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org/ at Pennsylvania State University on May 10, 2016

Structural expressions of rifting:

lessons from Lake Tanganyika, Africa

B.R. Rosendahl, D.J. Reynolds, P.M. Lorber, C.F. Burgess, J. McGill,

D. Scott, J.J. Lambiase & S.J. Derksen
S U M M A R Y : The fundamental building blocks of Lake Tanganyika are half-graben that
tend to be arcuate or crescent-shaped in plan view. When combined with the asymmetric
subsidence of the half-graben, this geometry creates horizontal components of motion which
are expressed as shearing and rotation along the ends of the units. The key to understanding
rift-basin morphology is recognizing the various ways in which these fundamental units can be
linked together in time and space. Although many modes of linking occur, the basic theme is
one of alternating half-graben polarities along the strike of the rift. Where adjacent half-
graben face in opposite directions and do not overlap with each other, they are usually
separated by interbasinal ridges trending oblique to the rift axis. In cases where facing half-
graben overlap, the apparent morphology can be that ofa full-graben with a central high or a
half-graben abutting a structural platform, depending upon the orientation of the observation
line relative to the overlap geometry. Mechanically, such full-graben should be viewed as
opposing half-graben which hinge away from the central high. Examination of the linking
models in Tanganyika has enabled us to derive an empirical model of rifting. The model is
extremely useful in understanding the stratigraphy of Tanganyika, and it seems to explain
many of the styles and patterns of deposition which are peculiar to rift basins. If the model has
general applicability to continental rifts, it can also be useful to those who deal with the
mechanics of rifting and the deep structure of passive margins.

Research workers dealing with the tectonics of just such a willingness on the part o f a consortium
rifts have d o n e so mainly from the perspective of petroleum companies.
and scale of the rift system; when confronted with This report begins with a description of the
the sedimentological side of the picture there is a basinal m o r p h o l o g y of Lake Tanganyika, pro-
tendency to treat rift basins as holes in the ground gressing from the lake bed to the earliest identifi-
into which sediments are d u m p e d indiscrimin- able units o f rifting. We then construct a tectonic
ately. Research into the stratigraphy of rifts has model of rifting in Tanganyika and discuss those
tended to brush aside and even dismiss the elements which seem to have the greatest impact
tectonocist's perspective as too broad and vague on depositional processes in the lake. We con-
to be of any specific value. clude with some statements on the applicability of
This is not a c o n d e m n a t i o n of either group, our m o d e l to other areas and problems.
because the pursuit of a 'middle ground' has been Fig. 1 is the key illustration with regard to the
hampered by a basic lack o f information on the overall m o r p h o l o g y , structure, and acoustic
structure o f rifts at the basinal scale, on the early character of Tanganyika. Most o f the other
evolution o f rift basins, and on how both come figures are derived wholly or partly from informa-
together to influence the depositional histories o f tion and inferences contained in the seismic
rifts. The databases that do exist have been profiles, from which the line drawings in Fig. 1
largely acquired by the petroleum industry. Too were made.
often, this information is divided into prospect-
sized packages, even within individual comp-
anies. It is usually unavailable to the academic Structural expressions and relations
researcher and irretrievable, at least as a whole, to in Lake Tanganyika
the petroleum explorationist. Things are begin-
ning to change on almost all fronts, evidenced in General morphology
part by some o f the discussions in this volume and
by a new willingness of the petroleum industry to The m o d e r n g e o m o r p h o l o g y of Lake Tanganyika
fund field efforts which might reveal the tectono- is shown in Fig. 2. F o u r sedimentary basins are
depositional secrets of rift environments. The identified: the Ruzizi, Kigoma, Kalemie, and
work discussed in this paper is an outgrowth of M a r u n g u - M p u l u n g u basins. These basins are

From FROSTICK, L.E. et al. (eds) 1986, Sedimentation in the African Rifts, Geological Society Special
Publication No. 25, pp. 2943. z9
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30 B.R. Rosendahl et al.

