,
and deburring; and collect force information for lot testing and statistical process control
(SPC).
The robotic sensor system consists of a transducer mounted on the robot and a sensor
interface controller connected to the transducer by a high-flex cable. The transducer converts
force and torque loading into strain-gage signals and transmits them to the sensor controller.
The sensor controller collects transducer strain gage vectors, performs computations, and
outputs F/T data directly to the robot.
Depending on the user’s requirements, selecting the correct sensor system may be a
challenge. Thus, the most important activity to complete before selecting the actual
components of a sensor system is identifying the application. Questions that need to be
answered are:
• How will the robot be used?
• What range of force will it experience?
• What are the environmental conditions?
Once the application is clearly identified, focus shifts to the components that will
make up the sensor system, namely transducers and sensor controllers.
Transducers
The first step in selecting a transducer is to calculate the expected moment and forces.
Moment capacity is usually the determining factor when choosing the best transducer
for a robotic application. The end effector, or mechanical tool, attached to the transducer will
generate forces as it performs its task. The distance of the applied force from the transducer
will result in a moment, or the applied force multiplied by the distance from the transducer
origin to the point at which the force is applied (Figure 5.14). It is important to consider
overload conditions as well as normal operating forces and moments the transducer will
experience. Robots are typically overpowered for an application and the robot is capable of
exerting loads many times its rated loading. During a crash, for example, the inertia of the
sudden deceleration can generate large loads and force of impact. A robot can generate
deceleration of 5gs during an E-Stop (Emergency Stop) event.

Figure 5.14. F/T sensor mounted in the robor wrist

The strain gage sensing technology used can also influence the transducer’s factor of
safety. Transducers using high output strain gages can be designed to withstand higher

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overload conditions than designs using lower output strain gages. High output strain gages
can also have lower noise levels since they require less signal amplification. Silicon
straingages provide a signal 75 times stronger than conventional foil gages.
Next, transducer capacity needs to be determined. Specific information required to
select the correct transducer model and calibration include: minimum and maximum Forces
(Fx, Fy, Fz), minimum and maximum torques (Tx, Ty, Tz), weight, diameter, and height.
The third step is to verify the resolution and accuracy requirements of the application
verses those of the transducer under consideration. A fine resolution requirement can conflict
with a transducer chosen based on moment capacity. Transducers with larger ranges have
coarser resolutions. The output resolution of a transducer is much finer than its absolute
accuracy — be sure the absolute accuracy fits the application. Like single-axis load cells, six
degree of freedom transducers have their absolute accuracy expressed as a percentage of their
full-scale load for each axis.
A specific transducer should be apparent after completing the previous steps. Compare
the detailed description of the transducer with application parameters to optimize
performance.. It is also important to identify likely situations that could overload the
transducer and verify that the transducer will not be damaged during these overloads.
Sensor Controllers
Sensor controllers receive information from the transducer and produce resolved force
and torque data. Onboard software calculates the output data by multiplying the strain-gage
vector by a calibration matrix to form the F/T data consisting of three orthogonal forces (Fx,
Fy, Fz) and torques (Tx, Ty, Tz) (See Figure 5.14). The force and torque data can be
transmitted to the robot and serve as signals needed for the robot to perform the intended
function.
Most commercially available sensor controllers provide the following functionality:
• Outputs all six axes of load data (Fx, Fy, Fz, Tx, Ty, Tz).
• Tool transformations allow movement of the center of origin to a user-specified location.
• Peak analysis allows minimum and maximum F/T values to be detected and stored.
• Biasing provides a convenient way to subtract unwanted loads from readings.
• Data filtering allows the user to minimize the effects of unwanted vibrations in the system.
• Programmable threshold monitoring with optically-isolated I/O connections provide high-
speed response to the robots discrete I/O panel.
Sensor controller selection is determined by the output resolution of the sensor
controller, the output format of the sensor controller, and available software to interface with
the sensor controller. Some sensor controllers provide better resolution and noise performance
than others. Commonly available output formats are: RS-232 (serial), analog voltage, and
computer-bus (ISA, PCI, etc.). Check with the manufacturer to see if interface software is
available to ease system integration
Two fundamental types of sensor controllers are available: stand-alone and computer
bus. The advantage of the stand-alone sensor controller is that it is self-powered and self-
contained. They typically communicate with the robot controller via RS-232 serial format
and/or via analog voltages. The sensor controller’s discrete I/O connections allow for easy
connection to PLCs and other industrial equipment.
The computer bus sensor controller is targeted to a specific type of computer
backplane and will plug into the robot or computer’s motherboard. Communication is
achieved through software drivers such as ActiveX for Windows platforms, or directly to its
I/O mapped registers. Since the computer bus sensor controller can be placed inside of the
robot system it has a much cleaner appearance than the stand-alone type.

