HAND BOOK OF MATHEMATICS

(Definitions and Formulae)

CLASS – 12
SUBJECT: MATHEMATICS

D.SREENIVASULU
PGT(Mathematics)
KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA

D.SREENIVASULU, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed. PGT(MATHEMATICS), KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA. Page 1

 CLASS 12 : CBSE MATHEMATICS
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
 TYPES OF RELATIONS:
 EMPTY RELATION: A relation 𝑅 in a set 𝐴 is called empty relation, if no element
of 𝐴 is related to any element of 𝐴, i.e., 𝑅 = ∅ ⊂ 𝐴 × 𝐴.
 UNIVERSAL RELATION: A relation 𝑅 in a set 𝐴 is called universal relation, if each
element of 𝐴 is related to every element of 𝐴, i.e. , 𝑅 = 𝐴 × 𝐴.
 TRIVIAL RELATIONS: Both the empty relation and the universal relation are sometimes
called trivial relations.
 A relation R in a set A is called
a) Reflexive, if (𝑥, 𝑥) ∈ 𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴
b) Symmetric, 𝑖𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑅 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 (𝑦, 𝑥) ∈ 𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴
c) Transitive, 𝑖𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑦, 𝑧) ∈ 𝑅𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 (𝑥, 𝑧) ∈ 𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐴
 EQUIVALENCE RELATION: 𝐴 relation 𝑅 in a set 𝐴 is said to be an equivalence relation
if 𝑅 is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
 EQUIVALENCE CLASS: Let 𝑅 be an equivalence relation on a non-empty set 𝐴 and
𝑎 ∈ 𝐴. Then the set of all those elements of 𝐴 which are related to 𝑎, is
called the equivalence class determined by 𝑎 and is denoted by [𝑎].
i.e [𝑎] = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∶ (𝑥, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅}
 TYPES OF FUNCTIONS:
 ONE-ONE (INJECTIVE) FUNCTION: A function 𝑓 ∶ 𝑋 → 𝑌 is defined to be one-one
(or injective), if the images of distinct elements of X under f are distinct, i.e., for
every 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝑋, 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓( 𝑥2 ) 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 . Otherwise, f is called many-one.
 ONTO (SURJECTIVE) FUNCTION : A function 𝑓 ∶ 𝑋 → 𝑌 is said to be onto (or surjective),
if every element of 𝑌 is the image of some element of 𝑋 under f. i.e., for every
𝑦 ∈ 𝑌, there exists an element 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑋 such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦.
NOTE: f : X → Y is onto if and only if Range of f = Codomain.
 BIJECTIVE FUNCTION: A function 𝑓 ∶ 𝑋 → 𝑌 is said to be bijective, if 𝑓 is both one-
one and onto.
 COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS: Let 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔 ∶ 𝐵 → 𝐶 be two functions. Then
the composition of 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔, denoted by 𝑔𝑜𝑓, is defined as the function
𝑔𝑜𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐶 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑔𝑜𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓 (𝑥)), ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴.
 INVERTIBLE FUNCTION : A function 𝑓 ∶ 𝑋 → 𝑌 is defined to be invertible, if there
exists a function 𝑔 ∶ 𝑌 → 𝑋 such that 𝑔𝑜𝑓 = 𝐼𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑔 = 𝐼𝑦 (i.e 𝑔𝑜𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
and 𝑓𝑜𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑦) The function 𝑔 is called the inverse of 𝑓 and is denoted by 𝑓 −1

D.SREENIVASULU, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed. PGT(MATHEMATICS), KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA. Page 2