Ruziz,B
228 • 'IT-" :i

Border Fault
200
Border
Fauh~

204

206
Border
256 WHmU,_ L.,ero meo
'r ' ~,, n Fault
208/ 908 ~u u uu ~ ~tgomo D

Bord~~-'x- ~

--'~21()ad~Malos8
'~°ra~' P

22 ~ ~
/ 224K o ~

216 ~ "
218 ~ d e ~ Fa~l,

/ 84
. f 220
Bo/~
S ~ Mw~o~
r High J<X~ 104

J\
IO6

I00 km
I I

FIG. 1. Multifold seismic coverage of Lake Tanganyika and line drawings of selected profiles. Total seismic
coverage including single-channel data (not shown) exceeds 5000 km. Examples of key profiles are shown in
Figs. 7, 9 and 11. The top of the stippled pattern corresponds to a reflection event termed the Nyanja Event,
which is the acoustic basement in most locations. B = basin; P = platform.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Pennsylvania State University on May 10, 2016

Structural expressions of rifting 31

l'x\
',,,~ Ruzizi Onshore
I i

_ocation of suspected buried ridge

3urton's Bay Ridge
Nyanza-Lac Basin
/Nyanza - hac Platform

Burton's Bay
Onshore ~./
Cape Kalambo
Platform rarasi Platform

Kavala Is.
Ridge

Kalemie Platform
Ikola Platform

Moba Ridge
(buried)

Sumbu Platform

100 km
! I

FIG. 2. Schematic diagram of the lake-floor geomorphology of Tanganyika at the present time. Provinces
represent modern depositional units.

separated from each other by ridges of crystalline configuration at the time of the Nyanja Event,
basement rocks, which serve in varying degrees as which is the deepest, continuous, seismic reflector
barriers to sediment spillover. The Burton's Bay that has been observed in the lake. At least nine
and Kavala Island Ridges, which bound the depositional areas can be identified. This leads to
Kigoma basin on the N and S, have been nearly the first set of tectono-stratigraphic conclu-
perfect barriers throughout the history of this sions~depositional areas in Tanganyika have
basin. This is evidenced by the lack of acousto- increased in size as rifting has progressed, via
stratigraphic continuity between the Kigoma burial of some of the interbasinal ridges. One
basin and its neighbouring basins. Other dividing stratigraphic consequence of this is the predicted
ridges, such as the Moba Ridge, are now buried occurrence of something that could be called a
by sediment. 'spillover' facies, which should be more broadly
The early geomorphology of Tanganyika can distributed and possibly thinner and more fine-
be visualized from the tectonic map shown in Fig. grained than pre-spillover sedimentary packages.
3. This is essentially the border fault-basin-ridge Another geomorphologic element of Lake
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32 B.R. Rosendahl et al.

Tanganyika is an admixture of elevated rift
228 fringes we term platforms. They occur through-
out the history of Tanganyika (Figs. 2 and 3) and
2O0 they tend to occupy positions near the ends of
basins. All the large platforms are adjacent to,
i 204 and associated with, drainage systems into the
I,206 lake. For example, the Malagarasi platform is
associated with a large watershed, drained now
256 by the Malagarasi River and in the past by two
208/908 other rivers (Patterson 1983).
',
. 38 Key observations
\ 212 Because the structure of Lake Tanganyika is
exceedingly complex, we have produced a sche-
matic diagram of the tectonics in Fig. 3. This
) 214 might be considered as the product of a filter
which removes the details of faulting within the
, 216 basins but retains the overall patterns, especially
, ,,,,/2/8]8 those which repeat throughout most of the
basins. In order to interpret the geological story
84 contained in this diagram, it is useful to divide it
into key observations and themes.
',,/, Perhaps the most obvious structural expression
in Fig. 1 is the asymmetry in basinal forms. The
vast majority of the profiles show half-graben,
220 each of which has subsided mainly along one
border fault system. True full-graben forms
. \Io4 (approximately equal subsidence along two
opposing border fault systems) are seen in only
L
222 four of the profiles shown in Fig. 1 and probably
characterize less than 20% of the lake. The
occurrence of half-graben in extensional terrains
I00 km is not a new discovery (e.g. Harding & Lowell
I 1979; Bally 1980), although the predominance of
this form to the extent noted here is not com-
monly recognized outside the exploration
industry (Bally 1985). The prevalence of half-
graben should not be surprising in juvenile rifts
["-1 Main Basins such as Tanganyika or Malawi because this
morphology is more energy conservative than
[] Outcropping Interbasinal Ridges full-graben expressions.
[] Buried Highs What is surprising, even perplexing, is the
alternation of the direction of half-graben asym-
[] Platforms/Shelves metry between basins in Tanganyika. This alter-
Border Fault System ation, or scissoring, seems to be systematic in the
sense that whatever the polarity of a basin might
Multifotd Seismic Lines be, those basins adjacent to it usually display the
Interpreted In Figure 1 opposite direction of asymmetry. The expression
here is reminiscent of what one observes on either
FIG. 3. Simplified tectonic map of Lake Tanganyika. side of an oceanic ridge-ridge transform fault.
Structure has been stylized in order to emphasize the The nature of the transitions between down-
main elements of the original fracture geometry of the throw-to-the-E and downthrow-to-the-W half-
lake. Numbered lines refer to locations of line graben has been the subject of much study and
drawings shown in Fig. 1 and seismic profiles cited in debate among our group. The key observations in
the texts.
this context seem to be that: (1) full-graben forms,
such as those shown in lines 210 and 220 of Fig. 1,
occur within the transition intervals of the alter-
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Structural expressions of rifting 33

