Single Phase AC Circuits Notes

Single phase AC circuits
By
Dr. Krishna Roy
Assistant Professor
Electrical Engineering Department
NITR
Syllabus
Single phase AC circuits:

Single phase emf generation
Average and effective values of sinusoids
Solution of R, L, C series circuits
j-operators
Solution of parallel and series-parallel circuits
Series -parallel resonance
2
Syllabus

j-operators
3
Single phase emf generation
4
Introduction
Alternating current: An DC
alternating current is the current
which changes periodically both
in magnitude and direction.
AC Pulsating DC5
Introduction
Types of AC waveforms:
Square Triangular Trapezoidal
6
Single Phase emf Generation
The machines which are used to generate electrical
voltages are called generators.
The generators which generate purely sinusoidal ac
voltages are called alternators.
7
The basic principle of an alternator is the principle of
electromagnetic induction.
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction, whenever there is a relative motion
between the conductor and the magnetic field in
which it is kept, an emf gets induced in the conductor.
8
The relative motion may exist because of movement
of conductors with respect to magnetic field or
movement of magnetic field with respect to
conductor.
9
10
11
The value of the generated voltage depends on:
i) Number of turns in the coil
ii) Strength of the field
iii)Speed of the coil or magnetic field rotation.
Therefore, the generated voltage can be expressed as,

e  Em sin   Em sin t
where,   2 f
12
Waveform terms and definitions
Cycle: Each repetition of a variable quantity, recurring

at equal intervals, is termed a cycle.
Period: The duration of one cycle is termed its period.
Instantaneous value: The magnitude of a waveform at
any instant in time (or position of rotation).
13
Peak value: The maximum instantaneous value

measured from its zero value is known as its peak
value.
Peak amplitude: The maximum instantaneous value
measured from the mean value of a waveform is the
peak amplitude. 14
Frequency: The number of cycles that occur in 1

second is termed the frequency of that quantity.
Frequency f is related to the period T by the relation,
1 where f is the frequency in hertz and T is
f  ;
T the period in seconds.
15
Syllabus

j-operators
16
Syllabus

j-operators
17
Average and effective values
of sinusoids
18
Average and effective values of
sinusoids
19
sinusoids
If n equidistant mid-
ordinates, i1, i2 , etc. are
taken over either the
positive or the negative
half-cycle, then average
value of current over
half a cycle is
i1  i 2  ......  i n
Iav 
n
Area enclosed over half-cycle
Alternatively, Iav 
Length of base over half-cycle
20
sinusoids
In a.c. work, the average
value is of
comparatively little
importance.
This is due to the fact
that it is the power
produced by the electric
current that usually
matters.
21
sinusoids
Thus, if the current
represented in figure is
passed through a resistor
having resistance R
ohms, the heating effect
of i1 is i12 R , that of i2 is i 22 R
i12 R  i 22 R  ......  i n2 R
 Average heating effect 
n
22
sinusoids
Suppose I to be the value
of direct current through
the same resistance R to
produce a heating effect
equal to the average
heating effect of the
alternating current, then
i 2
R  i 2
R  ......  i nR
2
I2 R  1 2
n
 i12  i 22  ......  i n2 
 I  
 n 
23
sinusoids
 i12  i 22  ......  i 2n 
I  
 n 
 square root of the mean of the squares of the current
 root-mean-square (or r.m.s.) value of the current
This quantity is also termed as the effective value of
the current. The r.m.s. or effective value of an
alternating current is measured in terms of the direct
current that produces the same heating effect in the
same resistance.
Average heating effect over half-cycle
Area enclosed by i 2 R over half-cycle

Length of base 24
sinusoids
The r.m.s. value is always greater than the average
except for a rectangular wave, in which case the
heating effect remains constant so that the average
and the r.m.s. values are the same.
RMS value
Form factor of a wave is kf 
Average value
Peak or maximum value

Peak or crest factor of a wave is kp 
RMS value
25
Average and r.m.s. values of a
sinusoidal current
If Im is the maximum
value of a current which
varies sinusoidally as
shown in Fig. (a), the
instantaneous value i is
represented by
i  I m sin 
where θ is the angle in radians from instant of zero

current.
26
sinusoidal current
The total area enclosed
by the current wave over
half-cycle is
 i.d  I  sin  .d

 
  I m  cos  0
0 0

  I m  1  1  2 I m
27
sinusoidal current
Now,
Area enclosed over half-cycle
Iav 
Length of base over half-cycle
2Im