 NOTE: If 𝑓 is invertible, then 𝑓 must be one-one and onto and conversely, if
𝑓 is one-one and onto, then 𝑓 must be invertible.
 BINARY OPERATIONS:
 BINARY OPERATION : A binary operation ∗ on a set 𝐴 is a function ∗∶ 𝐴 × 𝐴 → 𝐴.
We denote ∗ (𝑎, 𝑏) 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏
Note: In general, ∗ is said to be binary operation on 𝐴 if 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 ⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴
 COMMUTATIVE: A binary operation ∗ on the set 𝑋 is called commutative, if
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎, for every 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑋.
 ASSOCIATIVE: A binary operation ∗∶ 𝐴 × 𝐴 → 𝐴 is said to be associative if
(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐), ∀ a, b, c, ∈ A.
 IDENTITY: Given a binary operation ∗∶ 𝐴 × 𝐴 → 𝐴, an element 𝑒 ∈ 𝐴, if it exists, is
called identity for the operation ∗, if 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴.
 INVERSE: Given a binary operation ∗∶ 𝐴 × 𝐴 → 𝐴 with the identity element e in
A, an element a ∈ A is said to be invertible with respect to the operation ∗, if
there exists an element b in A such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑒 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 and b is called the
inverse of a and is denoted by 𝑎−1 .

INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

 PRINCIPAL VALUE BRANCHES:

RANGE (Principal Value

FUNCTION DOMAIN
Branch)
𝜋 𝜋
sin−1 𝑥 [−1, 1] [− , ]
2 2

cos −1 𝑥 [−1, 1] [0, 𝜋]

𝜋 𝜋
tan−1 𝑥 R (− , )
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
cosec −1 𝑥 𝑅 − (−1, 1) [− , ] − {0}
2 2
𝜋
sec −1 𝑥 𝑅 − (−1, 1) [0, 𝜋] − { }
2
cot −1 𝑥 R (0, 𝜋)

 PROPERTIES OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS:

 sin(sin−1 𝑥) = 𝑥 , 𝑥 ∈ [−1, 1]

D.SREENIVASULU, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed. PGT(MATHEMATICS), KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA. Page 3

 𝜋 𝜋
 sin−1(sin 𝑥) = 𝑥 , 𝑥 ∈ [− , ]
2 2
1
 sin−1 𝑥 = cosoc −1 𝑥 , 𝑥 ≥ 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≤ −1
1
 cos−1 𝑥 = sec −1 𝑥 , 𝑥 ≥ 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≤ −1
1
 tan−1 𝑥 = cot −1 𝑥 , 𝑥 > 0

 sin−1(−𝑥) = − sin−1 𝑥 , 𝑥 ∈ [−1, 1]

 cosec −1 (−𝑥) = − cosec −1 𝑥, |𝑥| ≥ 1
 tan−1(−𝑥) = − tan−1 𝑥 , 𝑥∈𝑅
 cos−1 (−𝑥) = 𝜋 − cos−1 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ [−1, 1],
 sec −1(−𝑥) = 𝜋 − sec −1 𝑥, |𝑥| ≥ 1
 cot −1 (−𝑥) = 𝜋 − cot −1 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
𝜋
 sin−1 𝑥 + cos −1 𝑥 = , 𝑥 ∈ [−1, 1]
2
𝜋
 tan−1 𝑥 + cot −1 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
𝜋
 cosec −1 𝑥 + sec −1 𝑥 = , |𝑥| ≥ 1
2
𝑥+𝑦
 tan−1 𝑥 + tan−1 𝑦 = tan−1 (1−𝑥𝑦) , 𝑥𝑦 < 1
𝑥+𝑦
 tan−1 𝑥 + tan−1 𝑦 = 𝜋 + tan−1 (1−𝑥𝑦) , 𝑥𝑦 > 1
𝑥−𝑦
 tan−1 𝑥 − tan−1 𝑦 = tan−1 (1+𝑥𝑦) , 𝑥𝑦 > −1
2𝑥
 2 tan−1 𝑥 = tan−1 (1−𝑥 2 ) , |𝑥| ≤ 1
1−𝑥 2
 2 tan−1 𝑥 = cos −1 (1+𝑥 2 ) , 𝑥 ≥ 0
2𝑥
 2 tan−1 𝑥 = sin−1 (1+𝑥 2 ) , 𝑥 ∈ (−1, 1)

D.SREENIVASULU, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed. PGT(MATHEMATICS), KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA. Page 4

 MATRICES
 ORDER OF A MATRIX : A general matrix of order 𝑚 × 𝑛 can be written as

= [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖 = 1,2, … 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗 = 1,2, … 𝑛

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 = 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠 = 𝑛

 TYPES OF MATRICES:
 COLUMN MATRIX: A matrix is said to be a column matrix if it has only one column.
2
Examples: 𝐴 = [ ] 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 2 × 1
−9
−√5
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = [ 0 ] 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝐵 𝑖𝑠 3 × 1
−12
 ROW MATRIX: A matrix is said to be a row matrix if it has only one row

Examples: 𝐴 = [14 26] 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 1 × 2

𝑩 = [0 √7 12] 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝐵 𝑖𝑠 1 × 3
 SQUARE MATRIX: A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number of

columns, is said to be a square matrix.

