1.

INTRODUCTION

Geology deals with the study of the earth as a whole, its origin, structure, history (including the
development of life) and nature of the processes, which have produced its present states. For the
comprehensive study of any subject, field visit always plays a vital role. An applied respect of science
civil engineering expected for its existence, if it does it include the field visits. A branch of geology,
engineering geology, forms the basement of the civil engineering foundation.

Taking this view in mind INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING, PULCHOWK CAMPUS, DEPARTMENT

OF CIVIL conducted the three days trip to Malekhu from 6th of Chaitra, 063 to 8th, which provided us to
develop the cooperative feelings through ourselves regarding the practical aspects of the study because it
stimulated group discussion, co-operation, curiosity and motivation during the fieldwork.

Centrally located map wise, Malekhu geologically is a very beautiful area, having diverse topography.
Location of the Trishuli River hundreds of feet below the original level, diverse lithology, and the
presence of various side chain rivers all around, surrounding the area, has made this area even better for
geological field study. Though it is located very near from the valley, just around seventy kilometers from
the capital, and though it is easily accessible and can be reached in about three hours by road.

Hundreds of types of rocks, their various attitudes, the diverse river morphology, various landslide sites,
geologically useful structures, and availability of various types of construction materials make this area
even more important for geological survey, site selection, and other studies.

1.1 Location:
The study area lies in the mid zonal region and is a part of Lesser Himalaya of central Nepal. Malekhu
Bazaar is an ancient terrace of Trishuli River and its adjoining parts of Dhading district.

Geographically , it is situated between the latitude of 27º 45′ to 27º 05′and longitude 84º 59′ to 84º 88′
lying in the Mahabharata Range. The study area cover about 20 sq km and the altitude of the area is about
310 m from the mean sea level.

Malekhu is situated seventy kilometers southwest from the Kathmandu Valley along the Prithvi Highway,
it is a quiet place surrounded all over by many side chain rivers and the Trishuli River itself.

1.2 Accessibility:
It is easily accessible by local vehicle on the highway, and takes about three hours to reach the site. As it is
situated on the sides of the Prithvi Highway, it is a quiet place surrounded all over by many side chain
rivers and the Trishuli River itself.

1.3 Topography:
The area lies to the south of the Ganesh Himal (7400m). The lowest altitude of the area is the point of
confluence of the Malekhu Khola, Thopal Khola and the Trishuli

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River and the area under study is Irang (1094 m).

1.4 Objectives of the study:

The major objectives of carrying out the geological study around the Malekhu area are as follows:
To know the lithology of the Malekhu Area
Study of dip and strike measurement, mapping techniques of the rock outcrops
Study of bedding faults and joints of the rock outcrops
Study of landslides and its preventions
To study the river geo-morphology
To gain ideas for Site Selection in the field
To study the attitude of various rocks
To be familiar with various instruments related to Geology
To be familiar with the various properties of rocks and their application in engineering practice
Engineering geological studies along the large scale geological discontinuity ( the Mahabharata
thrust)

1.5 Methodology:
The methodology of any study may be either the inspection i.e. the field visit or the inferred one. The true
inspection was the methods used in our study, which included the detail field visits to know the real nature
of geological structures. The field inspection methods includes the collection of samples, testing its nature
in the field, identification and the vegetation of the area etc. those places which are inaccessible where
also studied by the inferred methods following the study of area through maps predominantly.

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 2. STUDY OF MASS MOVEMENT

2.1 Definition
The force of gravity acts to tear the mountain down causing a variety of phenomenon collectively called
mass wasting or mass movement, whereby geological materials are moved downward from one place to
another. Mass movement refers to all types of movement either slowly or quickly and with or without
failure plane.

2.2 Types of mass movements:

2.2.1 Landslide:
Landslide is a natural phenomena involving the movement of earth mass or rocks down a slope, referred
to a large scale. Otherwise, this phenomena may be called fall, slide or flow, according to its nature.
Landslides mainly occur due to the instability of the surface beneath the exposed area. Basically, two
conditions are required for a landslide to occur:
The slope is too steep
The solid rock beneath the exposed surface is very weak.
Not all movement down the slope is landslide. They differ accordingly as follows:
If the materials have no distinct surface of movement, and move in the air, finally bouncing or rolling
or vertically falling downwards, then it is called Fall.
If the materials have a distinct planar or curved surface of movement, and slide over the slip surface,
then it is called Slide.
If the material moves along a slope, due to the presence of excessive water content and if the rate of
flow of the water suspended materials is very high, then it is called Flow.
If the upper (hard and competent) rock or soil layer floats and moves over the lower (soft and weak) rock
or soil layer (which behaves like a liquid), then it is called Spread.

