PHYSICS GRADE 11

CHAPTER – 1
MOTION IN A PLANE

TWO-DIMENSIONAL MOTION
∎ The object may move in both the x and y direction simultaneously. The motion of the object is
said to be a two-directional motion.
y-axis path of motion v⃗⃗
at t2
Q (x2 , y2 )

at t1 ∆ ⃗r
∆ ⃗r
P (x1 , y1 ) ∆y
⃗⃗
θ
∆ x⃗⃗
x-axis

Fig: Motion of an object in two dimensions

In Figure, ∆ ⃗r = ∆ x⃗⃗ + ∆ y⃗⃗

The magnitude of ∆ ⃗r, ∆ r = √(∆ x)2 + (∆ y)2
∆y
To find the direction of ∆ r⃗, tan θ =
∆x
∆y
θ = tan-1 ∆ x

∎ An object moving with constant speed along a curved path is accelerating as the direction of the
velocity is changing. The direction of the velocity of the object is tangential to its path. Hence, the
object is accelerated whenever the velocity changes in magnitude, direction, (or) both.
∆ ⃗r
average velocity v⃗⃗ =
∆t
∆ ⃗r⃗ dr⃗
Instantaneous velocity v⃗⃗ = lim ∆ t =
∆t→0 dt
∆v ⃗⃗
average acceleration a⃗ =
∆t
∆ ⃗v⃗⃗ dv⃗⃗
Instantaneous acceleration a⃗ = lim ∆ t =
∆t→0 dt

PROJECTILE MOTION

*Projectile
A projectile is any object thrown into space upon which the only acting force is the gravity.
*Trajectory
The path followed by a projectile is known as a trajectory.
*Projectile Motion
The motion of an object moving in both horizontal x direction and vertical y direction
simultaneously is called the projectile motion.
E.g., water fountain, the motion of cannon ball, the motion of the football
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PHYSICS GRADE 11

∆ ⃗r
y⃗⃗

x⃗⃗ 𝑥
Fig: Illustrations for projectile motion
∎ In the projectile motion, the path of the motion is curve.
∎ If air resistance is neglected, an object moves along the horizontal x direction with a constant
velocity. Therefore, it has no acceleration.
∎ In the vertical y direction, only gravitational force is acting on it. The projectile moves along the
vertical direction with constant downward acceleration which is the acceleration due to gravity (g).
The vertical motion of projectile is a free fall motion.
∎ vy decreases in moving upward direction and vy increases in moving downward direction.
∎ At the maximum height of projectile, vy = 0.

y-axis

vy vy = 0
v v0x
v0x
v0 v0x
v0y v
vy
θ0 v0x
x-axis
v0x
θ

vy v
Fig: Velocities and their components of the projectile

∎ To analyze the projectile motion, the motion can be considered into two parts, horizontal motion
(x direction) and vertical motion (y direction).
the initial velocity, v0
the angle, θ0
the x component of initial velocity, v0x = v0 cos θ0
the y component of initial velocity, v0y = v0 sin θ0
At the time t,
In x direction, vx = v0x = v0 cos θ0 = constant, ax = 0
the horizontal displacement in the time t,
s
x = v0x t (∵ v = )
t
= (v0 cos θ0 ) t
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PHYSICS GRADE 11
In y direction, the initial velocity, v0y = v0 sin θ0
the acceleration, ay = − g (∵ downward direction)
the velocity and displacement of projectile in the time t,
vy = v0y + ay t
vy 2 = v0y 2 + 2ay y
1
y = v0y t + ay t2
2
The magnitude of velocity of projectile, v = √vx 2 + vy 2
vy
The direction of velocity of projectile, tan θ =
vx
Time taken (t1 )
At the highest point, vy = 0, ay = − g, t = t1
vy = v0y + ay t
vy = v0y − gt
0 = v0 sin θ0 − gt1
v0 sin θ0
t1 =
g

Time of Flight (T)