2 4
Examples: A = [ ] 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 2 × 2
6 −8
5 0 −8
1
X = [ 2 √2 14 ] order of matrix X is 3 × 3
7 −8 4
 DIAGONAL MATRIX: A square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 is said to be a diagonal matrix

if all its non-diagonal elements are zero

6 0 0
Example: 𝐴 = [0 √6 0]
0 0 9

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  SCALAR MATRIX : A diagonal matrix is said to be a scalar matrix if its diagonal

elements are equal

5 0 0
Example : 𝐴 = [0 5 0]
0 0 5
 IDENTITY MATRIX: A square matrix in which elements in the diagonal are all 1 and

rest are all zero is called an identity matrix.

1 0 0
Example : 𝐴 = [0 1 0], generally it is denoted by I.
0 0 1
 ZERO MATRIX: A matrix is said to be zero matrix or null matrix if all its elements

are zero.
0 0 0
Examples : [0] , [ ],
0 0 0
0 0 0
[0 0 0] 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑎 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠, 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑶.
0 0 0
 EQUALITY OF MATRICES: Two matrices 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 are
𝑚×𝑛

said to be equal if (i) they are of the same order (ii) each element of 𝐴 is equal to

the corresponding element of 𝐵, that is 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑏𝑖𝑗 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗.

2 1 2 1
Example: Let 𝐴 = [8 6 ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = [8 6 ] , we say that 𝐴 = 𝐵
4 −5 4 −5
 OPERATION OF MATRICES:
 ADDITION OF MATRICES: Let 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 be two matrices of
𝑚×𝑛

the same order. Then 𝐴 + 𝐵 is defined to be the matrix of order of 𝑚 × 𝑛 obtained

by adding corresponding elements of 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵

i.e 𝐴 + 𝐵 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛

 DIFFERENCE OF MATRICES: Let 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 be two matrices of

𝑚×𝑛

the same order. Then 𝐴 − 𝐵 is defined to be the matrix of order of 𝑚 × 𝑛 obtained

by subtracting corresponding elements of 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵

i.e 𝐴 − 𝐵 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 − 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛

 MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES: The product of two matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 is defined if the

number of columns of 𝐴 is equal to the number of rows of 𝐵.

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 Let 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑗𝑘 ]𝑛×𝑝 . Then the product of the matrices 𝐴
𝑚×𝑛

and 𝐵 is the matrix 𝐶 of order m × p. To get the (𝑖, 𝑘)𝑡ℎ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑘 matrix 𝐶, we take

the i th row of 𝐴 and 𝑘 th column of 𝐵, multiply them elementwise and take the sum of

all these products. i.e 𝐶𝑖𝑘 = ∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑎𝑖𝑗 . 𝑏𝑗𝑘

𝟒 𝟑
𝟐 𝟑𝟓
Example: Let 𝑨 = [ ] 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩 = [𝟔 𝟗]
𝟏 𝟔𝟖
𝟓 𝟖
𝟐×𝟒+𝟑×𝟔+𝟓×𝟓 𝟐×𝟑+𝟑×𝟗+𝟓×𝟖
𝑨𝑩 = [ ]
𝟏×𝟒+𝟔×𝟔+𝟖×𝟓 𝟏×𝟑+𝟔×𝟗+𝟖×𝟖
𝟖 + 𝟏𝟖 + 𝟐𝟓 𝟔 + 𝟐𝟕 + 𝟒𝟎
=[ ] = [𝟓𝟏 𝟕𝟑 ]
𝟒 + 𝟑𝟔 + 𝟒𝟎 𝟑 + 𝟓𝟒 + 𝟔𝟒 𝟖𝟎 𝟏𝟐𝟏
 MULTIPLICATION OF A MATRIX BY A SCALAR: Let 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] and 𝑘 is a scalar, then
𝑚×𝑛