Features of a Landslide:
a) Crown:

The original surface above the surface of landslide is called Crown of a landslide.

b) Slip Surface / Surface of Rupture:

The immediate surface where the landslide movement starts is called Slip Surface or Surface of
Rupture.

c) Main Scarp:

The exposed surface below the slip surface is called Main Scarp of a landslide.

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 d) Displaced Material:

All materials deposited from top to the bottom of landslide are called Displaced Material.

e) Debris:

The irregular displaced material of various sizes that can be seen on the landslide site is called Debris.

f) Tip:

The tip of a landslide is the topmost point on the line between the crown and the slip surface.

g) Toe:

Toe is the lowest point or line of the landslide site.

Dimension of landslide:
Length:

Length of a landslide is the distance of the straight line from the slip surface to the toe (up to where
the materials of the landslide reach).

Breadth:

Breadth of a landslide is the horizontal distance measured at the toe, from the beginning to the end
point of the displaced material scattered in the process.

c) Depth:

Depth is the maximum distance between the sliding particles to the ground (the base of the sliding
hill).

Description of Landslide:
The site of our study was near Richoktar, where we crossed the Malekhu river bridge and walked along
the road to the site. The type of failure was rock mass failure, due to numerous joints in the rock. Huge
mass of rocks was deposited on the roadside, where some mass was removed away from the road surface.
There was exposure of rock in the scarp of mass movement. The failure masses of rock were deposited in
the lower part of mass movement and road surface, in the form of stone, boulders and gravel.

The base rock might have been cut when constructing the road, thus the rock instability resulted and mass
movement might have occurred in that area. The slope of the surface was vertical and the rocks had many
weak joints in that area. The deposited masses were removed from the surface of road to access for
smooth traffic flow.

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Four layers of gabion wall were constructed to check for flow of rock mass on the road surface. This
gabion wall might also have helped for the stability of existing rock in its original position. The applied
solution was cheap, easy and less time consuming one.

Details of the Landslide Studied:

Length: 150 m

Breadth: 100 m

Depth: 5 m (approximately the height of the gabion wall)

Length of Crown: 2 to 10 m

Length of Main Scarp: 5 to 40 m

Volume of displaced material: Minimal (Minor Landslide)

Type of displaced material: Landslide debris consisting of Phyllite, quartzite and schist
including existing sandstone, silt and pebbles.

Size of displaced material: Pebbles and boulders of Phyllite, Quartzite, and Schist.

Rock Type: Major block of Phyllite with minor blocks of Schist and
Quartzite

Geological Structure: Vertical and Horizontal Bedding of Phyllite, with large

number of joints, foliation of schist in small blocks

Ground Water Condition: Damp surface layer, might have large water content beneath.

Weathering Condition: Very highly weathered Phyllite blocks

Natural Slope: Less than 45o

Man made activity: Road Construction on the base of the bed rock No prominent
structures constructed around the site
Other Activities: Movement of heavy traffic

Causes of Landslide: Heavy rainfall

Movement of heavy vehicles on the base of the site
Vibrations due to the vehicles
Local scale fault

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2.2.2 Slope Failure:
The movement of weathered surface soil layer or rock of steep slope in small dimension and in rapid
movement is known as Slope Failure. There may be absence of slip surface and the main cause of the
failure is steep slopes, loose soil and excavation of rock or soil on downhill side.

2.2.3 Debris Flow:

The movement of deposited or eroded sediments along the stream is called Debris Flow. Debris flow
involves downslope movement of enormous amount of viscous soils and boulders either separately or
mixed together, and occurs mostly along river valley sides.

2.3 Failure mode of rock slope:

On the basis of orientation of discontinuities with respect to the orientation of hill slope or cut slope, three
types of failures occur in rock slope. They are;

Planner Failure:
It is possible when the dip direction of planner features such as joints, beddings or foliations is at the same
direction (±20˚) as that of the hill slope or cut slope.

Wedge Failure:
It is possible when two planes intersect obliquely across the slope face and their line of intersection
plunges at the same direction as the dip direction of hill slope or cut slope. When a wedge shows an
intersection parallel or close to the direction of the slope up to 32° on either side of the direction of slope,
it is names as a central wedge and from 32° to 65°, named as lateral wedge.

Topping Failure:
It is possible when the planner features dip opposite to hill slope or cut slope and the hill slope or cut
slope is steep enough than the planner features. In general, the hill slope or cut slope is at least 55°.