nating half-graben; (2) full-graben forms always

seem to show some variety of axial antiform or
high; and (3) the border faults which bound the
deep sides of half-graben are concave inward in
map view, and are usually contiguous with the
ridges that bound Tanganyikan basins on their
northern and southern ends (e.g. Fig. 3). Indeed,
the main difference between border faults and
interbasinal ridges is their location relative to the
basin proper. A case in point is the western border
fault of the Kigoma basin, which is continuous
with the northeastern flank of the Kavala Island
~. i~l~
o 1
HALF-GR
H ALF-GRABEN ~.
,,x,

Ridge (Figs. 2 and 3).

The theme
P,
No single concept explains all of the above
structural relations and styles, but most can be
envisaged as variations on a central theme. The
main tenet of this theme is that half-graben are
the fundamental rift unit, or building block, of
Lake Tanganyika. There is a large variety of ways FIG. 5. Main characteristics of the fundamental unit.
in which these units can link together in time and Note that the arcuate form in map view requires
space to form a rift system, but they generally do listric border fault geometries in cross-section, which
so in a fashion which minimizes the work necess- in turn mandate shear and rotation along the ends of
ary to relieve the extensional stresses. For reasons a fundamental unit.
discussed by Reynolds (1984), the linking is often
accomplished by a sinusoidal alternation of
opposing half-graben (Fig. 4). and extension, sediment infill, nature of faulting,
The main characteristics of an ideal fundamen- etc.--are spatially dependent. Another conse-
tal unit are shown in plan view in Fig. 5. There are quence of the arcuate geometry is that border
many important consequences of this geometry. fault systems must also be arcuate in cross-
Paramount is the realization that virtually all section, flattening with depth. As the basin sub-
properties of rift basins--amount of subsidence sides, this results in a component of horizontal
motion which is manifested in shearing along the
extremities of the unit. The border fault system
evolves from dip-slip to strike-slip expressions as
it progresses from the centre to its ends, with a
concomitant decrease in relative amounts of
subsidence (or extension).
In addition to this spatial dependence, there are
a number of different morphologies which can be
observed along any particular orientation of
observation line. For example, the 'end-member'
morphologies that have been observed along the
bisections of fundamental units are given in Fig.
6. Fig. 1 suggests that cases A1 and A2 predomi-
nate in Lake Tanganyika, and there is some
indication that there is a progression from simple
to complex border fault systems as the amount of
subsidence along the border faults increases. The
occurrence of intrabasin antithetic faulting to the
extent depicted in cases A3 and A4 probably
FIG. 4. Block diagram showing alternation of half-
occurs as a byproduct of one type of linking of
graben along a sinusoidal interconnection of border
faults and interbasinal ridges. This is a common way half-graben (see below). If so, cases A3 and A4
in which half-graben are linked together, but Fig. 3 should not be viewed as a type-morphology of an
shows that other modes are possible. The interbasinal isolated half-graben unit. Fig. 7 shows seismic
ridges often extend well beyond the rift proper. sections which illustrate the above cases.
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34 B.R. Rosendahl et al.