𝑘𝐴 = 𝑘[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 = [𝑘. 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛

𝟐 𝟒 −𝟓 𝟑(𝟐) 𝟑(𝟒) 𝟑(−𝟓) 𝟔 𝟏𝟐 −𝟏𝟓
Example: 𝑨 = [ ] ⟹ 𝟑𝑨 = [ ]=[ ]
𝒚 𝒛 𝒙 𝟑𝒚 𝟑𝒛 𝟑𝒙 𝟑𝒚 𝟑𝒛 𝟑𝒙
 TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX: If 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] be an m × n matrix, then the matrix
𝑚×𝑛

obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of 𝐴 is called the transpose of 𝐴.

Transpose of the matrix 𝐴 is denoted by 𝐴′ or 𝐴T .

If 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] , then 𝐴′ = [𝑎𝑗𝑖 ]

𝑚×𝑛 𝑛×𝑚

𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟏 𝟒 𝟓
𝑻
Example: 𝑨 = [𝟒 𝟕 𝟗 ] ⟹ 𝑨 = [𝟐 𝟕 𝟏]
𝟓 𝟏 𝟎 𝟑 𝟗 𝟎
 SYMMETRIC MATRIX: A square matrix If 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is said to be symmetric if

𝑨′ = 𝑨, that is, [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] =[𝑎𝑗𝑖 ] for all possible values of 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗

𝟐 𝟓 𝟏𝟐
Example: 𝑨 = [ 𝟓 𝟕 𝟑 ] , 𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝑨′ = 𝑨.
𝟏𝟐 𝟑 𝟔
 SKEW-SYMMETRIC MATRIX: A square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is said to be skew

symmetric matrix if A′ = – A, that is 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = −𝑎𝑗𝑖 for all possible values of i and j and

𝑎𝑖𝑖 = 0 for all i.(all the diagonal elements are zero).

𝟎 𝟓 −𝟏𝟐
 Example: 𝑨 = [−𝟓 𝟎 −𝟑 ] , 𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝑨′ = −𝑨
𝟏𝟐 𝟑 𝟎

D.SREENIVASULU, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed. PGT(MATHEMATICS), KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA. Page 7

  TRANSFORMATION OF A MATRIX:
th th
 The interchange of any two rows or two columns. The interchange of 𝑖 and 𝑗 rows is
th th
denoted by 𝑅𝑖 ↔ 𝑅𝑗 and interchange of 𝑖 and 𝑗 column is denoted by 𝐶𝑖 ↔ 𝐶𝑗 .

 The multiplication of the elements of any row or column by a non-zero number. The
th
multiplication of each element of the 𝑖 row by 𝑘, where 𝑘 ≠ 0 is denoted by

Ri → k Ri. The corresponding column operation is denoted by Ci → kCi

 The addition to the elements of any row or column, the corresponding

elements of any other row or column multiplied by any non-zero number. The
th th
addition to the elements of i row, the corresponding elements of j row

multiplied by k is denoted by Ri → Ri + kRj . The corresponding column operation is

denoted by Ci → Ci + kCj .

 INVERTIBLE MATRICES: If A is a square matrix of order m, and if there exists

another square matrix B of the same order m, such that AB = BA = I, then B is

called the inverse matrix of A and it is denoted by A– 1. In that case A is said to be

invertible.

 PROPERTIES OF MATRICES:
 𝐴+𝐵 =𝐵+𝐴
 𝐴−𝐵 ≠𝐵−𝐴
 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴
 (𝐴𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴(𝐵𝐶)
 (𝐴′ )′ = 𝐴
 𝐴𝐼 = 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐴
 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐼, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴−1 = 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵−1 = 𝐴
 𝐴𝐵 = 0 ⟹ 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜.
 𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶
 Every square matrix can possible to express as the sum of symmetric and

skew-symmetric matrices.

D.SREENIVASULU, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed. PGT(MATHEMATICS), KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA. Page 8

 𝟏 𝟏
𝑨 = (𝑨 + 𝑨′) + (𝑨 − 𝑨′), where (𝐴 + 𝐴′) is symmetric matrix and (𝐴 − 𝐴′) is
𝟐 𝟐

skew-symmetric matrices.