 0.637 I m
28
sinusoidal current
If the current is passed
through a resistor having
resistance R ohms, then
instantaneous heating
effect is i 2 R
The variation of i 2 R during
a complete cycle is
shown in Fig. (b).
29
sinusoidal current
Heat generated during the
first half-cycle is area
enclosed by the i 2 R curve
and is
 m 
 
i 2
R.d  I 2
R sin 2
 .d
0 0
 1  cos 2 .d
I m2 R


2 0
I R   2

1
  sin 2   I m R
2
 m

2  2 0 2 30
sinusoidal current
Now, average heating
effect over half-cycle
Area enclosed by i2 R over half-cycle

Length of base

I m2 R
 2

1 2
 Im R
2
31
sinusoidal current
If I is the value of direct
current through the same
resistance to produce the
same heating effect
1 2
I R  Im R
2
2
Im
 I  0.707 I m
2
32
sinusoidal current
Since the voltage across the resistor is directly
proportional to the current, it follows that the
relationships derived for currents also apply to
voltages.
Hence, in general, average value of a sinusoidal

current or voltage is
0.637 × maximum value
 I av  0.637 I m
33
sinusoidal current
Since the voltage across the resistor is directly
proportional to the current, it follows that the
relationships derived for currents also apply to
voltages.
r.m.s. value of a sinusoidal current or voltage is

0.707 × maximum value
 I  0.707 I m
34
sinusoidal current
Form factor of a sine wave is
0.707  maximum value
kf   1.11
and peak or crest factor of a sine wave is

maximum value
kp   1.414
35
Example1: Calculate the average value, rms value and form factor of the
output of a half wave rectifier when input to rectifier is purely sinusoidal
alternating current.
36
Input to rectifier, i  I m sin 

Since the waveform is unsymmetrical, the average
and rms values must be calculated for one complete
cycle.
Area enclosed over one cycle
Iav 
Length of base over one cycle
 id   0d
 2
 0 
2

1 
 id
2 0
37

cycle.

1 
 I m sin d
2 0
 m   cos 0  m
I  I
2 
Iav  0.318Im
38

cycle.
Area enclosed over a square wave cycle
I
Length of base over one cycle
 i d    0  d
 2 2
2
 0 
2
  
1 
 I sin  d
2
2 0 m
39

cycle.

I 2m  1  cos 2
 d
2 0 2
I 2m  sin 2 

  
4  2  0
I 2m Im
    0.5I m
4 2
40
I
Form factor, k f 
I av
0.5 I m

0.318I m
 1.57
41
Phasor Representation of an
Alternating Quantity
A phasor is a line drawn to represent a sinusoidal
alternating quantity.
It is drawn to scale and its angle relative to the horizontal
represents its phase shift in time.
One complete cycle of a sine wave is represented by one
complete rotation of a phasor.
Phasor diagrams can be used to represent r.m.s. quantities
in which case they are frozen in time.
Phasors can be added and subtracted so long as they
represent like quantities.
42
43
Phase: The phase of an alternating quantity at any instant

is the angle travelled by the phasor representing that
quantity upto the instant of consideration, measured from
the reference.
44
At instant A, phase angle is   0

At instant B, phase angle is 
Therefore, modified equation of alternating quantity is
e  Em sin t    45
Zero phase:
When phase of an alternating
quantity is zero, it is standard
pure sinusoidal quantity having
instantaneous value zero at t=0.
46
Positive phase:
quantity is positive it means that
the quantity has some positive
instantaneous value at t=0.
47
Negative phase:
quantity is negative it means
that the quantity has some
negative instantaneous value at
t=0.
48
Phase difference:
If the instantaneous value of the
current is represented by
i  I m sin 
then the instantaneous value of
the voltage is represented by
v  Vm sin      I m  Vm 
Here, the current is said to lag the voltage by an angle Φ
which is the phase difference between the two phasors.
49
Phasor diagram:
The diagram in which different
alternating quantities of the
same frequency, sinusoidal in
nature are represented by
individual phasors indicating
exact phase relationships is
known as phasor diagram.
The phase difference remains
constant irrespective of the
phasor positions. 50
Syllabus

j-operators
51
Syllabus

j-operators
52
j-operators
53
j-operators
Any sinusoidal waveform can be expressed in phasor
form.
A phasor is a complex number that contains the
amplitude and the phase angle of a sinusoidal
oscillation .
54
j-operators
As a complex number, a phasor z can be represented
as,
z  x  jy  r 
z  re j  r  cos   j sin   ; j= 1
x is the real part of z,
y is the imaginary part of z,
r is the magnitude of z, given by
r  z  x2  y 2
and  is the phase angle of z, given by
 y
  tan 1  
x 55
j-operators
Rectangular or Cartesian notation,
z  x  jy
Polar notation,
z  r
Exponential notation,
z  re j
Trigonometric notation,
z  r  cos   j sin  
56
j-operators
The figure represents four
phasors occupying different
quadrants.
These phasors can be
represented as:
A1  a1  jb1  A11
A2   a2  jb2  A2 2
A3  a3  jb3  A3  3
A4  a4  jb4  A4   4
57
j-operators
 The symbol j, when applied to
a phasor, alters its direction by
90° in an anticlockwise
direction, without altering its
length, and is consequently
referred to as an operator.
 For example, if we start with
a phasor A in phase with the
x-axis, as shown in the figure,
then jA represents a phasor of
the same length upwards
along the y-axis.
58
j-operators
A1  a1  jb1  A11 A2  a2  jb2  A2 2
Addition: A1  A2  a1  a2  j  b1  b2 
Subtraction: A1  A2  a1  a2  j  b1  b2 
Multiplication: A1  A2  A1 A2   1  2 
  1  2 
A1 A1
Division: 
A2 A2
Complex Conjugate: A1  a1  jb1  A1  1