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 Software provided by the sensor controller manufacturer can often display the F/T
information for all six degrees of freedom simultaneously on the computer screen, allowing
the user to easily modify different measurement parameters and determine the current loading.
The type of sensor controller selected is often dependent on how the F/T information
will be used. Sensor force and torque data can be used in several ways, such as data
collection/analysis, real-time force control, and threshold detection. A quick review of types
of data usage and corresponding sensor controller will help finalize the selection process.
Data Usage
For data collection, the computer bus sensor controller provides the easiest integration
for PC users. Installed in the PC, it communicates directly with standard operating
applications, such as LabView and Visual Basic. Data collection speeds can be influenced by
computer speed and the Windows operating system.
Real-time force control is attainable using the ISA bus sensor by simply integrating
with software drivers. All F/T data is available on the computer bus, allowing control
software instant access. If users are not working in a PC environment, analog outputs created
by stand-alone sensor controllers can be interfaced to any analog input card.
Force and torque threshold or limit detection is available on some types of sensor
controllers. This capability allows the sensor controller itself to monitor transducer loads for
specific loading conditions and notify the robot controller when the conditions have been met.
By moving this monitoring function to the sensor controller the robot controller is relieved of
the monitoring task. One example of this is to use the sensor controller to monitor for
dangerous loads. When a dangerous load condition is detected the sensor controller’s discrete
output triggers the robot’s E-Stop circuit.
Other Factors
The selected transducer must be electrically connected to its sensor controller. The
manufacturer usually provides a standard length cable assembly. The user, however, must
determine how much cable their application actually requires. Keep in mind that the cable
needs to reach from the sensor controller to the transducer in any robot position.
As previously stated, F/T Sensor systems are used in a variety of applications. Most
suppliers manufacture a rugged and extremely durable transducer, virtually eliminating this
aspect from the selection process, but it should still be taken in to consideration. Physical
attachments, mounting plates, and tool transformations are all factors that must be evaluated.
Mounting the transducer to the robot is facilitated by several options, such as quick
disconnects and standard or customized interface plates. Additional transducer options include
temperature operating ranges, multiple calibrations, and unique operating environment
requirements — nuclear radiation tolerance and MRI resistance for example. Custom
designed and built sensor models may be needed to meet specific applications.
Examples of the six-axis force/torque sensors of on of the most popular company in
the subjecet domain, ATI Industrial Automation, are shown in Figure 5.15

Figure 5.15 F/T sensor of ATI Industrial Automation

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 5.4.2. Applications of F/T sensors
Force/Torque (F/T) sensors are critical components of robotic applications in electrical
and mechanical assembly, product testing, material handling, and many other applications. A
sensor system helps robots verify part insertion (Figure 5.16); hold constant force during
buffing, polishing, and deburring (Figure 5.17); and collect force information for lot testing
and statistical process control (SPC).