 Apply a sequence of row operation on A = IA till we get, I = BA. The matrix

B will be the inverse of A. Similarly, if we wish to find A–1 using column

operations, then, write A = AI and apply a sequence of column operations on

A = AI till we get, I = AB. The matrix B will be the inverse of A.

 After applying one or more elementary row (column) operations on

A = IA (A = AI), if we obtain all zeros in one or more rows of the matrix A

on L.H.S., then A–1 does not exist.

_________________________________________________________

DETERMINANTS

 DETERMINANT:
𝑎 𝑏
 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = [ ] , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) = |𝐴| = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐
𝑐 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑒 𝑓 𝑑 𝑓 𝑑 𝑒
 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = [𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 ] , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝐴| = 𝑎 | |−𝑏| |+𝑐| |
ℎ 𝑘 𝑔 𝑘 𝑔 ℎ
𝑔 ℎ 𝑘
 PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS:
 If rows and columns are interchanged, then the value of the determinant

remains same.

 If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are interchanged, then sign of

determinant changes

 If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are identical (all

corresponding elements are same), then value of determinant is zero.

 If each element of a row (or a column) of a determinant is multiplied by a

constant k, then its value gets multiplied by k.

 If, to each element of any row or column of a determinant, the equimultiples

of corresponding elements of other row (or column) are added, then value of

D.SREENIVASULU, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed. PGT(MATHEMATICS), KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA. Page 9

 determinant remains the same, i.e., the value of determinant remain same if

we apply the operation Ri → Ri + kRj or Ci → Ci + k Cj .

 If some or all elements of a row or column of a determinant are expressed

as sum of two (or more) terms, then the determinant can be expressed as

sum of two (or more) determinants

 MINORS: Minor of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 of a determinant is the determinant obtained by

deleting its ith row and jth column in which element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 lies. Minor of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗

is denoted by 𝑀𝑖𝑗 .

 CO-FACTORS: Cofactor of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 , denoted by 𝐴𝑖𝑗 is defined by 𝐴𝑖𝑗 =

(−1)𝑖+𝑗 . 𝑀𝑖𝑗 , where 𝑀𝑖𝑗 is minor of 𝑎𝑖𝑗

 ADJOINT OF A MATRIX: The adjoint of a square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is defined as the

transpose of the matrix [𝐴𝑖𝑗 ] , where 𝐴𝑖𝑗 is the cofactor of the element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 . Adjoint

of the matrix A is denoted by adj A.

 INVERSE OF A MATRIX: Let A be a square matrix.

1
𝐴−1 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴
|𝐴|
 SOLUTION OF SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS BY USING MATRIX METHOD:

Let the system of linear equations be

𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑧 = 𝑑1
𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑧 = 𝑑2
𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑦 + 𝑐3 𝑧 = 𝑑3
These equations can be written as
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑥 𝑑1
[𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 ] [𝑦] = [𝑑2 ]
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑧 𝑑3
𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝐵
 𝐴−1 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠, 𝑖𝑓 |𝐴| ≠ 0 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑒.

 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠.

 𝑖𝑓 |𝐴| = 0 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)𝐵.

D.SREENIVASULU, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed. PGT(MATHEMATICS), KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA. Page 10

  𝐼𝑓 |𝐴| = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)𝐵 ≠ 𝑂 , (O being zero matrix), then solution does not

exist and the system of equations is called inconsistent.

 𝐼𝑓 |𝐴| = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)𝐵 = 𝑂, then system may be either consistent or

inconsistent according as the system have either infinitely many solutions or

no solution.