*
59
Syllabus

j-operators
60
Syllabus

j-operators
61
Solution of R, L, C series
circuits
62
Solution of R, L, C series circuits
The resistance, inductance and capacitance are
three basic elements of any electrical network. In
order to analyze any electric circuit, it is necessary
to understand the following three cases,
1. AC through pure resistive circuit
2. AC through pure inductive circuit
3. AC through pure capacitive circuit
In each case, it is assumed that a purely sinusoidal
alternating voltage is applied to the circuit.
63
AC through pure resistive
circuit:
Let us consider a circuit
having a resistance R ohms
connected across the terminals
of an a.c. generator G.
If the value of the voltage at
any instant B is v volts, the
value of the current at that
instant is given by
v
i
R 64
circuit:
When the voltage is zero, the
current is also zero; and since
the current is proportional to
the voltage, the waveform of
the current is exactly the same
as that of the voltage.
Also the two quantities are in
phase with each other.
65
circuit:
Therefore,
Vm
Im 
R
where, Vm and Im are the maximum values of the
voltage and current respectively.
But, RMS value of voltage  V  0.707Vm
and RMS value of current  I  0.707 I m
V
Therefore, I
R 66
circuit:
Hence Ohm’s law can be
applied without any
modification to an a.c. circuit
possessing resistance only.
If the instantaneous value of the applied voltage is
represented by
v  Vm sin t
then instantaneous value of current in a resistive
Vm
sin t  I m sin t
circuit is
i
R 67
circuit:
The phasors representing the
voltage and current in a
resistive circuit are shown in
the figure.
68
Power in a resistive circuit:
When an alternating current
flows through a resistor of R
ohms, the average heating effect
over a complete cycle is I2R
watts, where I is the r.m.s. value
of the current in amperes.
Instantaneous power:
p  v.i
 Vm sin t.I m sin t
 Vm I m sin 2 t
69
2 sin 2 t
 Vm I m
2
Vm I m
 (1  cos 2t )
2
V I V I
 m m  m m cos 2t
2 2
The average power
2
V I 
 1  cos 2t  dt

P m m
2 2 0
2
Vm I m   sin 2t  
 t
2 2  2  0
70
Vm I m  2
 
2 2 
Vm I m

2 2
 VI
71
AC through pure inductive
circuit:
Let us consider a simple circuit
consisting of a pure inductance
of L henrys, connected across a
voltage source.
72
circuit:
Suppose the instantaneous value
of the current through a coil
having inductance L henrys and
negligible resistance to be
represented by
i  I m sin t  I m sin 2 ft
where t is the time, in seconds, after
the current has passed through zero
from negative to positive values, as
shown in the figure. 73
circuit:
Suppose the current to increase
by di amperes in dt seconds,
then instantaneous value of
induced e.m.f. is
di
eL
dt
 LI m  sin 2 ft 
d
dt
 2 fLI m cos 2 ft
74
circuit:
 
e  2 fLI m sin  2 ft  
 2
Hence the induced e.m.f. is
represented by the curve in the
figure, leading the current by a
quarter of a cycle.
75
circuit:
Since the resistance of the
circuit is assumed negligible,
the whole of the applied
voltage is equal to the induced
e.m.f., therefore instantaneous
value of applied voltage is
v  e  2 fLI m cos 2 ft
   
v  2 fLI m sin  2 ft    Vm sin  2 ft  
 2  2
76
circuit:
Therefore, the maximum
value of the voltage is
Vm  2 fLI m
Vm
Or ,  2 fL
Im
If I and V are the r.m.s. values, then
V 0.707Vm
  2 fL  inductive reactance
I 0.707 I m
77
circuit:
The inductive reactance is
expressed in ohms and is
represented by the symbol XL.
Hence
V V
I 
2 fL XL
where X L  2 fL
78
AC through pure inductive X L  2 fL
circuit:
V
The inductive reactance is I
proportional to the frequency 2 fL
and the current produced by a
given voltage is inversely
proportional to the frequency,
as shown in the figure.
79
circuit:
The phasor diagram for a
purely inductive circuit is
given in the figure, where E
represents the r.m.s. value of
the e.m.f. induced in the
circuit, and V, equal to E,
the applied voltage.
80
Power in a purely inductive circuit:
Instantaneous power: v  Vm sin t
p  v.i
 
