438 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY AND TRANSMISSION LINES

3. Crystallisation Its features are:

(a) Copper losses increase due to ageing of the transmission line. Losses are
more when the line is subjected to high temperature, high winds and
moisture. Moreover, bending of the line back and forth causes the line to
become brittle and cracks appear. This effect is known as crystallisation of
the conductors.
(b) Crystallisation increases resistance in the conductors which in turn increases
copper losses.

Dielectric Losses
These losses exist due to improper characteristics of dielectric.
Salient features:
(a) These are due to I 2 R power dissipation because of the heating of the solid
dielectric material between conductors in transmission lines. These losses
are proportional to the voltage across the dielectric.
(b) With increased frequencies, solid dielectric properties worsen and hence
transmission lines with solid dielectrics have limited applications.
(c) Lines with air dielectric are used at high frequencies, as air dielectric loss
is very small.

Radiation Losses
Salient features:
(a) These losses are high when the spacing between the lines is high as the
transmission line acts as an antenna. Therefore, radiation losses are more
in parallel-wire lines than in coaxial lines.
(b) At high frequency, λ will be small and hence the transmission lines are
not useful at high frequencies.

Problem 7.1 A transmission line with air as dielectric has z0 = 50 Ω and

a phase constant of 3.0 rad/m at 10 MHz. Find the inductance and capacitance
of the line.
Solution A line with air dielectric is lossless as σ = 0.
R = 0 = G and α = 0

L
z0 = R0 = 50 Ω =
C

and β = ω LC = 2π f LC
439 TRANSMISSION LINES 439

R0 L /C 1
= =
β 2π f LC ωC

β 3
or, C = = = 0.9549 × 10− 9
ωR0 2π × 107 × 50

C = 954.9 pF/m

L
As = R0 = 50 Ω
C
L = 50 2 C = 2500 × 954.9 × 10 −12

L = 2387.25 nH/m

Problem 7.2 A lossy cable which has R = 2.25 Ω / m, L = 1.0 µH/m,

C = 1 pF/m, and G = 0 operates at f = 0.5 GHz. Find the attenuation constant
of the line.
Solution The propagation constant is given by

γ = α + jβ = ZY

Z = R + jωL

Y = G + jωC = jωC [As G = 0]

γ = (R + jωL) ( jωC)

= (2.25 + j 2π × 500 × 106 × 1.0 × 10−6 ) × j 2π × 500 × 106 × 1 × 10−12

= 1.125 × 10−3 + j 3.142 (m −1 )

α = 1.125 × 10 −3 ( m −1 )

Problem 7.3 A transmission line in which no distortion is present has the

following parameters: z0 = 50 Ω , α = 0.020 m -1 , υ = 0.6υ0 . Determine R, L, G, C
and wavelength at 0.1 GHz.
Solution For a distortionless line the condition is
RC
RC = GL or G =
L
440 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY AND TRANSMISSION LINES

L
and z0 =
C

C
α = RG = R
L

R
=
z0

and hence
R = α z0

= 20 × 10−3 × 50 = 1.0 Ω / m

z0 50
L= = = 277 nH/m
υ 0.6 × 3 × 108

α 2 400 × 10−6
G = =
R 1.0

G = 400µ mho/m

1 1
C = = = 111.1 pF/m
υz0 0.6 × 3 × 108 × 50

υ 0.6 × 3 × 108
λ = = = 1.8 m
f 0.1 × 109

Problem 7.4 For a transmission line which is terminated in a normalised

impedance zn , VSWR = 2. Find the normalised impedance magnitude.
Solution Normalised impedance, zn

zL
zn =
z0

1 + |ρ|
S = VSWR = 2 =
1 − |ρ|

S−1 2−1 1
or, |ρ| = = =
S+1 2+1 3
441 TRANSMISSION LINES 441

We have

zL − z0
|ρ| =
z L + z0

zL
−1
z0 1
= =
zL
+1 3
z0

|zn| = 2

Problem 7.5 A lossless transmission line used in a TV receiver has a

capacitance of 50 pF/m and an inductance of 200 nH/m. Find the characteristic
impedance for sections of a line 10 metre long and 500 metre long.
Solution The characteristic impedance of a lossless transmission line is

L
z0 =
C
The inductance, L of the line
= 200 nH/m
For 10 m line,
−9
L = 200 × 10 × 10 = 2000 × 10 −9
= 2 × 10 −6 H
C = 50 pF/m
For 10 m line,
C = 50 × 10 −12 × 10 = 5 × 10 −10 F
The characteristic impedance, z0

L 2 × 10−6
z0 = =
C 5 × 10−10

= 0.4 × 104
z0 = 63.245 Ω
The inductance of 500 m line
−9
L = 200 × 10 × 500
442 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY AND TRANSMISSION LINES