/
Flexure A~
A, Simple border ntrabasin synthetic shoulder
fault system f a u l t s ~

F exure A~
A2 Distributary Intrabasin shoulder
border fault syntheticfaults

Fault A~
A -A',., A Simple border Intrabasin antithetic ~oulder

NxN ,
A~
A~ Distributary Intrabasin Fault shoulder
.,fauIts ~

FIG. 6. Range of cross-sectional morphologies observed along A-A'. Note that the top two cases are probably
the type-expressions across the middle of relatively isolated units. Cases As and A4 are probably expressions of
a certain type of overlapped linking of fundamental units. The average width of intrabasin synthetic blocks is
about 4 km, that of intrabasin antithetic fault blocks perhaps only 2 km. As used here, synthetic faults refer to
intrabasin normal faults which parallel the master border faults, both in map and cross-sectional views.
Antithetic faults have opposing dips to the master system in cross-section and may arc in the opposite direction
in map view.

Linking of fundamental units metry is as shown in Fig. 10. Finally, it is

important to understand that the above modes of
Another key to understanding the geological linking are simply examples of what must be a
story contained in Fig. 3 is the recognition of the large family of possible combinations. Most of
morphologies that result from the various ways in the above models and seismic sections show
which half-graben units are linked together in linked half-graben at similar stages of structural
time and space. One common mode of linking is evolution (i.e. similar amounts of subsidence in
shown in Fig. 4. Some of the possible cross- both units). This need not always be the case. For
sectional morphologies of this mode of linking example, the antithetic platform in line 206 of
are given in Fig. 8; an actual seismic example is Fig. 7 is actually a hinged high of the type shown
shown in Fig. 9 (line 214). Another mode of in line 210 of Fig. 9. The difference here is that
linking is shown in Fig. 10, along with some of the subsidence of the two basins is very dissimilar in
possible cross-sectional morphologies. Several the former section, but approximately equal in
examples of seismic expressions are provided in line 210. A close examination of Fig. 3 might give
Fig. 9 and 11. the reader further insight into the range of
In many ways these illustrations are self explan- variations we have actually observed in Tanga-
atory, but a few points are worth emphasizing. nyika.
Firstly, interbasinal ridges and hinged highs Even the few simple examples described above
originate at different positions within the rift from go a long way toward explaining the structural
somewhat different stress conditions. Secondly, styles that occur in the Tanganyika Rift. Com-
hinged highs often terminate or merge into bined with an understanding of the different
Malagarasi-type platforms where the linking geo- modes of linking which can occur, we have
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Structural expressions of rifting 35

W E
O- -0

2 -2

4 -4

W
0- 2!
2- -2

4- -4
i

' E

~- -0

2 - ~#5- 2

4 - ~?i~;i~: ~C ~ - 4

w ~:

0 -0

2- -2

4- -4

W
!0-
=

12- -2

4- 4

VE:21
FIG. 7. Seismic sections illustrating the morphologies shown in Fig. 6. Lines 204, 216, 218 and 222 are examples
of cases Al or A2 of Fig. 6; line 206 is an example of case A4. Note that subsidence along the newer border
fault near the right-hand side of line 206 has created the Nyanza-Lac platform (Figs. 2 and 3), which evolved
into a hinged high further S. Also note that many of the internal faults are antithetic to the original border
fault and tend to be rotated toward the platform. See Figs. 1 and 3 for line locations. All profiles are 24-fold,
migrated sections with W on the left. Vertical scale in km.

essentially derived an empirical m o d e l o f rifting f u t u r e p a p e r , we w o u l d be remiss n o t to m e n t i o n

for this p a r t i c u l a r p a r t o f East Africa. T h e r e are here the efforts o f Bally (1985) a n d G i b b s (1984).
i m p o r t a n t similarities a n d differences b e t w e e n B o t h o f these a u t h o r s recognize the i m p o r t a n c e o f
o u r m o d e l a n d those derived by o t h e r researchers. basinal units a n d b o t h also recognize t h a t there
A l t h o u g h this subject will be tackled in detail in a m u s t be s o m e m e c h a n i s m (and p r e s u m a b l y an
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Pennsylvania State University on May 10, 2016

36 B.R. Rosendahl et al.

BA, Inte[ibgSjnal . . . . BA1

/
B
,,,
a
BA, . Interribagenal f A a ' n ~ ~ A3-4

t Y'

BA3"4 Interbasinal B'