 
 Vm sin t.I m sin  t   i  I m sin  t  
 2
 2
 Vm I m sin t cos t
Vm I m
 sin 2t
2
Over a complete cycle,
sin 2t  0
P0
81
AC through pure capacitive
circuit:
consisting of a pure capacitance
of C farads, connected across a
voltage source given by the
equation,
v  Vm sin t  Vm sin 2 ft
82
circuit:
The current i charges the
capacitor C. The instantaneous
charge q on the plates of the
capacitor is given by,
q  Cv
 CVm sin 2 ft
83
circuit:
Now, current is rate of flow of
charge.
dq
 i
dt
  CVm sin 2 ft 
d
dt
 2 fCVm cos 2 ft
84
 
circuit:
i  2 fCVm sin 2 ft  
 
2
 I m sin 2 ft  
2
Hence the current is
represented by the curve in the
figure, leading the applied
voltage by a quarter of a cycle.
85
circuit:
The maximum value of the
current is,
I m  2 fCVm
Vm 1
 
I m 2 fC
Hence, if I and V are the r.m.s. values
V 1
  capacitive reactance
I 2 fC 86
circuit:
The capacitive reactance is
expressed in ohms and is
represented by the symbol XC.
Hence
V
I  2 fCV 
XC
1
where X C 
2 fC
87
1
XC 
circuit: 2 fC
The capacitive reactance is
inversely proportional to the I  2 fCV
frequency, and the current
produced by a given voltage is
proportional to the frequency,
as shown in the figure.
88
circuit:
The phasor diagram for a
purely capacitive circuit is
given in the figure, where V
the of the applied voltage lags
the current, I by a quarter of a
cycle.
89
Power in a purely capacitive circuit:
Instantaneous power: v  Vm sin t
 
p  v.i
i  I m sin t  
 
 Vm sin t.I m sin  t  
 2
 Vm I m sin t cos t 2
Vm I m
 sin 2t
2
Over a complete cycle,

sin 2t  0
P0
90
Series RL circuit:
consisting of a resistance R
ohms and an inductance L
henrys connected in series
across a voltage source given by
the equation,
v  Vm sin t
91
Series RL circuit:
The phasor diagram results
from an application of
Kirchhoff’s second law.
For convenience, the current is
taken as reference since it is
common to all the elements of a
series circuit.
92
Series RL circuit:
The circuit voltage may then be
derived from the following
relations:
VR  IR VL  IX L
V  VR  VL
 V  VR 2  VL 2
 ( IR)2  ( IX L )2  I R2  X L2
Hence, V  IZ
where, Z  R2  X L2  R 2   L 
2
93
Series RL circuit:
Z  R2  X L 2 (ohms)
Here Z is termed as the

impedance of the circuit.
94
Series RL circuit:
The wave diagram shows that the
current lags the voltage by a phase
angle greater than 0° but less than
90°.
The phase angle between voltage
and current is determined by the
ratio of resistance to inductive
reactance in the circuit.
The greater the value of this ratio,
the less will be the angle Φ.
95
Series RL circuit:
By the geometry of the
diagrams:
VL IX
  tan 1  tan 1 L
VR IR
X
  tan 1 L
R
The phase angle may also be
derived as follows:
VR R
  cos1  cos 1
V Z
So instantaneous current is Impedance triangle
i  I m sin(t  )
96
Example2: An alternating current, i  1.414sin  2  50  t  A, is passed
through a series circuit consisting of a resistance of 100 ohm and an
inductance of 0.31831 H. Find the expressions for the instantaneous values
of the voltages across (i) the resistance, (ii) the inductance and (iii) the
combination.
Given,
i  1.414sin  2  50  t  ; R  100 ; L  0.31831 H
   2  f  2  50  f  50 Hz
 X L  2 fL  2  50  0.31831   100 
(i) The voltages across the resistance
v R  iR  100  1.414sin  2  50  t  volt
 141.4sin  2  50t  volt
97
combination.
Given,
i  1.414sin  2  50  t  ; R  100 ; L  0.31831 H
   2  f  2  50  f  50 Hz
 X L  2 fL  2  50  0.31831   100 
v L  iX L  100  1.414sin  2  50  t  90  volt