Assembly Tasks

Evolution of Particles
Figure 5.16 Applications of the F/T sensors in mechanical assemby

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 Figure 5.17 Applications of the F/T sensors in deburring

Force/Torque (F/T) sensors find different applications in the health care systems, for
example in assistance of movements and therapy of people with disabilities (Figure 5.18),
assistance of rehabilitation therapy for motor recovery at stroke patients (Figure 5.19),
assistance of people with disabilities (Figure 5.20), assistance of surgery, including brain
surgery (Figure 5.21) and s.o.

KineAssist movement and therapy assistance robot (PTLLS, USA)

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 Wnere walking aid (KAIST, Korea)

Therapeutic robot MULOS (UK)

Therapeutic robotLocomat (Hocoma AG, Switzerland)

Figure 5.18 Assistance of movements and therapy of people with disabilities

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 REHAROB robotic therapy for motor recovery at stroke patients
Figure 5.19 Assistance of rehabilitation therapy for motor recovery at stroke patients

ea
KARES III care giving robot (KAIST, Korea)

MySpoon робот за хранене (SEKOM Ltd, Japan)

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 Handy 1 feeding robot (RehabRobotics Ltd, UK)bRobotics Ltd,

ARM Wheelchair assembled personal assistant robot (ExactDynamics, the Netherlands)

MANUS bedside robot (KAIST, Korea)

Figure 5.20 Assistance of people with disabilities
Brain surgery robots

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 Brain surgery robots Siemens, Germany

Intuitive surgery, USA

Figure 5.21 Assistance of surgery, including brain surgery(Neuromate,
5.4.3. Collaborative Applications
Some industrial robotic applications need a collaborative feature. In fact, using an
industrial robot in collaborative mode can have a lot of advantages. In collaborative mode you
can save programming time or redesign a robot path in a few minutes. Technology such as
Kinetiq Teaching use a force torque sensor to teach the robot how to do collaborative
welding. This technology saves significant time for the shop and a welding path can be
designed in a few minutes without deep programming knowledge.
Many applications uses force torque sensors, we can think about haptic technology
or teleoperation that both use force limiting operations to give the sense of touch to the human
operator through a mechanical interface or vice versa. Force torque sensors are probably the
next big advance in the robotic industry. So, make sure to investigate this subject and think
about how using this technology for your applications could improve your quality control by
making your applications more accurate and precise...and with less scrap.
5.4.4. Selecting an F/T System
1. Calculate expected moment and forces
Moment capacity is usually the determining factor in choosing the best transducer
model for your application. The end-effector attached to the transducer as well as the tasks
being performed will generate forces on the transducer, which will result in a moment. The
moment is the applied force (dynamic and static together) multiplied by the distance from the
transducer origin to the point at which the force is applied. It is important to also consider
overload conditions beyond the normal operating forces and moments the transducer will
experience.
2. Identify transducer strength
Use the table on our F/T Models page to compare the measuring ranges of the
transducer models available.
3. Verify resolution

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 Next, the required resolution should be considered. A fine resolution requirement can
conflict with a transducer chosen based on moment capacity. Transducers with larger ranges
have coarser resolutions
4. Inspect other transducer specifications
Compare the detailed specifications of the chosen transducer to those of your
application requirements to be certain the chosen transducer is appropriate for your
application.
Example:
The expected maximum measured load is 98 N (10 kg) of force and the end-effector is
25 cm long. The moment generated would be 24.5 Nm. The best F/T would be a Delta/SI-
330-30 (330 N, 30 Nm) which can handle the 24.5 Nm moment. The maximum single-axis
moment rating (Txy) of this model is 190 Nm, which should be sufficient for overload
situations.

References
1. Bela G. Liptak. Process Measurement and Analysis. Volume 1. Instrument Engineers'
Handbook, Fourth Edition, CRC PRESS, 2003.
2. Alan S. Morris. Measurement and Instrumentation Principles. Third Edition. Butterworth-
Heinemann, 2001
3. Alan S. Morris, Reza Langari. Measurement and Instrumentation Theory and Application.
Butterworth – Heinemann, 2012.

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