The time of flight (T) is the twice of the time to reach the maximum height (t1 ).
2 v0 sin θ0
T = 2 t1 =
g

y-axis
v0

maximum
θ0 height (H)
x-axis
horizontal range (R)
Fig: Maximum height and horizontal range of projectile motion

Maximum Height Reached (H)

1
Using the equation, y = v0y t + ay t2
2
1
y = (v0 sin θ0 )t − gt2
2
1
H = (v0 sin θ0 ) t1 − gt1 2
2
v0 sin θ0 1 v sin θ 2
H = v0 sin θ0 [ g
] [
− g 0 g 0
2
]
(v0 sin θ0 )2
H=
2g

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PHYSICS GRADE 11
Horizontal Range (R)
horizontal range = horizontal distance from the starting point to the point where projectile
returns to the same height
velocity = horizontal component of v = v0x = v0 cos θ0
time taken = time of flight (T)
s
horizontal range, R = v0x T (∵ v = )
t
2 v0 sin θ0
= v0 cos θ0 [ g
]
v0 2 2 sin θ0 cos θ0
=
g
Since, 2 sin θ0 cos θ0 = sin 2θ0 ,
v0 2 sin 2θ0
R =
g

Another case of Projectile

v0
horizontal velocity, ⃗⃗⃗⃗

x
Fig: Projectile motion of an object thrown horizontally

initial state, v0y = 0, v0x = v0

s
x = v0x t (∵ v = )
t
The velocity of the object in the time t, vy = v0y + ay t
vy = 0 − gt
vy = − gt

1
The vertical displacement in time t, y = v0y t + ay t2
2
1
y = v0y t − gt2
2
1
y = 0 − gt2
2
1
y = − gt2
2

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PHYSICS GRADE 11
CIRCULAR MOTION
∎ Circular Motion
Circular motion is a specific type of a two-dimensional motion. It is a movement of an object
along the circumference of a circle (or) rotation along a circular path.
E.g., a ball is tied to the end of a string and whirl it above the head in a horizontal circle, a satellite
orbiting the earth, motion of a wheel, turning of a car around curved path

y-axis
v̅

r
. object (at t)
s

O
θ . θ=0
x-axis
object (at t = 0)

Fig: The angular displacement of an object in circular motion

*Angular Displacement (θ)

The angular displacement is the ratio of the arc length to radius.
∎ In symbols, s
θ =
r

where θ = angular displacement

s = arc length
r = radius of circle
∎ The unit of angular displacement is radian (rad).
∎ Angular displacement can also be expressed in degree and revolution (rev).

*1 radian (1 rad)
One radian is defined as the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc whose length
is equal to the radius of the circle.
If s = r, θ = 1 rad

1 rev = 360° = 2𝜋 rad

For example, 90° =

60° =

30° =

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PHYSICS GRADE 11
Average Angular Velocity and Instantaneous Angular Velocity
y-axis
t2 ω
t1
..
θ2
θ1 θ=0
O x-axis

Fig: Change of angular displacement with time in circular motion

*Average Angular Velocity (ω ̅)

Average angular velocity is the ratio of the change in angular displacement to time taken.
∎ In symbols,
θ2 - θ1 Δ θ
ω
̅= =
t2 - t1 Δt

where ω
̅ = average angular velocity
Δθ = angular displacement
Δt = interval of time

*Instantaneous Angular Velocity (ω)

Instantaneous angular velocity is defined as the time rate of change of angular displacement.
∎ In symbols,
Δ θ dθ
ω = lim =
Δt→0 Δ t dt
At constant angular velocity,
θ
ω
̅ = ω, ω =
t

where ω = angular velocity

θ = angular displacement
t = time taken
∎ Units of angular velocity
radian per second (rad s-1 )
revolution per second (rps)
revolution per minute (rpm or rev min-1 )

Average Angular Acceleration and Instantaneous Angular Acceleration

*Average Angular Acceleration (α ̅)
The average angular acceleration is the ratio of change of angular velocity to time taken.
∎ In symbols, ω2 - ω1 Δ ω
α̅ = =
t2 - t1 Δt