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 3. STUDY OF ROCK

3.1 Definition:
Rock is defined as the naturally forming, hard and compact solid aggregates or
assemblage of minerals forming crust of the earth. If rocks are formed from
assemblage or aggregates of only one mineral is called Monomineralic Rock and if
they are formed with assemblage or aggregates of more than one mineral are called
Multimineralic Rock. The piece or clock of rock which is detached from rock mass
having diameter of more than 256mm is known as Boulder.

3.2 Types of rock:

All the rocks found in nature are not the same. Even a small area contains large number of rocks varieties.
One rocks differ from other in color, strength, crystal structure, composition, porosity, hardness and
specific gravity, cleavage, fracture, grain size etc on the basis of the variations, rocks are classified into
different classes.

On the basis of rock origin, they are classified as igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

The above-mentioned classification is the broad way of classification. The single class consists of several
rocks. Although there are number of rocks in the nature, only a few are usual and general ones. In our
field study we observed and recognize only about 15 types of rocks or even features. Those were
identified with the help of following properties:
Color
Texture
Mineral composition
Cleavage
Feeling
Hardness

Some of these properties are common to various rocks, but some other is able to recognize a rock such as
slaty cleavage and soapy feelings identifies the rock as Phyllite.

Slaty cleavage with smooth surface and dark green to blackish color identified a rock as Slate.

Alternate dark and bright white bands of crystals in parallel orientation identified gneiss. Gneiss with eye
shaped inclusions of blue color (dark blue) is Augen gneiss.

Rock with dark minerals is hornblende. Mica contained with white minerals of quartz and feldspar and
having coarse grains were recognized, as amphibolites, whitish color, not scratch able by hammer
identified a rock as Quartzite.

Clean white color with fool’s gold (pyrite), scratch able by hammer identified the Marble.

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Thin foliation planes with undulated cleavage planes and sometimes with quartz inclusions (domes)
identified a rock as Schist.

Schist with higher content of mica was known as Mica-schist.

Schist with garnet crystal was known as Garnetiferrous schist.

Rocks scratch able by hammer but not by nail, brown in color formed of crystals (of calcite) was
recognized as Limestone.

Similar to limestone, grayish in color, not so distinguished from limestone was recognized as Dolomite.

The usual method of rock identification i.e. hydrochloric acid method was conducted by us. HCL test will
recognize Calcite and Dolomite. Calcite gives effervescence in HCL and dolomite only react with HCL
when in powered form.

Igneous Rock:
These types of rocks are formed by the solidification of magma either under the surface of earth or over it.
The rock formed by this process having almost no primary structures. These are of three types according
to the solidification process.
Plutonic Rock: The rocks, which are formed underneath the surface of the
earth, are called plutonic rocks.
Volcanic Rock: The rocks, which are solidified on
the surface of earth, are called volcanic rocks.

In the field, igneous rocks are identified by

their huge massive body cross-cut into another rock,
inclusion of other rocks
no fossil content and
have heat effect on the country rock

Metamorphic rocks:
These are formed by alteration of alignment, texture, structure, chemical composition etc. in pre-existing
rocks due to the action of temperature, pressure and chemical reaction. Metamorphic rocks are generally
hard and have interlocking grains.

Metamorphic rocks can be clearly distinguished from other types of rocks by the features like cleavage,
foliation, and schistocity and by the presence of such minerals which are known to be of metamorphic
origin. Metamorphic rocks often exhibit an interlocking texture of the constituent minerals grains. Thus
these rocks are basically identified in the field on the basis of color, texture as well as structure.

Based on the pressure-temperature changes, the transition of metamorphic rocks can be represented as
follows:

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 Slate  Phyllite  Schist  Gneiss
Limestone  Marble
Sandstone  Quartzite
Basic Rock  Amphibolite
Granite  Granitic Gneiss

Sedimentary Rock:
The rocks formed by the deposition of sediments are called sedimentary rocks. Sediments are the loose
soil grains which are transported by natural agents like river, air and glacier and then deposited on the
earth surface. These sediments deposited over along time go into the process of lithification, where each
particle is joined by cementing material and rocks are formed. In the process of sediment deposition, the
grain size, grain orientation, grain type, color etc may vary.

According to the mode of transportation the sedimentary rocks are divided into three different types.

Clastic Rocks: The rocks which are

formed by deposited mechanically are known as clastic rocks.
Chemical Deposits: The rocks that are formed by chemical precipitation are
known as chemical deposits.
Organic Deposits: The rocks that are formed by deposited organically are
called organic deposits.

The process of formation of layers in sedimentary rocks is called “stratification”. The stratification having
thickness less than 1 cm is called “lamination” and that more than 1 cm is called “bedding”.