(ii) The voltages across the inductance
 141.4sin  2  50t  90  volt

Since the inductive voltage leads the current by an angle of
90 degree.
98
combination.
Given,
i  1.414sin  2  50  t  ; R  100 ; L  0.31831 H
   2  f  2  50  f  50 Hz
 X L  2 fL  2  50  0.31831   100 
(iii) V  Vm  141.4 volt  100 volt
2 2
R
Vm 141.4
VL   volt  100 volt
2 2
V  VR    VL   100   100  volt  141.4 volt
2 2 2 2
99
combination.
Given,
i  1.414sin  2  50  t  ; R  100 ; L  0.31831 H
   2  f  2  50  f  50 Hz
 X L  2 fL  2  50  0.31831   100 
VL 1 100
(iii)   tan 1  tan  45
VR 100
Vm  2V  2  141.4 volt  200 volt
Hence, expressions for the instantaneous value of resultant
v  200sin  2  50t  45  volt

voltage
100
Series RL circuit:
Taking I as the reference phasor
I  I  j 0  I 0
V  IR  jI X L
 I  R  jX L   IZ
where, Z   R  jX L   Z 
101
Power in series RL circuit:
Instantaneous value of
voltage and current are,
v  Vm sin t
i  I m sin(t  )
Instantaneous power,
p  v.i
 Vm sin t  I m sin(t   )
1
 Vm I m  2sin t sin(t   )
2 102
1
 Vm I m [cos   cos(2t  )]
2
Over a complete cycle, cos(2t   )  0
1
 P  Vm I m cos 
2
Vm I m
 cos 
2 2
 VI cos 
103
I  I 0 I *  I   0
V  V 
S  V   I   0  VI 
 VI  cos   j sin  
 VI cos   jVI sin 
 P  jQ
where, S  Apparent power VA
P  Active power W 
Q  Reactive power  var 
Power triangle
104
Power factor:
The ratio of the active power P
to the apparent power S is
called the power factor.
Active power W 
Power factor 
Apparent power VA
P
 cos  
S
From the phasor diagram,
R
cos  
Z
Power triangle
105
Series RC circuit:
consisting of a pure resistance R
ohms and connected in series
with a pure capacitor of C
farads as shown in the figure.
The series combination is
connected across ac supply
given by
v  Vm sin t
106
Series RC circuit:
The phasor diagram results
from an application of
Kirchhoff’s second law.
For convenience, the current is
taken as reference since it is
common to all the elements of a
series circuit.
107
Series RC circuit:
The circuit voltage may then be
derived from the following
relations:
VR  IR VC  IX C
V  VR  VC
 V  VR 2  VC 2
 ( IR)2  ( IX C )2  I R2  X C 2
Hence, V  IZ
where, Z  R2  X C 2  R2 
1
 C 
2
108
Series RC circuit:
Z  R2  X C 2 (ohms)
Here Z is termed as the

impedance of the circuit.
109
Series RC circuit:
The wave diagram shows that the
current leads the voltage by a phase
angle greater than 0° but less than
90°.
The phase angle between voltage
and current is determined by the
ratio of resistance to capacitive
reactance in the circuit.
The greater the value of this ratio,
the less will be the angle Φ.
110
Series RC circuit:
By the geometry of the
diagrams:
VC IX
  tan 1  tan 1 C
VR IR
X
  tan 1 C
R
The phase angle may also be
derived as follows:
VR R
  cos1  cos 1
V Z
Impedance triangle
111
 
Example3: The waveforms of the voltage and current of a circuit are given
by, e  120sin  314t  and i  10sin 314t   .
6
Calculate the values of the resistance and capacitance which are connected
in series to form the circuit.
 
Given,
e  120sin  314t  ; i  10sin 314t  
6
 Em  120 V;   314 rad/s
Now,   2 f
 f  50 Hz
Em 120
 E  V  84.85 V
2 2
112
 
6
 
Given,
e  120sin  314t  ; i  10sin 314t  
6
Similarly from current equation,
I m  10 A;

  30
6
Im 10
 I  A  7.07 A
2 2
113
 
6
 
Given,
e  120sin  314t  ; i  10sin 314t  
6
E 84.85
 Z    12 
I 7.07
Now, R  Z cos   12 cos 30   10.392  
X C  Z sin   12sin 30 
 6
1 1
 C  F  530.52  F
2 fX C 2  50  6
114
Series RC circuit:
Taking I as the reference phasor
I  I  j 0  I 0
V  IR  jI X C
 I  R  jX C   I Z
where, Z   R  jX C   Z   
115
Power in series RC circuit:
I  I 0 I *  I   0
V V  
S  V     I   0  VI   
 VI  cos   j sin  
 VI cos   jVI sin 
 P  jQ
where, S  Apparent power VA
P  Active power W 
Q  Reactive power  var 
Power triangle
116
Active and reactive currents:
If a current I lags the applied
voltage V by an angle Φ, as shown
in the figure, it can be resolved into
two components, OA in phase with
the voltage and OB lagging by 90°.
Since, power
P  IV cos   V  OI cos   V  OA
Therefore, OA is termed the active component of the