= 10,0000× 10−9
−4
L = 10 H
The capacitance of 500 m line
−12
C = 50 × 10 × 500
= 25000 × 10−12 = 25 × 10−9 F
The characteristic impedance, z 0 of 500 m line

L 10 − 4
z0 = =
C 25 × 10− 9

= 0.04 × 10− 4 × 109

= 0.4 × 10−5 × 109

= 0.4 × 104

= 0.632 × 10 2

z 0 = 63.2 Ω

Problem 7.6 A two-wire open air line, whose diameter is 2.588 mm, is
used in several applications. The wires are spaced at 290 mm between the
centres. Find out the characteristic impedance of the line.
Solution Radius of the wire

d 2.588
r = = = 1.294 mm
2 2
Spacing between the wires is
s = 290 mm
The characteristic impedance of the two-wire open air line is
s
z 0 = 276 log10
r

290
= 276 log10
1.294

= 276 log 10 224.11

443 TRANSMISSION LINES 443

= 276× 2.350
z0 = 648.7 Ω

Problem 7.7 A copper coaxial line has an outside tubing of thickness

1.8 mm and its outside diameter is 30 mm. The thickness of the inner tubing is
1.0 mm and its outside diameter is 8 mm. Find the characteristic impedance of
the line.
Solution Diameter of the outside conductor is

d1 = 30 − 2 × 1.8 = 26.4 mm
Diameter of the inner conductor is

d2 = 8 − 2 × 1.0 = 6.0 mm

For a coaxial cable, z0 is

d 
z0 = 138 log  1 ÷÷
 d2 

 26.4 
= 138 log  ÷
 6 

= 138 log 10 4.40

z0 = 88.79 Ω

Problem 7.8 If a signal of 30 MHz is transmitted through a coaxial cable

which has a capacitance of 30 pF/m and an inductance of 500 nH/m. (a) Find
the time delay for a cable 1 m long, (b) propagation velocity, and (c) propagation
delay over a cable length of 10 m.
Solution
(a) The time delay for 1 m long cable is
td = LC

= (500 × 10−9 ) (30 × 10−12 )

= 15 × 10−18

td = 3.87 n sec
444 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY AND TRANSMISSION LINES

(b) Velocity of propagation,

1 metre
υp =
3.87 × 10−9

υ p = 2.5839 × 10 8 m/s
(c) The inductance of 10 metre cable is

L = 500 × 10−9 × 10 = 5 × 10−6 H

The capacitance of 10 metre cable is

C = 30 × 10 −12 × 10 = 3 × 10 −10 F
The time delay,

td = LC = 5 × 10−6 × 3 × 10−10

= 3.87 × 10 −8

or td = 38.7 ns

Problem 7.9 The attenuation coefficient of a transmission line is

0.2 mNp/m. Find the attenuation coefficient in (a) dB/m (b) dB/mile.
Solution
(a) Attenuation coefficient in Np/m is

α = 0.2 × 10 −3 Np/m
Attenuation coefficient in dB/m is
α = 8.686 × 0.2 × 10 −3
α = 1.7372 × 10 −3 dB/m
(b) 1 mile = 1609 m
The attenuation coefficient, α in dB/mile is
α = 1.7372 × 10 −3 × 1609
α = 2.795 dB/mile

Problem 7.10 A lossless transmission line is terminated in a load

impedance of 30 – j 23 Ω . Find the phase constant and the reflection coefficient
of a line of length 50 m. Characteristic impedance, z0 = 50 Ω. Wavelength on
the line = 0.45 m.
445 TRANSMISSION LINES 445

Solution
z L = (30 − j 23) Ω

z0 = 50 Ω

λ = 0.45 m
l = 50 m
Phase constant,
2π
β = = 13.9626 rad/m
λ
Reflection coefficient,

z L − z0
ρ =
zL + z0

30 − j 23 − 50
=
30 − j 23 + 50

−(20 + j 23)
=
(80 − j 23)

ρ = − (0.1431 + j0.3071)

Problem 7.11 A coaxial cable has z0 of 75 Ω and a capacitance of

70 pF/m. Find its inductance per metre. If the radius of the inner conductor is
0.292 mm and the relative permittivity of the dielectric is 2.3, determine the
radius of the outer conductor.
Solution Radius of the inner conductor,
ri = 0.292 mm
We have

L
z0 =
C

L
or, = z02
C
2 2 −12
L = z0 C = 75 × 70 × 10

L = 0.3937 µ H/m
446 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY AND TRANSMISSION LINES

For a coaxial cable, z0 is also given by

138 r 
z0 = log  0 ÷÷
∈r  ri 

 r  z0 ∈r
or, log  0 ÷÷ = 138
 ri 

75 × 2.3
= = 0.8242
138
r0
= Anti log 0.8242 = 6.671
ri
r0 = 0.292 × 6.671

r0 = 1.9479 mm

where r0 = radius of the outer conductor.

