Phase 1: Lexical Analysis: Example

Phase 1: Lexical Analysis
Lexical Analysis is the first phase when compiler scans the source code.
This process can be left to right, character by character, and group these
characters into tokens.
Here, the character stream from the source program is grouped in

meaningful sequences by identifying the tokens. It makes the entry of the
corresponding tickets into the symbol table and passes that token to next
phase.
The primary functions of this phase are:
 Identify the lexical units in a source code

 Classify lexical units into classes like constants, reserved words, and
enter them in different tables. It will Ignore comments in the source
program
 Identify token which is not a part of the language
Example:
x = y + 10
Tokens
X identifier
= Assignment operator
Y identifier
+ Addition operator
10 Number
Phase 2: Syntax Analysis

Syntax analysis is all about discovering structure in code. It determines
whether or not a text follows the expected format. The main aim of this
phase is to make sure that the source code was written by the programmer is
correct or not.
Syntax analysis is based on the rules based on the specific programing
language by constructing the parse tree with the help of tokens. It also
determines the structure of source language and grammar or syntax of the
language.
Here, is a list of tasks performed in this phase:
 Obtain tokens from the lexical analyzer

 Checks if the expression is syntactically correct or not
 Report all syntax errors
 Construct a hierarchical structure which is known as a parse tree
Example
Any identifier/number is an expression
If x is an identifier and y+10 is an expression, then x= y+10 is a statement.
Consider parse tree for the following example
(a+b)*c
In Parse Tree
 Interior node: record with an operator filed and two files for children
 Leaf: records with 2/more fields; one for token and other information
about the token
 Ensure that the components of the program fit together meaningfully
 Gathers type information and checks for type compatibility
 Checks operands are permitted by the source language
Phase 3: Semantic Analysis

Semantic analysis checks the semantic consistency of the code. It uses the
syntax tree of the previous phase along with the symbol table to verify that
the given source code is semantically consistent. It also checks whether the
code is conveying an appropriate meaning.
Semantic Analyzer will check for Type mismatches, incompatible operands,

a function called with improper arguments, an undeclared variable, etc.
Functions of Semantic analyses phase are:
 Helps you to store type information gathered and save it in symbol

table or syntax tree
 Allows you to perform type checking
 In the case of type mismatch, where there are no exact type correction
rules which satisfy the desired operation a semantic error is shown
 Collects type information and checks for type compatibility
 Checks if the source language permits the operands or not
Example
float x = 20.2;
float y = x*30;
In the above code, the semantic analyzer will typecast the integer 30 to float
30.0 before multiplication
Phase 4: Intermediate Code Generation

Once the semantic analysis phase is over the compiler, generates
intermediate code for the target machine. It represents a program for some
abstract machine.
Intermediate code is between the high-level and machine level language.

This intermediate code needs to be generated in such a manner that makes it
easy to translate it into the target machine code.
Functions on Intermediate Code generation:

 It should be generated from the semantic representation of the source
program
 Holds the values computed during the process of translation
 Helps you to translate the intermediate code into target language
 Allows you to maintain precedence ordering of the source language
 It holds the correct number of operands of the instruction
Example
For example,
total = count + rate * 5
Intermediate code with the help of address code method is:
t1 := int_to_float(5)
t2 := rate * t1
t3 := count + t2
total := t3
Phase 5: Code Optimization

The next phase of is code optimization or Intermediate code. This phase
removes unnecessary code line and arranges the sequence of statements to
speed up the execution of the program without wasting resources. The main
goal of this phase is to improve on the intermediate code to generate a code
that runs faster and occupies less space.
The primary functions of this phase are:
 It helps you to establish a trade-off between execution and

compilation speed
 Improves the running time of the target program
 Generates streamlined code still in intermediate representation
 Removing unreachable code and getting rid of unused variables
 Removing statements which are not altered from the loop
Example:
Consider the following code
a = intofloat(10)
b=c*a
d=e+b
f=d
Can become
b =c * 10.0
f = e+b
Phase 6: Code Generation

Code generation is the last and final phase of a compiler. It gets inputs from
code optimization phases and produces the page code or object code as a
result. The objective of this phase is to allocate storage and generate
relocatable machine code.
It also allocates memory locations for the variable. The instructions in the
intermediate code are converted into machine instructions. This phase
coverts the optimize or intermediate code into the target language.
The target language is the machine code. Therefore, all the memory
locations and registers are also selected and allotted during this phase. The
code generated by this phase is executed to take inputs and generate
expected outputs.
Example:
a = b + 60.0
Would be possibly translated to registers.
MOVF a, R1
MULF #60.0, R2
ADDF R1, R2
Symbol Table Management

A symbol table contains a record for each identifier with fields for the
attributes of the identifier. This component makes it easier for the compiler
to search the identifier record and retrieve it quickly. The symbol table also
helps you for the scope management. The symbol table and error handler
interact with all the phases and symbol table update correspondingly.
Error Handling Routine:

In the compiler design process error may occur in all the below-given
phases:
 Lexical analyzer: Wrongly spelled tokens

 Syntax analyzer: Missing parenthesis
 Intermediate code generator: Mismatched operands for an operator
 Code Optimizer: When the statement is not reachable
 Code Generator: Unreachable statements
 Symbol tables: Error of multiple declared identifiers
Most common errors are invalid character sequence in scanning, invalid

token sequences in type, scope error, and parsing in semantic analysis.
The error may be encountered in any of the above phases. After finding
errors, the phase needs to deal with the errors to continue with the
compilation process. These errors need to be reported to the error handler
which handles the error to perform the compilation process. Generally, the
errors are reported in the form of message.
Summary
 Compiler operates in various phases each phase transforms the source
program from one representation to another
 Six phases of compiler design are 1) Lexical analysis 2) Syntax
analysis 3) Semantic analysis 4) Intermediate code generator 5) Code
optimizer 6) Code Generator
 Lexical Analysis is the first phase when compiler scans the source
code
 Syntax analysis is all about discovering structure in text
 Semantic analysis checks the semantic consistency of the code
 Once the semantic analysis phase is over the compiler, generate
intermediate code for the target machine
 Code optimization phase removes unnecessary code line and arranges
the sequence of statements
 Code generation phase gets inputs from code optimization phase and
produces the page code or object code as a result
 A symbol table contains a record for each identifier with fields for the
attributes of the identifier
 Error handling routine handles error and reports during many phases

Phase 1: Lexical Analysis: Example

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Phase 1: Lexical Analysis: Example

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Phase 1: Lexical Analysis

Here, the character stream from the source program is grouped in

The primary functions of this phase are:

 Identify the lexical units in a source code

Phase 2: Syntax Analysis

Here, is a list of tasks performed in this phase:

 Obtain tokens from the lexical analyzer

If x is an identifier and y+10 is an expression, then x= y+10 is a statement.

Consider parse tree for the following example

Phase 3: Semantic Analysis

Semantic Analyzer will check for Type mismatches, incompatible operands,

Functions of Semantic analyses phase are:

 Helps you to store type information gathered and save it in symbol

Phase 4: Intermediate Code Generation

Intermediate code is between the high-level and machine level language.

Functions on Intermediate Code generation:

total = count + rate * 5

Intermediate code with the help of address code method is:

Phase 5: Code Optimization

The primary functions of this phase are:

 It helps you to establish a trade-off between execution and

Consider the following code

Phase 6: Code Generation

Would be possibly translated to registers.

Symbol Table Management

Error Handling Routine:

 Lexical analyzer: Wrongly spelled tokens

Most common errors are invalid character sequence in scanning, invalid

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