current, i.e.
Active component of current  I cos 
117
Active and reactive currents:
Power due to component OB is,
V  OBcos 90  0

so that OB is termed the reactive

component of the current, i.e.
reactive component of current  I sin 
and, reactive power
Q  VI sin 
 P  Q  VI cos    VI sin    VI   cos   sin  
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 VI   S 2
2
118
Power factor improvement:
The power factor of a
load can be improved
(increased) by introducing
additional equipment,
which absorbs var in the
opposite sense to that of
the load.
119
If the load is inductive
(lagging power factor)
then additional equipment
to improve the power
factor should be connected
(leading power factor).
120
Ideally, the var of the
load and the var of the
additional equipment
should be equal thus
leaving a power factor of
unity.
121
In practice, the cost of
power factor correction
equipment has to be
balanced against the
resulting savings in
electricity charges.
122
Series RLC circuit:
consisting of a resistance R
ohms, a pure inductance L
henrys and a capacitance of C
farads connected in series
across a voltage source given by
the equation,
v  Vm sin t
123
Series RLC circuit:
The circuit draws a current I.
due to current I, there are
different voltage drops across
R, L and C which are given by,
a) Drop across resistance R is VR  IR
b) Drop across inductance L isVL  IX L
c) Drop across capacitance C is VC  IX C
124
Series RLC circuit:
The characteristics of the three
drops are,
a) VR is in phase with current I
b) VL leads current I by 90°
c) VC lags current I by 90°

Applying KVL,
V  VR  VL  VC
125
Series RLC circuit:
To draw the phasor diagram I is
taken as the reference as it is
common to all the elements.
Steps to draw the phasor diagram:
1. Take I as the reference.
2. VR is in phase with current I
3. VL leads current I by 90°
4. VC lags current I by 90°
5. Obtain the resultant of VL and VC
6. Add that with VR by law of parallelogram to get the
supply voltage 126
Series RLC circuit:
The phasor diagram depends on
the conditions of the
magnitudes of VL and VC which
ultimately depends on the
values of XL and XC .
127
Series RLC circuit:
Case-I: XL > XC
From the diagram,
OB 2  OA2  AB 2
V  V  VL  VC 
2 2 2
R
V 2   IR    IX L  IX C 
2 2
V  I R2   X L  X C 
2
V  IZ
where, Z  impedance of the circuit
128
Series RLC circuit:
Case-I: XL > XC
V
 Z
I
 R2   X L  X C 
2
If Φ is the phase difference

between the current and the
supply voltage
AB VL  VC IX  IX C X L  XC
tan     L 
OA VR IR R
R
cos  
Z
129
Series RLC circuit:
Case-II: XL < XC
From the diagram,
OB 2  OA2  AB 2
V  V  VC  VL 
2 2 2
R
V 2   IR    IX C  IX L 
2 2
V  I R2   X C  X L 
2
V  IZ
where, Z  impedance of the circuit
130
Series RLC circuit:
Case-I: XL < XC
V
 Z
I
 R2   X C  X L 
2
If Φ is the phase difference

between the current and the
supply voltage
AB VC  VL IX  IX L XC  X L
tan     C 
OA VR IR R
R
cos  
Z
131
Example4: A circuit having a resistance of 12 Ω, an inductance of 0.15 H
and a capacitance of 100 μF in series, is connected across a 100 V, 50 Hz
supply. Calculate:
(a) the impedance;
(b) the current;
(c) the voltages across R, L and C;
(d) the phase difference between the current and the supply voltage.
Given, R  12  L  0.15 H C  100  F  100  106 F

V  100 volt f  50 Hz
 X L  2 fL  2  50  0.15   47.1 
1 1
 XC     31.85 
2 fC 2  50  100  10 6
(a) The impedance, Z  R   X L  X C   12   47.1  31.85

2 2 2
2
 19.4 
132
supply. Calculate:
(a) the impedance;
(b) the current;
Given, R  12  L  0.15 H C  100  F  100  106 F

V  100 volt f  50 Hz
V 100
(b) The current, I   A  5.15 A
Z 19.4
(c) Voltage across R VR  12  5.15 volt  61.8 volt
Voltage across L VL  47.1 5.15 volt  242.5 volt
and Voltage across C VC  31.85  5.15 volt  164.0 volt
133
supply. Calculate:
(a) the impedance;
(b) the current;
Given, R  12  L  0.15 H C  100  F  100  106 F