Problem 7.12 A lossless transmission line of length 100 m has an

inductance of 28µH and a capacitance of 20 nF. Find (a) propagation velocity
(b) phase constant at an operating frequency of 100 kHz (c) characteristic
impedance of the line.
Solution Length of transmission line,
l = 100 m
Inductance of the line
= 28µH

28 × 10−6
Inductance/metre = = 0.28 µH/m
100
Capacitance of the line = 20 nF
Capacitance per metre

20 × 10−9
= = 0.20 nF/m
100
(a) Propagation velocity,

1
υp =
LC
447 TRANSMISSION LINES 447

1
=
0.28 × 10−6 × 0.2 × 10−9

υ p = 1.336 × 108 m/s

(b) Phase constant,

ω
β =
υp

2π × 100 × 103
=
1.336 × 108

2π 105
= × 8
1.336 10

β = 4.702 × 10 −3 rad/m
(c) Characteristic impedance of the transmission line,

L 0.28 × 10−6
z0 = = = 37.42 Ω
C 0.2 × 10− 9

z0 = 37.42 Ω

Problem 7.13 The dielectric material between two conductors of a lossless

coaxial cable has ∈r = 4 and µ r = 1. Diameter of the inner conductor is 2 mm.
Characteristic impedance of the 10 m long cable is 50 Ω. Determine the diameter
of the outer conductor of the coaxial cable.
Solution The expression for inductance and capacitance of a coaxial
cable is
µ d0
L = ln
2π di

2π∈
and C =
d 
ln  0 
 di 

where µ = permeability = µ 0 µ r
∈ = permittivity = ∈0 ∈r
448 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY AND TRANSMISSION LINES

d0 = diameter of outer conductor

di = diameter of inner conductor
The expression for the characteristic impedance, z0 is

L
z0 =
C

µ d 
ln  0 
2π  di 
=
2π∈
d
ln 0
di

1 µ d
= ln 0
2π ∈ di

d0 z 0 × 2π
ln =
di µ
∈

µ µ µ 4π × 10−7
Here = r 0 =
∈ ∈r ∈0 4 × 8.854 × 10−12

µ
= 1.8836 × 10 2
∈

d0 50 × 2π
ln = = 1.6678
di 1.8836× 102

d0
= e 1.6678 = 5.300
di
d0 = Di × 5.3 = 2 × 5.3

d0 = 10.6 mm

Problem 7.14 A transmission line is lossless and is 25 m long. It is

terminated in a load of z L = 40 + j 30 Ω at a frequency of 10 MHz. The inductance
and capacitance of the line are L = 300 nH/m, C = 40 pF/m. Find the input
impedance at the source and at the mid-point of the line.
449 TRANSMISSION LINES 449

Solution The length of transmission line = 25 m.

Load impedance,
z L = 40 + j 30
Inductance,
L = 300 nH/m
Capacitance,
C = 40 pF/m
Characteristic impedance,

L 300 × 10− 9
z0 = = = 75 Ω
C 40 × 10−12
Phase constant, β

β = ω LC
= 2π f LC

= 2π × 10 × 106 300 × 10− 9 × 40 × 10−12

= 2π × 107 × 10−11 × 300 × 400
= 2π × 346.41 × 10−4

β = 0.2176 rad/m
Input impedance at the source end is

 z + jz0 tan β l 
z i = z0  L 
 z0 + jzL tan β l 

 40 + j 30 + j75 tan (0.2176 × 25) 

= 75  
 75 + j ( 40 + j 30) tan (0.2176 × 25) 

zi = 37.116 − j 23.165 Ω

Similarly, input impedance at 12.5 m from source end is

 40 + j 30 + j75 tan (0.2176 × 12.5) 

zi = 75  
 75 + j ( 40 + j 30) tan (0.2176 × 12.5) 

zi = 33.154 + j 3.198 Ω
12.6 Circuit Theory and Transmission Lines

Substituting in Eq. (12.2),

γ 2 ( ∆x ) 2 γ 3 ( ∆x )3 ZY  ZY Z2 Y2 
1 + γ ∆x + + + = 1+ ( ∆x ) 2 + ZY ∆x 1 + ( ∆x ) 2 − ( ∆x ) 4 + 
2 6 2  8 128 
( ZY ) 2 ( ZY )3
= 1 + ZY ( ∆x ) + ( ∆x ) 2 + ( ∆x )3 + 
2 8