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PHYSICS GRADE 11
where α̅ = average angular acceleration
ω1 = angular velocity at time instant t1
ω2 = angular velocity at time instant t2

*Instantaneous Angular Acceleration (𝜶)

Instantaneous angular acceleration is the time rate of change of angular velocity.
∎ In symbols,
Δ ω dω
𝛼 = lim Δ t =
Δt→0 dt

When moving with a constant angular acceleration,

ω - ω0
α̅ = α =
t
where α = angular acceleration
ω = final angular velocity
ω0 = initial angular velocity
t = time taken
∎ Units of angular acceleration
radian per second squared (rad s-2 )
revolution per second squared (rev s-2 )

Relation between Angular and Linear Quantities

∎ The relation between the angular velocity ω and the tangential velocity v is
ds d(rθ)
𝑣= =
dt dt
dθ
Since r is constant, 𝑣=r
dt
𝑣=rω
where, 𝑣 = tangential velocity (tangential speed)
r = radius of circle
ω = angular velocity
∎ The relation between the angular acceleration α and the tangential acceleration a is
d𝑣 d(rω)
𝑎= =
dt dt
dω
Since r is constant, 𝑎=r
dt
𝑎=rα

where, 𝑎 = tangential acceleration

r = radius of circle
α = angular acceleration
∎ Angular velocity ω and angular acceleration α are vector quantities.
∎ The direction of linear acceleration a is tangential to the path. It is called the tangential acceleration.

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PHYSICS GRADE 11
CHAPTER – 2
ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS

∎ The dynamics of translational motion involves describing the acceleration of an object in terms of
its mass (inertia) and the forces that act on it.

SCALAR PRODUCT AND VECTOR PRRODUCT

∎ Vector can be multiplied in two ways; the scalar product and the vector product.

Scalar Product (Dot Product)

∎ In the scalar product, a scalar can be formed by multiplying two vectors. The scalar product of
⃗⃗⃗ and B
vectors A ⃗⃗ is defined as

⃗B⃗

θ
⃗⃗⃗
A
⃗⃗⃗ . B
A ⃗⃗ = AB cos θ
where, A = ⃗⃗⃗
the magnitude of A
B = ⃗⃗
the magnitude of B
θ = ⃗⃗⃗ and B
the angle between A ⃗⃗
For example: Work is the scalar product of force and displacement. Although the force and the
⃗⃗ . s⃗)
displacement are vectors, the work is scalar. (W = F

∎ The scalar product is also called the dot product.

∎ The scalar product obeys the commutative property.
⃗⃗⃗ . B
A ⃗⃗ = B ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ . A

Vector Product (Cross Product)

⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗B⃗ is defined as
∎ The vector product of vectors A ⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗B⃗ = ⃗C⃗
A
⃗C⃗

θ
⃗B⃗

⃗⃗⃗
A
⃗⃗ is perpendicular to both A
Fig: The direction of C ⃗⃗⃗ and B
⃗⃗

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PHYSICS GRADE 11
∎ The magnitude of ⃗C⃗ is C = AB sin θ.
∎ The direction of ⃗C⃗ is perpendicular to the plane that contains A
⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗B⃗.
(The direction of ⃗C⃗ is determined by using the right-hand rule.)
∎ For example: Tangential velocity is the vector product of the angular velocity and the radius.
⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗r)
(𝑣⃗ = ω
The result of this product is vector quantity.
∎ The vector product between two vectors is denoted by a cross (×), hence this product is called the
cross product.
∎ The vector product does not obey the commutative property.
⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗B⃗ = − (B
A ⃗⃗⃗)
⃗⃗ × A
∎ Right-hand rule: To use the right-hand rule, first you have to hold up your right hand so that index
finger and middle finger are perpendicular to thumb. Now rotate your hand such that your index
⃗⃗⃗ and your middle finger points in the direction of ⃗B⃗. Your thumb
finger points in the direction of A
⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗B⃗.
will point in the direction of cross product A
⃗⃗⃗ × B
A ⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗
A

⃗B⃗

Fig: Right-hand rule

TURNING EFFECT OF FORCE

* When a force is applied to an object, it can turn the object about a certain point known as the pivot
(or) the fulcrum. This is called the turning effect of force.

pivot swinging
motion
pivot d
effort
w1 F
pivot load
w2
Fig: Illustration for turning effect of the force
∎ The examples about the turning effect of force are kids playing seesaw, lifting a load by using
crowbar, opening a door of a room and tightening (or) loosening a nut by turning a spanner.