V  100 volt f  50 Hz
(d) The phase difference between the current and the supply
voltage,
1 R 1 12
  cos  cos  51.79
Z 19.4
134
Series RLC circuit:
Taking I as the reference phasor:
I  I  j 0  I 0
V  IR  jI X L  jI X C
 I  R  j  X L  X C   IZ
where, Z  R  j  X L  X C   Z 
135
Example5: A resistance of 10 Ω is connected in series with an inductive
reactance of 5 Ω across a 100 V, 50 Hz power supply. Determine:
(a) the impedance of the load circuit;
(b) the current drawn from the supply;
(c) the power factor;
(d) the real power drawn from the supply;
(e) the reactive power drawn from the supply;
(f ) the apparent power;
(g) the complex power;
(h) the size of capacitors that would be required to correct the power factor to
unity.
136
unity.
(a) the impedance of the load circuit
Z   R  jX L   10  j5  
 11.1826.56 
(b) the current drawn from the supply

V  100  j 0 volt  1000 volt
1000
A  8.94  26.56 A   8  j 4  A
V
I 
Z 11.1826.56
137
unity.
(c) the power factor

pf  cos 26.56  0.894 lag
(d) the real power drawn from the supply

P  IV cos   8.94 100  0.984 W  800 W
(e) the reactive power drawn from the supply
Q  IV sin   8.94 100  sin 25.56 var  400 var 138

unity.
(f ) the apparent power

S  P2  Q2  8002  4002 VA
 894 VA
(g) the complex power

S  V I  100  j 0  8  j 4  VA   800  j 400  VA
* *
 89426.56 VA 139
unity.
(h) size of the capacitor

Reactive power delivered by the capacitor
V 2
QC  I C2 X C 
XC
Now, QC  Q  400 var
V2 1002
 XC     25 
Q 400
140
unity.
(h) size of the capacitor

1
 C
2  f  X C
1
 F
2  50  25
 127  F
141
Syllabus

j-operators
142
Syllabus

j-operators
143
Solution of parallel and
series-parallel circuits
144
Admittance, conductance and susceptance
When resistors having resistances R1, R2, etc. are in
parallel, the equivalent resistance R is given by
1 1 1
   ...
R R1 R2
The reciprocal of the resistance is known as
conductance.
If circuits having conductances G1, G2, etc. are in
parallel, the total conductance G is given by
G  G1  G2  ...
If circuits having impedances Z1, Z2, etc. are
connected in parallel across a supply voltage V,
then
V V
I1  ; I2  ; etc.
Z1 Z2
If Z is the equivalent impedance of Z1, Z2, etc. in
parallel and if I is the resultant current, then, using
complex notation, we have
I  I1  I 2  ...
V V V
    ...
Z Z1 Z 2
1 1 1
so that    ...
Z Z1 Z 2
1 1 1
   ...
Z Z1 Z 2
The reciprocal of impedance is termed admittance

and is represented by the symbol Y,
Y  Y1  Y2  ...
An admittance may be resolved into a real

component termed conductance and an imaginary
component termed susceptance,
B
Y  G  jB   tan 1
G
RL series circuit admittance
From phasor diagram
V  I  R  jX L 
  R  jX L 
V
Z
I
1 1 R  jX L
 Y   2
Z R  jX L R  X L2
R XL
  j
R 2  X L2 R 2  X L2
 G  jBL
RL series circuit admittance
From phasor diagram
 Y  G  jBL
where, Y
1
 admittance (S)
Z
R R
G  conductance  2 
R  X L2 Z 2
BL  inductive susceptance
X X
 2 L 2  2L
R  XL Z
RC series circuit admittance
From phasor diagram
V  I  R  jX C 
  R  jX C 
V
Z
I
1 1 R  jX C
 Y   2
Z R  jX C R  X C2
R XC
  j
R 2  X C2 R2  X C2
 G  jBC
RC series circuit admittance
From phasor diagram
 Y  G  jBC
where, Y
1
 admittance (S)
Z
R R
G  conductance  2 
R  X C2 Z 2
BC  capacitive susceptance
X X
 2 C 2  C2
R  XC Z
Parallel circuits
Parallel RL circuit:
V  V 0
I  IR  IL
1 1 
 V  G  jBL 
V V
  V   j 
R jX L  R X L 
where, Y   G  jBL   Y   
1
  admittance (S)
Z
1
G  conductance 
R
BL  inductive susceptance
1

XL 152
Parallel circuits
Parallel RC circuit:
V  V 0
I  I R  IC
1 1 
  V  G  jBC 
V V
  V   j
R jX C R XC 
where, Y   G  jBC   Y 
BC  capacitive susceptance
1

XC
153
Example6: A coil having resistance of 50 ohms and inductance of 0.02 H is
connected in parallel with a capacitor of 25 micro farad across a 200 V , 50 Hz
supply. Find the current in the coil and capacitor. Also find the total current
taken from the supply and overall power factor. Draw the phasor diagram.
Given,
V  200  j 0 volt  2000 volt
f  50 Hz
Z L  50  j 2  50  0.02   50.397.16 
106
ZC   j    j127.39 
2  50  25
 127.39  90 
154
Now,
V 2000
IL   A
ZL 50.397.16 
 3.97  7.16 A
 3.94  j 0.495 A
V 2000
IC   A
ZC 127.39  90 
 1.5790 A
 j1.57 A
155
Therefore,
I  I L  I C  3.94  j 0.495  j1.57 A