Cancelling 1 from both the sides and dividing by ∆x,

γ 2 ∆x γ 3 ( ∆x ) 2 ( ZY ) 2 ( ZY )3
γ+ + +  = ZY + ∆x + ( ∆x ) 2 + 
2 6 2 8
When ∆x approaches zero,
γ = ZY
In terms of primary constants,
γ = ( R + jω L)(G + jωC ) = α + jβ
where a is the attenuation constant and b is the phase shift constant.
The phase shift constant b indicates the amount by which the phase of an input current changes in a unit
distance. In a distance equal to one wavelength l the phase shift is 2p radians.
2π
λ=
β
The phase velocity of propagation is given by
ω 2π ω
v p = fλ = =
2π β β

example 12.1 The constants of a transmission line are

R = 6 Ω/km, L = 2.2 mH/km
−6
G = 0.25 × 10  /km, C = 0.005 × 10 −6 F/km
Determine the characteristic impedance and propagation constant, attenuation constant and phase shift
constant at 1 kHz.
Solution

Z = R + jω L = 6 + j 2π × 1000 × 2.2 × 10 −3 = 15.07∠66.54°Ω / km

Y = G + jωC = 0.25 × 10 −6 + j 2π × 1000 × 0.005 × 10 −6 = 3.14 × 10 −5 ∠89.54°  / km

Z 15.07∠66.54°
Z0 = = = 692.77∠ − 11.5°Ω
Y 3.14 × 10 −5 ∠89.54°
γ = ZY = (15.07∠66.54°)(3.14 × 10 −5 ∠89.54°) = 0.022∠78.04° /km = (4.55 × 10 −3 + j00.022) /km
α = 4.55 × 10 −3 neper/km
β = 0.022 rad/km
 12.5 Secondary Constants of a Transmission Line 12.7

example 12.2 The values of primary constants of an open-wire line per km are R = 10 W, L =
3.5 mH, C = 0.008 µF and G = 0.7 µ . For a signal frequency of 1000 Hz, calculate the characteris-
tic impedance Z0 , propagation constant g, attenuation constant a, phase constant b, wavelength l and
phase velocity vp.

Solution

R = 10 Ω/km, L = 3.5 mH/km, C = 0.008 µF/km

G = 0.7 µ/km, f = 1000 Hz

Z = R + jω L = 10 + j 2π × 1000 × 3.5 × 10 −3 = 24.16 ∠65.55° Ω / km

Y = G + jωC = 0.7 × 10 −6 + j 2π × 1000 × 0.008 × 10 −6 = 50.27 × 10 −6 ∠89.2°  / km
Z 24.16∠65.66°
Z0 = = = 693.26 ∠ − 11.77° Ω
Y 50.27 × 10 −6 ∠89.2°
γ = ZY = ( 24.16∠65.66°)(50.27 × 10 −6 ∠89.2°) = 0.035∠77.43° = (7.62 × 10 −3 + j 0.034) /km

α = 7.62 × 10 −3 neper/km
β = 0.034 rad/km
2π 2π
λ= = = 184.8 km
β 0.034
ω 2π × 1000
vp = = = 184.8 × 103 km/s
β 0.034

example 12.3 A low-frequency transmission line has the following primary constants per km: R =
6W, L = 2.2 mH, C = 0.005 mF, G = 0.05 µ. Calculate its secondary constants Z0 , a and b at a frequency
of 1 kHz. If the line length is 100 km, determine the attenuation and phase shift suffered by the signal. Evalu-
ate the phase velocity of the signal.

Solution

R = 6 Ω/km, L = 2.2 mH/km, C = 0.005 µF/km,

G = 0.05 µ /km, f = 1 kHz

Z = R + jω L = 6 + j 2π × 1000 × 2.2 × 10 −3 = 15.07∠66.54°Ω / km

Y = G + jωC = 0.05 × 10 −6 + j 2π × 1000 × 0.005 × 10 −6 = 31.42 × 10 −6 ∠89.5°  / km
Z 15.07∠66.54°
Z0 = = = 692.55∠ − 11.69° Ω
Y 31.42 × 10 −6 ∠89.91°
γ = ZY = (15.07∠66.54°)(31.42 × 10 −6 ∠89.91° = 21.76 × 10 −3 ∠78.23° /km
= ( 4.44 × 10 −3 + j 0.0213)/km

α = 4.44 × 10 −3 neper/km
β = 0.0213 rad/km
12.8 Circuit Theory and Transmission Lines

For l = 100 km,

α = 4.44 × 10 −3 × 100 = 0.44 neper

β = 0.0213 × 100 = 2.13 rad
ω 2π × 1000
vp = = = 294.99 km/s
β 0.0213

example 12.4 The characteristic impedance of a uniform transmission line is 2309.6 W at a frequen-
cy of 800 MHz. At this frequency, the propagation constant is 0.054 (0.0366 + j 0.99). Determine R and L.