Antitheiic ridge Antithetic faults A3-4
%""-~ faults _

J
FI~. 8. Some possible cross-sectional morphologies observed along B-B'. Note that the angles of synthetic
faults are markedly lower than in Fig. 6 because the observation line is more oblique to intrabasin fractures.
Faulted margins of interbasinal ridges are relatively high-angle, oblique-slip or even strike-slip faults. The
bottom case is not observed in Tanganyika, but is hypothetically possible. Volcanics are thought to exist along
two interbasinal ridges in Tanganyika.

expression) of transferring strain from one basin- ways in which we derive rift morphology from the
al unit to another. In our model, we do this via various modes of linking of half-graben.
oblique shear along interbasinal ridges and
hinged highs, whei'eas Gibbs (1984) uses 'transfer
faults' and Bally (1985) uses 'transform faults'.
Several of the authors of our report also have Effects of structural expressions on
used the term 'accommodation zone' (e.g. Rey- depositional processes
nolds & Rosendahl 1984).
There are many differences between the Tanga- If our model of rifting in Lake Tanganyika is
nyika model and the concepts of Bally (1985) and valid, it could profoundly influence the way
Gibbs (1983, 1984), but most can be explained if researchers view the synrift depositional histories
the latter are taken to be special cases of the of rifts. We include a short discussion of this
former. For example, Bally's orthogonal trans- subject here in the hope that those with more
form offsets of adjacent half-graben could be expertise will carry the task forward, particularly
viewed as one type of linking mode, albeit a rare with regard to other continental rift systems. Our
one in the context of our databases. Gibbs' type examples shall again be taken from Lake
arrangement of parallel transfer faults trending Tanganyika and to some extent Lake Malawi.
oblique to boundary faults is closer to what we see
in Tanganyika. However, parallelism of adjacent
Sediment lithologies
interbasinal ridges (or transfer faults in the
terminology of Gibbs) is the exception, not the Synrift sedimentation in these rift lakes can be
rule. If fundamental differences exist between viewed as a complex interplay between fluvial
these three models, they probably relate to the clastic input and blanket deposition of biogenic
 W E[
O- -0

2 -2

!
4- 4
I
I
W E
O- -0

t~
2- -2

t~
4 -4

E
-0
!
2- -2

4 -4

FIG. 9. Seismic sections illustrating some of the morphologies shown in Figs. 8 and 10. Line 214 is an example of the top case in Fig. 8; lines 220 and 210 are examples of
the top and bottom cases in Fig. 10. Note that the structural high shown in line 214 originates from a different type of linking than the hinged highs shown in lines 220
and 210. See Figs. 1 and 3 for line locations. All profiles are 24-fold, migrated sections with W on the left. Vertical scale in km; vertical exaggeration x 2.

q~
 HJnged high

Platform

C J
J
CA Hrnged high ,
/ --1 Synthetic faults _ Antithetic _ CA3

Platform CA 3 Ct
_ An
; tithetic
Hinged high
Anhihetic
A3

FIG. 10. Some possible cross-sectional morphologies observed along C-C'. Note that apparent full-graben forms originate from an orientation of the observation line
across the overlapping portion of two facing half-graben. In Tanganyika these forms are always associated with antiformal highs. The terms hinged ridge or hinged high
have been used here to denote the mechanical significance of the antiforms. In this concept of rifting full-graben forms do not carry the same level of morphological
significance as half-graben. True platforms of the Malagarasi-type usually occur in the non-overlapping areas. See Fig. 9 for seismic examples of full-graben and Fig. 11
for seismic examples along D - D ' (Malagarasi-type platforms).
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Structural expressions of rifting 39

w
:
--EI I
O- -0
. . . . . . . . . . . ~.~~i~ ~"~

w E
0- -0

O- -0 I

2 -2

4 -4

V.E-- 2 1
FIG. 11. Seismic sections, illustrating morphologies observed along D-D' in Fig. 10. The platform on the right-
hand side of the profiles is associated with the Malagarasi drainage system, but the platform is clearly an
elevated structural block, not a true delta. Note the extensive erosion of the section along the top of the
platform on lines 38 and 212, which indicates that the platform is only an ephemeral repository for fluvial
clastics. The highly reflective and stratified appearance of the basinal sediments is probably due to proximity to
platform-derived clastics (compare to the basinal stratigraphy of line 210, Fig. 9). See Figs. 1 and 3 for line
locations. All profiles are 24-fold, migrated sections with W on the left. Vertical scale in km.