 3.94  j1.075 A
 4.08415.26 A
Power factor,
cos   cos15.26  0.964
156
Example7: A network is arranged as indicated in figure, the values being as
shown. Calculate the value of the current in each branch and its phase
relative to the supply voltage. Draw the complete phasor diagram.
157
Given,
V  200  j 0 volt  2000 volt

f  50 Hz
Z A  20  j 0   200 
Z B  5  j 2  50  0.1   5  j 31.4 
 31.7981.06 
106
ZC   j    j 21.2 
2  50  150
 21.2  90 
158
Now,
1 1
YA   S
Z A 200 
 0.050 S  0.05  j 0 S
1 1
YB   S
Z B 31.7981.06
 0.0315  81.06 S  0.0049  j 0.0311 S
If YAB is the combined admittance of circuits A

and B
YAB  YA  YB  0.05  0.0049  j 0.0311 S
 0.0549  j 0.0311 S
159
If ZAB is the equivalent impedance of circuits A

and B
1 1
Z AB   
YAB 0.0549  j 0.0311
0.0549  j 0.0311
 
0.00398
 13.78  j 7.81 
 15.8529.53 
Total impedance,
Z  Z AB  Z C  13.78  j 7.81  j 21.2 
 13.78  j13.39   19.22  44.15 


160
Supply current,
V 2000
I  A  10.444.15 A
Z 19.22  44.15
The p.d. across circuit AB,

VAB  I Z AB  10.444.15  15.8529.53 V
 164.8473.68 V
161
The current through branch A,

VAB 164.8473.68  
IA   A 8.24 73.68 A

200

ZA

The current through branch B,

VAB 164.8473.68
IB   A

ZB 31.7981.06
 5.18  7.38 A
The p.d. across C,

VC  I Z C  10.444.15  21.2  90 V
 220  45.85 V
162
Phasor diagram,
V  2000 volt
V AB  164.8473.68 V
V C  220  45.85 V
I A  8.2473.68 A
I B  5.18  7.38 A
I  10.444.15 A
163
Thank You
164

Single Phase AC Circuits Notes

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Single Phase AC Circuits Notes

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Single phase AC circuits

Single phase AC circuits:

Single phase AC circuits:

Square Triangular Trapezoidal

Therefore, the generated voltage can be expressed as,

Cycle: Each repetition of a variable quantity, recurring

Peak value: The maximum instantaneous value

Frequency: The number of cycles that occur in 1

Single phase AC circuits:

Single phase AC circuits:

Peak or maximum value

where θ is the angle in radians from instant of zero

 i.d  I  sin  .d

Hence, in general, average value of a sinusoidal

r.m.s. value of a sinusoidal current or voltage is

and peak or crest factor of a sine wave is

Input to rectifier, i  I m sin 

Input to rectifier, i  I m sin 

Input to rectifier, i  I m sin 

Input to rectifier, i  I m sin 

Phase: The phase of an alternating quantity at any instant

At instant A, phase angle is   0

Single phase AC circuits:

Single phase AC circuits:

Complex Conjugate: A1  a1  jb1  A1  1

Single phase AC circuits:

Single phase AC circuits:

 Vm sin t.I m sin t

Over a complete cycle,

Here Z is termed as the

v L  iX L  100  1.414sin  2  50  t  90  volt

 141.4sin  2  50t  90  volt

v  200sin  2  50t  45  volt

where, S  Apparent power VA

Here Z is termed as the

Now, R  Z cos   12 cos 30   10.392  

where, S  Apparent power VA

Therefore, OA is termed the active component of the

so that OB is termed the reactive

b) VL leads current I by 90°

c) VC lags current I by 90°

If Φ is the phase difference

If Φ is the phase difference

Given, R  12  L  0.15 H C  100  F  100  106 F

(a) The impedance, Z  R   X L  X C   12   47.1  31.85

Given, R  12  L  0.15 H C  100  F  100  106 F

Given, R  12  L  0.15 H C  100  F  100  106 F

(b) the current drawn from the supply

(c) the power factor

(d) the real power drawn from the supply

Q  IV sin   8.94 100  sin 25.56 var  400 var 138

(f ) the apparent power

(g) the complex power

(h) size of the capacitor

(h) size of the capacitor

Single phase AC circuits:

Single phase AC circuits:

The reciprocal of impedance is termed admittance

An admittance may be resolved into a real

I  I L  I C  3.94  j 0.495  j1.57 A