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PHYSICS GRADE 11
* Moment of a force (or) Torque (τ⃗ )
The turning effect of a force about a particular fulcrum is measured by the moment of that
force (or) torque.
τ⃗ = ⃗r × ⃗F⃗

where, τ = the moment of a force (or) torque

r = the distance from the fulcrum to the point of action of the force
F = the force

⃗⃗
τ⃗ = ⃗r × F

⃗r ⃗F⃗
θ

⃗⃗
Fig: Torque as a vector product of ⃗r and F

∎ It is a vector quantity. The direction of torque is perpendicular to both ⃗r and ⃗F⃗.

O ⃗r point of action

fulcrum 180° − θ θ
F
⃗F⃗
d = r sin(180° − θ) d
∟ line of action
fulcrum
of the force
line of action
of force (b)
(a)

Fig: Applied force acting on rigid body and moment arm

d = r sin (180° − θ)
d = r sin θ (∵ sin (180° − θ) = sin θ)

∎ If a force acting on the object is at an angle of 90°, r = d.

* Moment arm of a force (d)

The perpendicular distance from the line of action of force to the fulcrum (d = r sin θ) is also
called the moment arm of a force.

∎ The line of action of force is a line along which a force is considered to act.

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PHYSICS GRADE 11
* Magnitude of the moment of force (or) torque τ
The magnitude of the moment of force (or) torque τ is defined as the product of the force F
and the perpendicular distance d from the line of action of the force to the fulcrum.
∎ In symbols,
τ = F r sin θ = Fd

where, τ = the moment of force (or) torque

r = the distance from the fulcrum to the point of action of the force
F = the force
d = perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the fulcrum (moment arm)
θ = the angle between ⃗r and ⃗F⃗
∎ In SI unit, the moment of force (or) torque is newton metre(Nm) which is never written as joule (J).

RELATION BETWEEN TORQUE AND MOMENT OF INERTIA

Moment of Inertia
∎ Consider a particle of mass m is rotating at a distance r from the axis of rotation, by the action of a
tangential force ⃗F⃗.
⃗F⃗
ω

r m
rotational
axis
Fig: Rotation of a particle about a fixed axis with the angular velocity ω
Let its angular velocity = ω
its angular acceleration = α
tangential acceleration of that particle rotating about an axis, a = rα
according to Newton’s second law, F = ma = mrα
torque due to tangential force, τ = F r = (mrα)r
τ = mr2 α
τ = Iα
2
I = mr = the moment of inertia of that particle about the axis
∎ If an object is composed of the particles of masses m1 , m2 , m3 ,…, mi .
The distance of each particle from the axis rotation are r1 , r2 , r3 ,…, ri .
The moment of inertia of that object is, I = m1 r1 2 + m2 r2 2 + m3 r3 2 +…+ mi ri 2
I = ∑ mi ri 2
i

m1 ω
m2
r1
r2
m5 r5
r4 r3 m3
m4

Fig: A rigid object rotating about a fixed axis with the angular velocity ω
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PHYSICS GRADE 11
* The moment of inertia of an object (I)
The moment of inertia of an object is defined as the sum of the products obtained by
multiplying the mass of each particle in a given object and the square of its distance from the axis.
∎ In symbols,
I = ∑ mi ri 2
i

where, I = the moment of inertia of an object

mi = the mass of each particle
ri = the distance of each particle from the axis of rotation
∎ It is a scalar quantity.
∎ In SI unit → kilogram metre squared (kg m2 )
∎ The moment of inertia must be specified with respect to a chosen axis of rotation.