Solution
Z0 = 2309.6 Ω, f = 800 MHz

γ = 0.054(0.0366 + j 0.99) = 1.98 × 10 −3 + j 0.053

Z R + jω L
Z0 = = …(i)
Y G + jω C

γ = ZY = ( R + jω L)(G + jωC ) …(ii)

Multiplying Eq. (i) and (ii),

Z 0 γ = R + jω L

R + jω L = 2309.6(1.98 × 10 −3 + j 0.053) = 4.56 + j123.47

R = 4.56 Ω/unit length

ω L = 123.47
2π × 800 × 106 × L = 123.47
L = 0.0245 µ H/ per unit length

example 12.5 A transmission line has a characteristic impedance of 710 Æ −16° W at 1 kHz. At
this frequency, attenuation and phase shift is found to be 0.01 neper and 0.035 radian per km respectively.
Calculate the primary constants of the line.

Solution
Z0 = 710 ∠ −16° Ω, a = 0.01 neper,
b = 0.035 rad, f = 1 kHZ
g = a + jb = 0.01 + j 0.035 = 0.0364 ∠ 74.05°/km

Z R + jω L
Z0 = = …(i)
Y G + jω C

γ = ZY = ( R + jω L)(G + jωC ) …(ii)

 12.5 Secondary Constants of a Transmission Line 12.9

Multiplying Eq. (i) and (ii),

R + jω L = Z0 γ = (710 ∠ − 16°)(0.0364 ∠ 74.05°) = 25.84 ∠58.05° = 13.68 + j 21.93 Ω

R = 13.68 Ω / km
ω L = 21.93
2π × 103 × L = 21.93
L = 3.49 mH /km
Dividing Eq. (ii) by Eq. (i),

G + jωC 0.0364 ∠74.05°

( R + jω L)(G + jωC ) × =
R + jω L 710 ∠ − 16°
G + jωC = 5.13 × 10 −5 ∠90.05° = 0 + j 5.13 × 10 −5 
G=0
ωC = 5.13 × 10 −5
2π × 10 × C = 5.13 × 10 −5
3

C = 8.16 nF/km

example 12.6 Find the attenuation and phase shift constant of a wave propagating along the line
whose propagation constant is 1.048 × 10−4 Æ 88.8°/m.

Solution

γ = 1.048 × 10 −4 ∠88.8 = ( 2.195 × 10 −6 + j1.048 × 10 −4 ) /m

Comparing with g = a + jb,

α = 2.195 × 10 −6 neper/m
β = 1.048 × 10 −4 rad/m

example 12.7 A 12 km open wire line is terminated in its characteristic impedance. At a certain
frequency, the signal voltage measured at a distance of 1 km reduces to 90% of the sending end voltage.
Determine voltage at the receiving end in terms of the sending end voltage VS .

Solution
Signal voltage v at 1 km = 0.9 VS
v = VS e −γ l
0.9VS = VS e −γ
e −γ = 0.9
When l = 12 km, v = VR
VR = VS e −γ ×12
= VS (e −γ )12
= VS (0.9)12
= 0.282 VS
12.10 Circuit Theory and Transmission Lines

example 12.8 A coaxial cable has a characteristic impedance of 50 W and an attenuation constant
of 1.2 dB/km. A 20 km length of this cable is terminated in its characteristic impedance and the input power
to the line is 0.5W. Find (a) the output power, and (b) the output current.

Solution
Z0 = 50 Ω, a = 1.2 dB/km, l = 20 km, PS = 0.5 W.

(a)
α = 1.2 dB/km = 1.2 × 20 × 0.115 nepers = 2.76 nepers

IS
ln = 2.76
IR
IS
= e 2.76 = 15.8
IR
2
PS  I S 
=
PR  I R 
0.5
= (15.8) 2
PR
PR = 2 mW
(b) Z0 = 50 Ω
2
PS = I S Zo
2
0.5 = I S (50)
I S = 0.1 A
IS
= 15.8
IR
0.1
= 15.8
IR
I R = 6.33 mA

12.6 InfInIte LIne

The propagation of electric energy along a uniform and symmetrical line may be considered in terms of the
results obtained for an imaginary line of infinite length shown in Fig. 12.7.

IS

VS To
Z0
infinity

Fig. 12.7 Infinite line

 12.12 Standing Wave Ratio 12.17

When the line is not terminated properly, standing waves are produced. The ratio of Vmax to Vmin is termed
the Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR). Similarly, the ratio of Imax to Imin is termed the Current Standing
Wave Ratio (ISWR). Voltage standing wave ratio is the term most commonly employed because it is simpler
to carry out voltage measurement along a line. For current measurements, we have to break the line and
insert on ammeter. Hence, practically, only VSWR measurement is done and VSWR is nothing but SWR.
Theoretically, the value of S lies between 1 and ∞. VSWR is a scalar quantity.