ooze, with local accumulations of border fault S t r u c t u r a l controls

fanglomerates (Patterson 1983; Rosendahl &
Livingstone 1983; Ebinger et al. 1984; Lorber We now must add structure and rift geometry to
1984). For a first approximation we can take the simple picture described above. The most
biogenic 'rain' to be a geographic constant, so the profound effect derives from the observation that
lithology at any given place is largely a function of Tanganyika is a series of linked half-graben.
the extent to which the biogenic component is Half-graben separated by interbasinal ridges (e.g.
diluted by fluvial clastics and/or fanglomerates. the geometry shown in Figs. 4 and 8) must be
Present-day drainage patterns and our seismic treated as independent depocentres until spillover
data indicate that coarse clastics enter the Tanga- occurs across the intervening ridges. This is why
nyika Rift in the following modes: (1) from the the acoustic stratigraphy of adjacent basins
Ruzizi River at the northern end of the lake; (2) usually cannot be correlated. A case in point is the
from rivers associated with platforms, such as the comparison of the Kigoma and Kalemie basins
Malagarasi River; (3) as conglomerates and fang- (Fig. 2), which are adjacent to each other but
lomerates spilling down the border faults; and (4) display entirely different acoustic stratigraphies
from the shoaling sides of half-graben. Any- above the Nyanja Event. This is shown best in line
where near these entrance points, coarse clastics 214 of Fig. 9, which crosses both basins and the
dominate the stratigraphy. This is especially true intervening ridge. The lack of acoustic continuity
in the Ruzizi basin, where our seismic data between the Ruzizi and Kigoma basins is also a
indicate that much of the fill is deltaic and pro- consequence of structural isolation via an inter-
delta clastics. In this respect, the Ruzizi basin is basinal ridge.
unique in Lake Tanganyika. Although their stratigraphies may differ,
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40 B . R . R o s e n d a h l et al.

depositional processes in isolated half-graben along a 'new' border fault near the eastern edge of
tend to be similar. Lines 216 and 218 from the the profile. Because the newer border fault faces
Kalemie basin (Fig. 7) are typical of these set- the original border fault, a markedly asymmetric
tings. Coarse clastics entering from the shoaling hinged high is being created. In effect, a newer
sides of half-graben are deposited as wedge half-graben is evolving on the shoaling side of a
blocks behind synthetic fault blocks. Lateral pre-existing half-graben. One depositional conse-
pinch-outs are common and spillover occurs quence of this geometry is the birth of a new
between fault blocks if input outpaces subsidence depocentre; another is the probable loss of the
along the faults. The primary facies differences coarse clastic supply to the original basin. We
between isolated half-graben relate to differ- should note that this change in geometry is
ences in rates of subsidence, timing of formation, usually accompanied by unconformities.
and clastic sediment supply. Apparently, each of The above case may provide important insight
these parameters can vary dramatically from one into the depositional histories of rift basins.
half-graben to another (e.g. compare lines 218 Consider that the morphology shown in line 206
and 222 in Fig. 7), although clastic supply usually could occur only if the newer border fault is
overwhelms the biogenic components. taking up a significant percentage of the exten-
Where half-graben link together in overlap- sional stress. The acoustic stratigraphy and fault
ping, facing formats (Fig. 10), the interplays patterns on this profile argue that activation of
between geometry and deposition are extremely the newer border fault correlates with retardation
complex because they are dependent upon the or even cessation of subsidence along the older.
amount of overlap, position within the overlap, Similar phenomena are observed elsewhere in
and the relative rates of subsidence along the Lake Tanganyika. In some places (e.g. lines 78
opposing border faults. We shall examine three and 84 of Fig. 1) the subsidence seems to have
cases which illustrate the range of possiblities. alternated back and forth between the facing
border faults. This alternation tends to create
unconformities between acoustic units which
Case 1
thicken in opposite directions. It is likely that
Case 1 is the overlap condition depicted in C-C' many of the major reflectors identified in Tanga-
of Fig. 10, with the subsidence conditions of lines nyika owe their existence, either directly or
210 and 220 of Fig. 9. These conditions result in indirectly, to the alternation of subsidence. It is
antiformal-type hinged highs flanked by narrow, probably more than a coincidence that most
elliptical sub-basins. In Tanganyika these sub- intrabasinal faults tend to group into generations
basins are always the deepest and most thickly that can be distinguished from each other on the
sedimented depocentres. The modern sediments basis of how many acoustic units they transect
in these deep basins are organic-rich muds (note the generational groupings in Fig. 1).
(Degens et al. 1971). The acoustic character of the This brings us to the crucial question of
sediments indicates a preponderance of shale whether or not the conditions depicted in case 1
lithologies throughout much of the depositional evolve from those illustrated in case 2 (i.e. did line
histories of these sub-basins. 210 pass through the stage shown in line 206?).
Apparently the geometry of case 1 results in The fact that the deep acoustic stratigraphy of
rapid subsidence and isolation of the depocentres lines 210 and 220 does not resemble that of 206
from fluvial clastic input. This happens in spite of argues in the negative. So does the fact that the
the fact that subsidence of the hinged highs has hinged highs on lines 210 and 206 are not the same
been retarded relative to that of the depocentres, structure (Fig. 3). The rejoinders to these argu-
as evidenced by offlap and divergence of reflectors ments are that comparisons of seismic signatures
away from the highs shown in lines 210 and 220 from different stratigraphic levels and ages can be
(Fig. 9). We might conclude that hinged highs very misleading, especially on time sections; that
have had an important influence on the patterns the eastern border faults of lines 210 and 206 are
of deposition, almost to the present time, but they contiguous; and that isopach maps of the main
seem to have had little effect on sediment litho- acoustic units in the Kigoma Province suggest an
logy. For the reasons discussed below, this may alternation of depocentres through time. These
not have been the case during the very early isopach maps are shown in Figs. 12 and 13. The
evolution of facing half-graben geometries. basal unit (Makara) is thickest in the southern
part of the basin and was probably controlled by
Case 2
the eastern border fault. The upper unit (Kigoma)
shows a shift of the depocentre to the N, along
The second case we shall examine is illustrated by with its separation into sub-basins flanking the
line 206 (Fig. 7). Here, subsidence is occurring hinged high. The thicker depocentre is adjacent to
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Structural expressions of rifting 41