∎ The formulae of moment of inertia for some homogeneous objects with respective axis,

hoop (or) cylinder long thin rod with

shell rotation axis
I = MR2 through end
1
I = ML2
3
solid cylinder (or)
disk long thin rod with
1 rotation axis
I = MR2 through center
2
1
I = ML2
12
solid sphere
2
I = MR2
5

Fig: Moment of inertia for some homogenous objects

Center of Gravity (CG)

∎ The center of gravity of a particular object is a point at which all its weight may be considered to act.
∎ For an object of regular shape and uniform density, the center of gravity is at its geometrical center.

CG CG
0 cm 50 cm 100 cm
w
⃗⃗⃗

Fig: The center of gravity (CG) of a regular Fig: Balanced position of the metre rule
of a regular shaped object

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PHYSICS GRADE 11
EQUILIBRIUM
∎ When the system is in static equilibrium, there is no linear motion and no rotational motion.
⃗⃗ = 0, and
∎ The conditions of static equilibrium are (1) the resultant force on the system is zero, ∑ F
(2) the resultant torque on the system is zero, ∑ τ⃗⃗ = 0.

* The Principle of Moments

If an object such as a bar (or) a plank is to be in balance, the total clockwise moment about the
fulcrum must equal the total anticlockwise moment.
∎ In balance, by the principle of moment,
Total clockwise moment = Total anticlockwise moment

For example: building site crane, beam balance, etc.

ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM

* Angular Momentum
In rotational motion, the angular momentum of an object is defined as the product of its
moment of inertia and the angular velocity.
∎ In symbols, ⃗⃗ = Iω
L ⃗⃗

where, ⃗⃗
L = angular momentum
I = moment of inertia
ω
⃗⃗ = angular velocity
∎ It is a vector quantity.
∎ The direction of angular momentum is the same as that of angular velocity.
∎ In SI unit → kilogram metre squared per second (kgm2 s−1 )

* Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum

If there is no net external torque acting on an isolated system, the total angular momentum of
the system is constant.
∎ In symbols, if ⃗⃗total = constant
∑ τ⃗⃗ = 0, then L
∎ It is a fundamental law.
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ANSWERS FOR CHAPTER – 1

Reviewed Exercise
Page 6

1. v0x = v0 cos θ0 = constant, ax = 0

The horizontal component of the velocity of the projectile is constant. There is no horizontal force
on the projectile. Therefore, the horizontal motion of the projectile is taken as uniform motion.

2. If air resistance is neglected, only gravitational force is acting on the object (the projectile motion)
have the two-dimensional acceleration.
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PHYSICS GRADE 11
ANSWERS FOR CHAPTER – 2

1. No, there is no net torque acting on a rotating object with a constant angular velocity since there
is no angular acceleration.

2. Moment of inertia is the measure of the resistance of an object to change in its rotational motion.
(For rotation, this resistance depends not only on the mass of the object, but also on how the mass
is distributed around the rotational axis.)

3. We have ⃗⃗
τ⃗ = ⃗r × F
τ = F r sin θ
To get the larger effect of force,
(1) The applied force must be acted a point as far as possible from the fulcrum.
(2) The angle (θ) must be equal to 90°.

Reviewed Exercise
Page 14

▪ Because work is a scalar product of the force and the displacement.

W = ⃗F⃗ ∙ s⃗ = Fs cos θ = scalar
where W = work, ⃗F⃗ = force, s⃗ = displacement

Page 16

▪ Moment of a force (or) torque is a measure of the turning effect of that force.

Page 20

▪ The conditions of the static equilibrium are,

(i) the resultant force on a body is zero, ∑ ⃗F⃗ = 0, and
(ii) the resultant torque on a body is zero, ∑ τ⃗⃗ = 0.

Page 22

▪ Her rate of spin (angular velocity) increases greatly as her moment of inertia decreases.
Because,
L = Iω
1
L = constant, ω ∝
I
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