12.12.1 Relation between Standing Wave Ratio (s) and Magnitude of Reflection
Coefficient (G)
The points of voltage maxima occurs at points at which the incident and reflected waves are in phase and add
up directly. The points of voltage minima occurs at points at which the incident and reflected waves are not
in phase.
Hence, Vmax = Vi + Vr
Vmin = Vi − Vr
where Vi = rms value of incident voltage.
and Vr = rms value of reflected voltage.
Vr
1+
Vmax Vi + Vr Vi 1 + G
VSWR = S = = = =
Vmin Vi − Vr V 1− G
1− r
Vi
Applying componendo and dividendo,
S 1+ G
=
1 1− G
S −1 1+ G −1+ G 2 G
= = = G
S +1 1+ G +1− G 2
S −1
G =
S +1

example 12.9 A lossless line has a characteristic impedance of 400 W. Determine the standing
wave ratio if the receiving end impedance is 800 W.

Solution
Z0 = 400 Ω, ZR = 800 Ω
Z R − Z 0 800 − 400
G= = = 0.33
Z R + Z 0 800 + 400
1+ G 1 + 0.33
S= = = 1.99
1− G 1 − 0.33
12.18 Circuit Theory and Transmission Lines

example 12.10 If VSWR of a line is 1.5 then calculate its reflection coefficient.

Solution
1+ G
VSWR = = 1.5
1− G
1 + G = 1.5 − 1.5 G
G = 0.2

example 12.11 Determine G of a line for which ZR = 200 W, Z0 = 692 Æ −12°W .

Solution
Z R − Z 0 200 − (692 ∠ − 12°)
G= = = 0.56 ∠172.53°
Z R + Z 0 200 + (692 ∠ − 12°)

example 12.12 A radio frequency line with Z0 = 70 W is terminated by ZL = (115 − j80) W at

l = 2.5 m. Find the VSWR and the maximum and minimum line impedances.

Solution
Z0 = 70 Ω, Z R = (115 − j80) Ω
Z R − Z 0 115 − j80 − 70
G= = = 0.46 ∠ − 37.26°
Z R + Z 0 115 − j80 + 70
1+ G 1 + 0.46
S= = = 2.7
1− G 1 − 0.46
Z S max = S Z0 = ( 2.7) (70) = 189 Ω
Z 0 70
Z S min = = = 25.93 Ω
S 2.7

12.13 scatterInG parameters or s-parameters

Z-parameters are useful in analysing series circuits while Y-parameters are useful in analysing parallel circuits.
Similarly, transmission parameters are useful for chain or cascade circuits. However, the characterisation
procedure of these parameters requires an open or short circuit at another port. This makes it very difficult to
determine the parameters of a network at radio and microwave frequencies. Hence, a new set of parameters,
i.e., scattering parameters, based on travelling waves are used.
Figure 12.11 shows a network with incident and reflected waves at its two ports.

a1 b2
1 2
Two-port network
b1 a2
1′ 2′

Fig. 12.11 Two-port network with associated incident and reflection waves

Here a1 is an incident wave and b1 is the reflected wave at Port 1. Similarly, a2 and b2 represent incident
and reflected waves at Port 2 respectively. When a source is connected at Port 1, which produces the incident
12.42 Circuit Theory and Transmission Lines

Exercises
12.1 A transmission line has the following primary 12.5 Find the reflection coefficient of a 50 Ω
constants. transmission line when it is terminated by a
R = 100 Ω/km, L = 0.001 H/km, G = 1.5 µΩ/ load impedance of (60 + j40) Ω.
km, C = 0.062 µF/km [0.35 ∠55.98°]
Find the characteristic impedance and
12.6 A transmission line has a characteristic
propagation constant.
impedance of 300 and terminates in a load
[1269.82 ∠−44.02° Ω, 0.0787 ∠−44.02°/km] ZL = 150 + j150 Ω. Find the following using
12.2 The characteristic impedance of a 805 m a Smith chart: (i) VSWR (ii) Reflection
long transmission line is 94∠−23.2° Ω, the coefficient (iii) Input impedance at distance
attenuation constant is 74.5 × 10−6 Np/m and 0.1 λ from the load.
the phase-shift constant is 174 × 10−6 rad/m at [2.6, 0.42 ∠118°, (414 + j336) Ω]
5 kHz. Calculate the line parameters R, L, G 12.7 A 70 Ω lossless line is used at a frequency
and C per metre. where wavelength λ equals 80 cm terminated
[12.87 mΩ/m, 0.39 µH/m, 0, 64.09 pF/m] by a load of (140 + j91) Ω. Find the reflection
coefficient and VSWR using a Smith chart.
12.3 A low-loss line has a characteristic impedance
of 400 Ω. Determine the standing wave ratio if [0.5 ∠29°, 3]
the receiving-end impedance is (650 − j475) Ω. 12.8 A 75 Ω lossless transmission line is to be
[2.74] matched with a (100 − j 80) Ω load using a
single stub. Calculate the stub length and its
12.4 If the reflection coefficient of a line is 0.3 distance from the load corresponds to the
∠−66°, calculate the standing wave ratio. frequency of 30 MHz using a Smith chart.
[1.86] [0.103 λ, 0.096 λ]