tA

25 km 25 km
contour interval- 200ms contour interval :200ms
FIG. 12. Isopach map in two-way travel time for the FIG. 13. Isopach map in two-way travel time for the
Makara acoustic unit. This is the basal seismic Kigoma acoustic unit. This is the upper seismic
sequence in the Kigoma Province. Note that the main sequence in the Kigoma Province. Note the shift of
depocentre during this interval was probably the depocentre to the N and its separation into sub-
controlled by the southeastern border fault. basins by the hinged high. The thicker depocentre
appears to be on the W during this depositional
interval.

the western border fault. At the very least, these Case 3

types of depocentre shifts argue for the conti- The third case pertains to depositional processes
nuance of the subsidence shifts well into the in the regions where facing half-graben do not
rifting stage illustrated by line 210 (Fig. 9). If so, it overlap. The morphology in these regions is
is quite likely that the answer to our original usually that o f a half-graben abutting a structural
question is an affirmative. platform (cross-section D - D ' , Fig. 10, and lines
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42 B . R . R o s e n d a h l et al.

38, 212 and 224, Fig. 11). The most important usefulness of the model depends upon a host of
depositional facets of this case arise from the factors, including the 'goodness factor' with
association of platforms with drainage systems respect to the type area (Tanganyika) and its
(see section above on general morphology). This applicability to continental rifting in general.
association creates the impression that the plat- Regarding the 'goodness factor', we can confi-
forms are constructional features built into and dently state that the model is rooted entirely in
on the rift floor by ordinary fluvial deltaic empiricism--it is little more than a simplification
processes. This is not the case. Most Tanganyikan of the structural architecture of Tanganyika. The
platforms are structural highs showing elevated question of global applicability is more subjec-
basement (Fig. 11). This suggests that the drain- tive.
age systems are a response to the existence of the Individually, or in various combinations, the
platforms, not the other way around. This is authors of this report have applied the Tanga-
supported by the observation that the rift flanks nyika model to the following rift systems: Malawi
(or mountains) on the landward sides of plat- Rift; Kivu-Edward-Albert-West Nile system;
forms are relatively subdued compared to else- Kenya Rift including Lake Turkana; Luangwa
where along the rift. valley, Zambia; Kordofan, Sudan; Suez Rift;
One stratigraphic implication of this observa- Rhinegraben; Oslo Rift; Baikal Rift; Rio Grande
tion is that platforms are not deltas per se. Rift; Triassic basins of the eastern USA; Basin
Instead, they are part of the transfer systems for and Range Province; Keweenawan Rift; South
fluvial clastics coming into the basins proper. A China Sea; and Viking graben. Many of these
case in point is the part of the Malagarasi applications can be found in Reynolds (1984).
platform shown in lines 38 and 212 (Fig. 11). At Although we sometimes disagree about the speci-
the present time this part of the platform is below fic details of the applications, the authors of this
lake level, and it is acting as a temporary report are convinced that the Tanganyika model
repository for fluvial clastics flushed from the has broad applicability to continental rifts. The
Malagarasi River. In the recent past, however, case is especially strong for those rifts which have
much of this platform has been subaerially failed prior to generation of significant widths of
exposed, as evidenced by the missing section, new lithosphere. Because space does not permit a