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3.5 IDENTIFICATION OF ROCKS IN THE FIELD
Location (L1): At Old damage Malekhu Bridge on left bank of Malekhu River

S.NPHYSICAL PROPERTIES1Sample no.012ColorLight blue (Fresh), Elephant skin3TextureNon-

Crystalline4StructureBedding Plane5Grain sizeFine6Specific gravityHigh7Acid testReaction in powder
form but not in bulk form8Mineral compositionDolomite9Origin/rock typeSedimentary (Meta-
sedimentary)10ENGINEERING PROPERTIESStrength:MediumDurability:Medium to
high11IDENTIFICATIONDOLOMITE12UsesConstruction material e.g. Retaining wall etc.
Location (L2): 200m from damaged Malekhu Bridge on right bank of Malekhu River

S.NPHYSICAL PROPERTIES1Sample no.022ColorFleshy3TextureNon-crystalline4StructureSlaty

cleavage5Grain sizeFine6Specific gravityLow7Acid testNo reaction8Mineral compositionChlorite
(Greenish Color), Seresite (Shining) And
Mica (Plate formation)9Origin/rock typeMetamorphic10ENGINEERING
PROPERTIES:Strength:LowDurability:Low11IDENTIFICATIONPHYLLITE12UsesFor construction
of Roof material

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Location (L3): About 350 m from Old Malekhu Bridge on left bank of Malekhu River

S.NPHYSICAL PROPERTIES1Sample no.032ColorDark green3TextureCrystalline4StructurePreferred

oriented5Grain sizeCoarse6Specific gravityHigh7Acid testNo reaction8Mineral
compositionAmphibole9Origin/rock typeMeta basic10ENGINEERING
PROPERTIES:Strength:HighDurability:High11IDENTIFICATIONAMPHIBOLITE12UsesFor
structural material which need high strength
Location (L4): About 450 m from old damage Malekhu Bridge on right bank of Malekhu River

S.NPHYSICAL PROPERTIES1Sample no.042ColorMaroon3TextureNon-

crystalline4StructureMassive5Grain sizeCoarse6Specific gravityHigh7Acid testNo reaction8Mineral
compositionQuartz9Origin/rock typeMetamorphicENGINEERING
PROPERTIES:Strength:HighDurability:High11IDENTIFICATIONQUARTZITE12UsesConstructive
material e.g. flooring

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Location (L5): About 1 km from old damage Malekhu Bridge on right bank of Malekhu River

S.NPHYSICAL PROPERTIES1Sample no.052ColorShining grey3TexturePorphyrobastic (Coarse grain

surrounded by fine grain)4StructureSchistocity5Grain sizeFine to coarse6Specific gravityMedium7Acid
testNo reaction8Mineral compositionCeresite, Fluorite, Mica, Garnet9Origin/rock typeHigh grade
Metamorphic rock10ENGINEERING
PROPERTIES:Strength:LowDurability:Low11IDENTIFICATIONGARNETIFEROUS
SCHIST12UsesOrnamental uses
Location (L6): About 1450 km from old damage Malekhu Bridge on right bank of Malekhu River

S.NPHYSICAL PROPERTIES1Sample no.062ColorBand of grey and white

color3TextureCrystalline4StructureGneissossity (Augen)5Grain sizeCoarse6Specific gravityHigh7Acid
testNo reaction8Mineral compositionFeldspar (Milky White), Quartz (Dirty White), Mica
(Black)9Origin/rock typeHigh grade metamorphic10ENGINEERING
PROPERTIES:Strength:HighDurability:Medium11IDENTIFICATIONGENEISS12UsesFlooring and
cladding and other structural work.

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Location (L7): About 1455 km from old damage Malekhu Bridge on right bank of Malekhu River.
S.NPHYSICAL PROPERTIES1Sample no.072ColorLight
white3TextureCrystalline4StructureMassive5Grain sizeCoarse6Specific gravityHigh7Acid testNo
reaction8Mineral compositionQuartz, Feldspar, Muscovite9Origin/rock typePlutonic
rock10ENGINEERING PROPERTIES:Strength:HighDurability:Medium to
high11IDENTIFICATIONGRANITE12UsesSlab, Gravity dam
Location (L8): About 1955 km from old damage Malekhu Bridge on right bank of Malekhu River.

S.NPHYSICAL PROPERTIES1Sample no.082ColorMilky

white3TextureCrystalline4StructureGranovalistic, Metamorphic5Grain sizeCoarse6Specific
gravityHigh7Acid testReaction in massive form also8Mineral compositionCalcite, Pyrite9Origin/rock
typeMetamorphic10ENGINEERING
PROPERTIES:Strength:HighDurability:Medium11IDENTIFICATIONMARBLE12UsesRaw material
for the manufacture of cement

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4. RIVER CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY

4.1 Definition:
The surface waters flowing in courses of their own are known as streams and the large stream flowing
through extensive area and receiving water from smaller side streams is known as river. The defined
course followed by the river is known as the river channel.