Objective-Type Questions
12.1 In a transmission line terminated with a load (a) is always purely imaginary
equal to the characteristic impedance, the (b) is always purely real
reflection coefficient is
(c) is always complex
(a) 1 (b) 1 (c) 0 (d) λ
(d) none of these
12.2 On a transmission line with standing waves, 12.5 VSWR in a short-circuited line equals
the distance between a voltage maxima and
(a) infinity (b) unity
adjacent current maxima is
(c) zero (d) none
λ λ λ
(a) (b) (c) (d) λ 12.6 There will be no reflection in a transmission
2 8 4 line if it is terminated by an impedance
12.3 Stub matching eliminates standing waves on (a) equal to characteristic impedance
(a) load side (b) generator side (b) less than the characteristic impedance
(c) both sides of stub (d) none of these (c) equal to twice the characteristic impedance
12.4 The reflection coefficient on a lossless (d) equal to square root of its characteristic
transmission line impedance
Problem 2.20 A 300-Ω lossless air transmission line is connected to a complex
load composed of a resistor in series with an inductor, as shown in Fig. P2.20. At
5 MHz, determine: (a) Γ, (b) S, (c) location of voltage maximum nearest to the load,
and (d) location of current maximum nearest to the load.

R = 600 Ω

Z0 = 300 Ω
L = 0.02 mH

Figure P2.20: Circuit for Problem 2.20.

Solution:
(a)

ZL = R + j ω L
= 600 + j2π × 5 × 106 × 2 × 10−5 = (600 + j628) Ω.

ZL − Z 0
Γ=
ZL + Z0
600 + j628 − 300
=
600 + j628 + 300
300 + j628 ◦
= = 0.63e j29.6 .
900 + j628
(b)
1 + |Γ| 1 + 0.63
S= = = 1.67.
4.405
1 − |Γ| 1 − 0.63
(c)

θr λ
lmax = for θr > 0.
µ4π ¶ µ ¶
29.6◦ π 60 3 × 108
= , λ= = 60 m
180◦ 4π 5 × 106
= 2.46 m
 (d) The locations of current maxima correspond to voltage minima and vice versa.
Hence, the location of current maximum nearest the load is the same as location of
voltage minimum nearest the load. Thus
µ ¶
λ λ
lmin = lmax + , lmax < = 15 m
4 4
= 2.46 + 15 = 17.46 m.
Problem 2.23 A load with impedance ZL = (25 − j50) Ω is to be connected to a
lossless transmission line with characteristic impedance Z0 , with Z0 chosen such that
the standing-wave ratio is the smallest possible. What should Z0 be?
Solution: Since S is monotonic with |Γ| (i.e., a plot of S vs. |Γ| is always increasing),
the value of Z0 which gives the minimum possible S also gives the minimum possible
|Γ|, and, for that matter, the minimum possible |Γ|2 . A necessary condition for a
minimum is that its derivative be equal to zero:

∂ 2 ∂ |RL + jXL − Z0 |2
0= |Γ| =
∂ Z0 ∂ Z0 |RL + jXL + Z0 |2
∂ (RL − Z0 )2 + XL2 4RL (Z02 − (R2L + XL2 ))
= = .
∂ Z0 (RL + Z0 )2 + XL2 ((RL + Z0 )2 + XL2 )
2

Therefore, Z02 = R2L + XL2 or

q
Z0 = |ZL | = (252 + (−50)2 ) = 55.9 Ω.

A mathematically precise solution will also demonstrate that this point is a

minimum (by calculating the second derivative, for example). Since the endpoints
of the range may be local minima or maxima without the derivative being zero there,
the endpoints (namely Z0 = 0 Ω and Z0 = ∞ Ω) should be checked also.
Problem 2.26 A 50-Ω lossless transmission line is connected to a load composed
of a 75-Ω resistor in series with a capacitor of unknown capacitance (Fig. P2.26). If at
10 MHz the voltage standing wave ratio on the line was measured to be 3, determine
the capacitance C.

RL = 75 Ω
Z0 = 50 Ω

C=?

Figure P2.26: Circuit for Problem 2.26.