erosional channels, and unconformities shown in fuller discussion here, we shall let those who have
the acoustic stratigraphy of lines 38 and 212. specialized in the study of these other rifts judge
During such low stands of the lake this platform how well the Tanganyika model fits.
was essentially a protrusion of the Malagarasi We have skirted the issue of rifting mechanisms
watershed into the Kigoma Province, and fluvial entirely in this paper, not because the subject is
clastics and reworked sediments presumably uninteresting but because it is too easy to let
entered the deep basins in rather direct ways. It theoretical precepts distort interpretation of em-
should not be surprising that basinal sediments pirical databases. We might note that our model
adjacent to this platform are much more reflective implies a degree of three-dimensionality that is
and stratified than those further away (e.g. com- not explicitly evident in most models of rifting. If
pare the acoustic character of the basinal sedi- the Tanganyika observations prove to be as
ments in line 38 with those in line 210). generally applicable as we suspect, then the
It is important to understand that true plat- mechanics of continental fragmentation may
forms, such as the Malagarasi, occur at predict- need some rethinking. In the same vein we ask
able locations within facing half-graben geome- those who study passive margins to consider the
tries. This means that fluvial clastics enter facing implications of Fig. 3--if this is the way that
half-graben mainly from the non-overlapping continents break apart, it is not surprising that
areas. Because these non-overlapping areas tend the deep structure of passive margins seems to be
to be located near the opposing corners of the so variable from place to place.
facing half-graben, it can be predicted that the
input of fluvially-derived sediments to 'full- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: The work described in
graben' should be strongly antipodal. this paper was made possible by financial support,
initially from NSF grant BNS 7926762, and more
recently from Amoco Production Company (Interna-
tional), Arco Oil & Gas Company, Conoco Inc., Eason
Conclusions Oil Company, Soci6t6 Nationale Elf Aquitaine (Pro-
duction), Esso Exploration Inc., Marathon Interna-
Our intention here has been to provide the tional Oil Company, Mobil Exploration & Producing
stratigrapher with a conceptual model of rifting Services Inc., Pecten International Petroleum, Pennzoil
which has direct applicability to depositional Exploration & Production Company, Shell Interna-
processes occurring on the basinal scale. The tionale Petroleum and the World Bank. We also have
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Pennsylvania State University on May 10, 2016

Structural expressions of rifting 43

benefited greatly from the dialogues we have had with Ebinger, T. Hess, G. Howell, K. Kinkead, M. Patter-
representatives from many of the above organizations. son, R. Roessler and C. Schaeffer. Data processing was
Special thanks go to the governments of Burundi, supervised by G. Howell and W. Schwede, with assist-
Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania and Zaire. ance from J. Buck, T. Davis and V. Heilweil. Artwork
This work would not have been possible without the and secretarial assistance was provided by C. Adams,
extraordinary field efforts at Lake Tanganyika of C. D. Tyler and J. Wilson.

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B.R. ROSENDAHL, D.J. REYNOLDS, P.M. LORBER, C.F. BURGESS, J. MCGILL 8~ D. SCOTT, Project
PROBE, 310 Old Chemistry Building, Dept of Geology, Duke University, Durham, North
Carolina 27706, USA.
J.J. LAMBIASE8£ S.J. DERKSEN, Marathon Oil Co., PO Box 269, Littleton, Colorado 80160, USA.