4.1 Types of River Channel:

The river follows different path according to the energy level, the velocity of river and the gradient of
riverbed. There are three different types of river channel.

4.1.1. Straight River:

This type of river follows a straight path. The topography of the area is characterized by steep relief. The
gradient of the river path is also high causing the flow velocity of water high. Since the energy level of
such river is high, the erosional rate is intensely higher that deposition of sediments. Down cutting along
the river path is higher than the side cutting. Straight rivers are dominantly occurred in the Higher
Himalayan region.

4.1.2. Meandering River:

This type of river follows a zigzag path. The topography of the area is characterized by moderate relief.
The gradient of the river path is so moderate that the river strikes in one end and return to other direction
making the path zigzag. The river is widened and flow with lower velocity than that of the straight river.
Since the energy level of such river is medium, the erosional rate and the deposition rate of sediments are
comparatively equal. The Side cutting of the river is higher than the deep scouring along the river path. In
the striking bank, the side cutting is higher with higher erosional rate and opposite to strike bank is a
depositional bank where deposition of sediments take place. Meandering rivers are dominantly occurred
in the Midlands and Lesser Himalayan region.

4.1.3. Braided River:

In this type of river, a single river path is diverted into several paths and many converse to single later.
The topography of the area is characterized by low relief. The gradient of the river path is so low and the
river is widened and flow with lower velocity. Since the energy level of such river is low, the deposition
rate of sediments is intensely higher than the erosional rate. Thick successions of sediments go on
deposition along the river path and river diverts to other sub paths for flow down. Many channel bars
occur along the river path. Due to this phenomenon, the channel shifting is prominent in such type of river
system. Braided rivers are dominantly occurred in the Terai region.

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4.2 Factors Responsible for River Channel Morphology:
The river does not follow the constant path for all the time. The river channel may change time by time
according to the factors affecting to it. There are different factors affecting for the river channel
morphology.
Discharge: The volume of water flowing per unit time is known as discharge.
The discharge of water may affect for the river channel morphology. The
activities of river may depend on the discharge of water. The high discharge
water may cause erosion, transportation and deposition in high rate, which
activities ultimately may affect for the river channel morphology.

Velocity: The velocity has the significant role for river

channel morphology. The fast moving rivers are capable of erosion and
carrying a greater amount of materials. The velocity itself depends on the
gradient and discharge of river.

Lithology: The nature of rocks along the channel and along the side may effect
for the river channel morphology. Some types of rocks are more easily
eroded by river water. The river channel, which passes through the
limestone, will be straight.

Load: The river channel may also be affected by the load condition of the
river. If the river is fully loaded it will not have further capacity to erode and
transport the materials of the channel. But if the river is under loaded it will
erode its channel effectively.

4.3 Activity of River:

When a river flows continuously, in its way it carries out different activities along with its flow. The
activities of river are different in different places according to the velocity of river, gradient of riverbed
and energy level of flow. There are three different activities generally done by the river.

a) Erosion:

The process in which the river takes the existing materials away during its flow is known as erosion.
Erosion takes place in high velocity and maximum gradient. River cuts side bank and erodes bed in this
stage.

b) Transportation:

The process in which the river carries erosion materials from one place to another place is called
transportation. Transportation is completed in solid form, solution form and biological form. In solid
form, there are two different loads of

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flowing materials, i.e. coarser materials as bed load and finer materials as suspended load.

c) Deposition:

The process in which the flowing materials are left by the river and collected it in the river's side and bed
is called deposition. Deposition takes place in small velocity and low gradient. This process causes the
riverbed to be up and sometimes changing the course of river.

The materials at the periphery of the river are generally classified into three types according to the eroded
and depositional properties as follows:

Alluvium:

The materials that are deposited at a greater distance from the source are called alluvium or alluvial
deposits. They have smooth and rounded appearance and there is diversity in the type of these materials as
they travel a large distance. They are widely used as construction materials.

Colluvium:

The materials that are deposited near the source are called Colluvium or colluvial deposits. They generally
consist of angular clasts.

Residual soil:

The materials that don’t get transported by the river are called residual soil e.g. soil on hilltops.

4.4 Features Developed by River:

4.4.1 Ox Bow Lake:
This type of feature is developed by meandering river. In meandering river, sometime the condition
become such that due to the intense erosion on two striking banks, in one stage the both banks meet each
other. Due to such phenomena, the river follows the straight path leaving the curve stagnant water body,
which is known as Ox Bow Lake.