Solution:
S−1 3−1 2
|Γ| = = = = 0.5
S+1 3+1 4
1
ZL = RL − jXC , where XC = .
ωC
ZL − Z 0
Γ=
ZL + Z0
·µ ¶µ ∗ ¶¸
2 ZL − Z 0 ZL − Z 0
|Γ| =
ZL + Z0 ZL∗ + Z0
ZL ZL∗ + Z02 − Z0 (ZL + ZL∗ )
|Γ|2 =
ZL ZL∗ + Z02 + Z0 (ZL + ZL∗ )
Noting that:
ZL ZL∗ = (RL − jXC )(RL + jXC ) = R2L + XC2 ,
Z0 (ZL + ZL∗ ) = Z0 (RL − jXC + RL + jXC ) = 2Z0 RL ,
R2L + XC2 + Z02 − 2Z0 RL
|Γ|2 = .
R2L + XC2 + Z02 + 2Z0 RL
Upon substituting |ΓL | = 0.5, RL = 75 Ω, and Z0 = 50 Ω, and then solving for XC ,
we have
XC = 66.1 Ω.
Hence
1 1
C= = = 2.41 × 10−10 = 241 pF.
ω XC 2π × 107 × 66.1
Problem 2.19 A 50-Ω lossless transmission line is terminated in a load with
impedance ZL = (30 − j50) Ω. The wavelength is 8 cm. Find:
(a) the reflection coefficient at the load,
(b) the standing-wave ratio on the line,
(c) the position of the voltage maximum nearest the load,
(d) the position of the current maximum nearest the load.
Solution:
(a) From Eq. (2.59),

ZL − Z0 (30 − j50) − 50 ◦
Γ= = = 0.57e− j79.8 .
ZL + Z0 (30 − j50) + 50

(b) From Eq. (2.73),

1 + |Γ| 1 + 0.57
S= = = 3.65.
1 − |Γ| 1 − 0.57

(c) From Eq. (2.70)

θr λ nλ −79.8◦ × 8 cm π rad n × 8 cm
dmax = + = +
4π 2 4π 180◦ 2
= −0.89 cm + 4.0 cm = 3.11 cm.

(d) A current maximum occurs at a voltage minimum, and from Eq. (2.72),

dmin = dmax − λ /4 = 3.11 cm − 8 cm/4 = 1.11 cm.

Problem 2.21 On a 150-Ω lossless transmission line, the following observations
were noted: distance of first voltage minimum from the load = 3 cm; distance of first
voltage maximum from the load = 9 cm; S = 3. Find ZL .
Solution: Distance between a minimum and an adjacent maximum = λ /4. Hence,

9 cm − 3 cm = 6 cm = λ /4,
λ
or λ = 24 cm. Accordingly, the first voltage minimum is at dmin = 3 cm = 8.
Application of Eq. (2.71) with n = 0 gives

2π λ
θr − 2 × × = −π ,
λ 8
which gives θr = −π /2.

S−1 3−1 2
|Γ| = = = = 0.5.
S+1 3+1 4

Hence, Γ = 0.5 e− jπ /2 = − j0.5.

Finally, · ¸ · ¸
1+Γ 1 − j0.5
ZL = Z0 = 150 = (90 − j120) Ω.
1−Γ 1 + j0.5
Problem 2.24 A 50-Ω lossless line terminated in a purely resistive load has a
voltage standing-wave ratio of 3. Find all possible values of ZL .
Solution:
S−1 3−1
|Γ| = = = 0.5.
S+1 3+1
For a purely resistive load, θr = 0 or π . For θr = 0,
· ¸ · ¸
1+Γ 1 + 0.5
ZL = Z0 = 50 = 150 Ω.
1−Γ 1 − 0.5

For θr = π , Γ = −0.5 and

· ¸
1 − 0.5
ZL = 50 = 15 Ω.
1 + 0.5
Problem 2.9 A transmission line operating at 125 MHz has Z0 = 40 Ω, α = 0:02
(Np/m), and β = 0:75 rad/m. Find the line parameters R , L , G , and C . 0 0 0 0

Solution: Given an arbitrary transmission line, f = 125 MHz, Z0 = 40 Ω,

α = 0:02 Np/m, and β = 0:75 rad/m. pSince Z0 is real and α 6= 0, the line is
distortionless. β = ω L C and Z0 = L =C , therefore, 0 0
p 0 0

0
βZ0 0:75  40
2π  125  106
L = = = 38:2 nH/m:
ω

Then, from Z0 =
pL0
= C, 0

0
0
L 38:2 nH/m
C = = = 23:9 pF/m:
Z02 402
p
From α = R G and R C
0 0 0 0
= L0 G0 ,

p rR p rL
αZ0 = 0:02 Np/m  40 Ω = 0:8 Ω/m
0 0
0
R = RG
0 0
= RG 0 0
=
G 0
C 0

and

0
α2 (0:02 Np/m)
2
G = = = 0:5 mS/m:
R 0
0:8 Ω/m