4.4.2 Fan:
When sediments flow down from high gradient tributaries on the low relief, the sediments get accumulate
forming a fan shaped deposit, which is called fan deposit. The fan which is deposited due to water is
known as Alluvial fan. If the materials are dominantly composed of large angular fragments, then the
deposit is called debris fan.

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4.4.3 Delta:
Deltas are deposits built at the mouths of streams. The deltas are usually triangular in shape with their
apex pointed upstream. When a stream enters an ocean or lake, the currents of the flowing water dissipate
quickly. This results in the deposition of the series of sedimentary layers, which make up the delta. The
material of most deltas is well sorted and many deltas are uniformly graded.

4.5 Land Forms Developed by River:

Higher Terrace:

It is the land formed by the river as it was flowing in the area in the past. The higher terrace is over the
high flood level of the river in present. There may be finer and coarser material layers alternately in the
higher terrace.

Middle Terrace:

As its name it is the middle part of the higher and lower terrace. This terrace will also over the high flood
level of the river.

Lower Terrace (Flood Plain):

During floods a river overflows its bank and submerges the adjacent low-lying areas where deposition of
alluvial material takes place. A wide belt of alluvial plain formed in this way on either side of a stream, is
called 'flood plain'.

Channel Bar:

Many rivers are forced to rope a part of their load along their beds, especially in the flatter regions along
their course. Most commonly the deposits so formed take the shape of long narrow ridges called channel
bars. Since they are made up of sand, they are also called sand bar. The river will flow from both side of
the channel bar. They are temporary in nature because an increase in velocity, the river may cut down and
take the sand along with it.

Point Bars:

In meandering rivers, sediment deposits occur as point bars. The point bars are the crescent shaped
deposits, which occur at inside bends of a river channel.

Island:

They are hard rocks forming a small island in the river channel.

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4.6 River Channel Morphology at the Trishuli-Thopal
Confluence:
We studied the river channel morphology of the Trishuli-Thopal confluence from the higher terrace of the
river. We crossed Trishuli River by suspension bridge from Kalika Mandir and went towards Majhitar.

There was channel bar in the left side of the river. The discharge of the Trishuli River was high with
compared the Thopal river. There was side bar in the right bank of the river. At the confluence point there
was erosion band in the right side of the river. There was an island at the confluence of these two rivers

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 5. DIP AND STRIKE
MEASUREMENT
Attitude:
Attitude refers to the three dimensional orientation of some geological features such as a beds, joints,
folds etc. The attitudes of planner features are defined by their strike and dip.

Strike:
It is a geographic direction of extension of the layers of rocks and may be explained as the direction of
intersection of the bedding plane with a horizontal plane.

Dip amount:
The amount of dip is the angle between the geological plane and imaginary horizontal plane i.e. it refers
to the inclination of the bed.

Dip direction:
It refers to the direction to which the beds inclined.

Use of Brunton Compass:

The Brunton compass consists of Clinometer,
Compass and Sighting device.

Process of using Brunton compass:

a. The compass was opened
b. The dip direction was measured by
holding the compass horizontal by
centering of the bubble
c. The dip amount was measured by
tilting the compass to the direction of
water on the rock.

The various data were obtained in the field as:

S.N.Dip DirectionDip AmountAttitudeRemarks1270°55°55°/270°J2168°87°87°/168°B3270°76°76°/

270°J4163°83°83°/163°B5269°54°54°/269°J6170°87°87°/170°B7272°81°81°/272°J8157°89°89°/157°B
Table: Measurement of the Attitude of Planner Features Using Geological Compass

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 6. GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES

6.1 Fault:
The fractures along which there has been relative displacement of the blocks are known as faults. The
phenomenon of development of these fractures and occurrence of relative displacement is known as
faulting. Faulting may result in the rupture of the bodies of rocks into different parts or blocks and
separation of these blocks relative to each other. The displacement of block may take place in any
direction relative to the fracture surface, i.e. parallel, inclined and even rotational.

Parts of faults:
1. Hanging wall The block above the fault plane.
2. Foot wall The block below the fault.
3. Fault line Intersection of fault with the surface of the earth.

6.1.1 Classification of fault:

Based on the movement of hanging wall and footwall, faults are classified as;
1. Normal fault It is a fault along which the hanging wall has moved
relatively downward.
2. Reverse fault It is also called thrust fault. It is a fault along which the
hanging wall has moved up relative to the footwall.
If the angle of fault is less than 45, then such a reverse fault is called
thrust or if less than 10,
then it is called over thrust.
3. Strike slip fault These are those faults along which displacement is parallel
to the strike or two blocks move parallel to each other.

Faults are recognized in the field as follows:

In the field, different criteria like change in metamorphic grade, older rock above the younger rock etc
indicates the presence of faults.
Abnormal behavior of the strata like abrupt termination of a group of beds repetition and omission of beds
and offsets.
Small scale faults can be directly observed.
Faults are also recognized by geological mapping in the field, study of aerial photographs, satellite images
etc.

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6.2 Folds:
The bends or undulations developed in the rocks of the earth's crust as a result of stresses which these
rocks have been subjected to, from time to time are called folds. Folding of the rock layers occur due to
the compressive forces acted upon them. During the dynamic activity of the earth, these rocks undergo
ductile deformation and folds are formed.

The various parts of fold are as follows:

1. Crest The highest point of the fold
2. Hinge The point of maximum curvature of the fold
3. Trough The lowest point of the fold
4. Limb The point of fold where beds incline towards opposite
direction
5. Axis of Fold The imaginary line formed by joining the points of
maximum curvature
6. Axial Plane The plane containing the axis of fold.

The folds may be symmetrical syncline, asymmetrical syncline, symmetrical anticline, asymmetrical
anticline or combination of any of them. The ultimate shape and extent of the fold depends on the nature,
magnitude, direction and duration of fold and the types of rock subjected to this action.

Folds are recognized in the field as follows:

1. Beds show different dip direction, mainly in opposite way
2. Symmetric repetition of beds
3. Small scale folds can be directly observed, but large or regional scale folds are recognized when
the area is mapped geologically.

The fold has great significance in civil engineering works. Following are the engineering geological
significance of folds:
Change in attitude may result variation in evaluation of beds to engineering structures.
Due to shattering of rocks, axes of folds are weak.
Variation in porosity and permeability.
Formation of arches during the transformation of stresses.
Variation in water pressure.

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6.3 Unconformity:
When rocks are formed continuously or regularly one after another without any major break, they are said
to be a set of a conformable beds and this phenomenon is called conformity. When depositional gap or
break occurs between the two conformable sequences, it is called unconformity. So, an unconformity is a
plane of discontinuity that separates two rock sequences, which differ notably in age.

The formation of an unconformity involves the following stages;

First stage: The formation of older rock
Second stage: Upliftment and surfacial erosion of the older rock
Third stage: Again the formation of younger succession of beds after long
time interval above the surface of erosion.

6.3.1 Types of unconformity:

There are three types of unconformity as follows;
Parallel unconformity: The bedding above and below the surface of unconformity is
parallel to each other.

Angular unconformity: The bedding beneath the surface of unconformity are folded
or tilted so that there is angular relationship between younger and
older beds. Thus, the rock above and below the unconformity surface
differ from each other. Both the sequences are of sedimentary origin.

Non conformity: The older sequence is of plutonic origin and upper younger is
of sedimentary origin, between them exit non conformity.

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6.4 Rock Mass:
Rock mass is a mass of rock interrupted by discontinuities with each constituent discrete block having
intact rock properties. Rock masses are heterogeneous because of different rock types, presence of
discontinuities, and varying degree of weathering.
Rock Mass = Intact Rock + Discontinuities

6.4.1 Engineering Geological Data Collection:

Purpose specific data collected from field (rock mass exposure) which can ve quantified in numbers.

Parameters:
Name of Rock:

Weathering of Rock:
Freshly weathered (FW) W0
Slightly weathered (SW) W1
Moderately weathered (MW) W2
Highly weathered (HW) W3
Completely weathered (CW) W4

Rock strength:

Rock Quality Designation:

Drill core quality is rated according to RQD. It is the ratio of the sum of the length of coarse longer
than 10 cm and the total length of the drill specimen. Therefore, we can write it in Mathematical form
as,
RQD = Sum of the length of piece ≥ 10 * 100%
Total length of core run
Also, RQD = 115 – 3.3 Jv where Jv = Joint Volume

6.4.2 Characteristics of Discontinuities:

Spacing of Discontinuities
Aperture
Infilling Materials
Roughness of discontinuities
Groundwater condition
Number of discontinuities
Continuity of discontinuity (Persistence)

6.4.3 Rock Mass Rating (RMR) System:

Following five parameters are used to classify a rock mass using RMR system;
Intact Rock Strength
Drill Core Quality
Spacing of Discontinuities
Condition of Discontinuities
Ground Water Condition

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Rock Mass Classification based on RMR System:
Class NumberRating ValueRock QualityI100 – 81Very good rockII80 - 61Good rockIII60 – 41Fair
rockIV40 – 21Poor rockV< 21Very poor rock
Location 1:

S.NPARAMETERSVALUERATING (R)1Strength of Intact Rock Material

1. Point load strength index)
2. Uniaxial compressive strength)100-250 MPa122Drill core quality49%83Spacing of discontinuity80
mm84Condition of discontinuity
(Guide lines for discontinuity)
A. Discontinuity length (Persistence)
B. Separation (Aperture)
C. Roughness
D. Infilling
E. Weathering

10-20 m
> 5 mm
Slightly rough
Soft filling > 5mm
Slightly weathered

1
0
3
0
55Ground waterDamp10FAIR ROCK∑R =47
Hence, the total sum of rating is found 47. It lies between (60-41) and the class number is ІІI and the rock
type is fair. The average stand-up time is 1 week for 5 m span.

Location 2:

S.NPARAMETERSVALUERATING (R)1Strength of Intact Rock Material

1. Point load strength index)
2. Uniaxial compressive strength)100-250 MPa122Drill core quality50-75%133Spacing of
discontinuity60-200 mm84Condition of discontinuity
(Guide lines for discontinuity)
A. Discontinuity length (Persistence)
B. Separation (Aperture)
C. Roughness
D. Infilling
E. Weathering

3-10 m
none
Slightly rough
None
Unweathered

2
6
3
6
65Ground waterCompletely dry15GOOD ROCK∑R =71

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Hence, the total sum of rating is found 71. It lies between (61-80) and the class number is ІІ and the rock
type is good. The average stand-up time is 1 year for 10 m span.

Location 3:

S.NPARAMETERSVALUERATING (R)1Strength of Intact Rock Material

1. Point load strength index)
2. Uniaxial compressive strength)100-250 MPa122Drill core quality75-90%133Spacing of
discontinuity200-600 mm104Condition of discontinuity
(Guide lines for discontinuity)
A. Discontinuity length (Persistence)
B. Separation (Aperture)
C. Roughness
D. Infilling
E. Weathering

3-10 m
None
Slightly rough
None
Slightly weathered

2
6
3
6
55Ground waterCompletely dry15GOOD ROCK∑R =79
Hence, the total sum of rating is found 79. It lies between (61-80) and the class number is ІІ and the rock
type is good. The average stand-up time is 1 year for 10 m span.

Location 4:

S.NPARAMETERSVALUERATING (R)1Strength of Intact Rock Material

1. Point load strength index)
2. Uniaxial compressive strength)100-250 MPa122Drill core quality50-75%133Spacing of
discontinuity60-200 mm154Condition of discontinuity
(Guide lines for discontinuity)
A. Discontinuity length (Persistence)
B. Separation (Aperture)
C. Roughness
D. Infilling
E. Weathering

<1 m
None
Slightly rough
None
Slightly weathered

6
1
3
6
55Ground waterDamp10GOOD ROCK∑R =69
Hence, the total sum of rating is found 69. It lies between (61-80) and the class number is ІІ and the rock
type is good. The average stand-up time is 1 year for 10 m span.

Page: 25
6.5 Some Terminologies
Bedding plane:

The layers, which are easily distinguished on the basis of variation in color, composition and grain size is
known as bed. The plane of this bed or strata is known as bedding plane. It has fundamental significance
in the study of structural features of sedimentary rocks. The different beds are distinguished from each
other by difference in mineral composition, variation in grain size or texture, difference in color and
variation in thickness etc.

In inclined position, their geometry is defined by “attitude of bedding.”

Foliation Plane:

The segregation of minerals into layers or bands of contrasting mineralogical composition is known as
foliation. The plane of these different bands occurred in metamorphic rock is known as foliation plane.
Foliation plane is generally formed by dynamo-thermal metamorphism of coarse-grained igneous and
sedimentary rocks at progressive stages of the process.

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Conclusion and Recommendation:
From this study we came to conclude that Malekhu is the open geological lab where we have studied
about different types of Rocks and its features. From this study we came to know the landslide and
different types of causes for the landslides and we knew the different types of prevention measures. We
knew all those knowledge from Krishna Vir and other landslide places.

Beside this we came to know to measure the dip direction and dip amount by the Brunton Compass. And
from the table given by ‘Bieniawski’ the rating of rack mass was done through which we were able to
know the strength of rocks.

Although we have studied about landslides, rocks and RMR but two and half days was not sufficient to
study about the landslides, rocks and RMR because it is the vast subject and the study of those things
never ends. However we finished the Geological study in Malekhu but the instrument we used to study
was not sufficient and was of low quality.

Annexes:
Rock sample
Graph Paper

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