 IMPORTANT NOTES:

 The matrix A is singular if |𝐴| = 0

 |𝜆𝐴| = 𝜆𝑛 |𝐴|, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝐴
 𝐴(𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴) = (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)𝐴 = |𝐴|𝐼
 |𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴| = |𝐴|𝑛−1 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝐴
 |𝐴(𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)| = |𝐴|𝑛 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝐴
 |𝐴𝐵| = |𝐴||𝐵|
 (𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵−1 𝐴−1
 |𝐴−1 | = |𝐴|−1
 |𝐴𝑇 | = |𝐴|

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABLITY

CONTINUITY: Suppose f is a real function on a subset of the real numbers and let a

be a point in the domain of f. Then f is continuous at a lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)

𝑥⟶𝑎

i.e 𝐿𝐻𝐿 = 𝑅𝐻𝐿 = 𝑓(𝑎)

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎 − 𝑥→𝑎

DIFFERENTIATION:
FIRST PRINCIPLE:
𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = lim
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑑𝑦
 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑦
 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑦
 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑑𝑦
 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

D.SREENIVASULU, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed. PGT(MATHEMATICS), KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA. Page 11

 𝑑𝑦
 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥
𝑑𝑦
 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑦
 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1
 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = √1−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 1
 𝑦 = cos−1 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = − √1−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 1
 𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 1+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 1
 𝑦 = cosec −1 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = −
𝑥√𝑥 2 −1
𝑑𝑦 1
 𝑦 = sec −1 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑥√𝑥 2 −1
𝑑𝑦 1
 𝑦 = cot −1 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = − 1+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦
 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥 . 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎
𝑑𝑦 1
 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
 Product Rule: 𝑦 = 𝑢. 𝑣 ⇒ = 𝑢. 𝑣 ′ + 𝑣. 𝑢′ , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢′ = , 𝑣′ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑣.𝑢′ −𝑢.𝑣′ 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
 Quotient Rule: 𝑦 = ⇒ = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢′ = , 𝑣′ =
𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑣2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
 Chain Rule: Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑡)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎. 𝑓 ′ (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏),
𝑑𝑦
𝐸𝑥: 𝑦 = sin(4𝑥 + 9) ⟹ = 4. cos(4𝑥 + 9)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
 𝑦 = [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛. [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛−1 . 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)

 Logarithmic Differentiation: Let 𝑦 = [𝑢(𝑥)]𝑣(𝑥)

1 𝑑𝑦 𝑣
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 = 𝑣. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑢 ⟹ 𝑦 . 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢 . 𝑢′ + 𝑣 ′ . 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑢
𝑑𝑦 𝑣
= 𝑦 [𝑢 . . 𝑢′ + 𝑣 ′ . 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑢]
𝑑𝑥

D.SREENIVASULU, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed. PGT(MATHEMATICS), KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA. Page 12

  Mean Value Theorem: Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function

on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). Then there exists some c in (a, b)
𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
such that some 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 𝑏−𝑎

 Rolle’s Theorem: Let f : [a, b] → R be continuous on [a, b] and

differentiable on (a, b), such that f(a) = f(b), where a and b are some

real numbers. Then there exists some c in (a, b) such that f′(c) = 0.

Note: In above all formulas, 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 𝒙

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
RATE OF CHANGE OF QUANTITIES

1) Area of circle (A) = 𝜋𝑟 2

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟
Rate of change of area = = 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

2) Circumference of circle (C) = 2𝜋𝑟

𝑑𝐶 𝑑𝑟
Rate of change of Circumference = = 2𝜋 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

3) Perimeter of a rectangle (P) = 2(𝑥 + 𝑦), where x = length , y = width

𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
Rate of change of Perimeter = = 2( 𝑥𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡

4) Area of rectangle (A) = 𝑥. 𝑦 , where x = length , y = width

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
Rate of change of area = = 𝑥. + 𝑦.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

5) Volume of cube (V) =𝑥 3 , where x = edge of cube

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑥
Rate of change of Volume = = 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

6) Surface area of cube (S) = 6𝑥 2

𝑑𝑆 𝑑𝑥
Rate of change of Surface area = = 6𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
4
7) Volume of sphere (V) = 3 𝜋𝑟 3
𝑑𝑉 4 𝑑𝑟
Rate of change of Volume = = 3 (3𝜋𝑟 2 ) 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

D.SREENIVASULU, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed. PGT(MATHEMATICS), KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA. Page 13

 8) Surface area of Sphere (S) = 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝑆 𝑑𝑟
Rate of change of Surface area = = 8𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

9) Total cost = C(x), where C(x) isi Rupees of the production of x units
𝑑𝐶
Marginal cost = 𝑑𝑥

10) Total Revenue = R(x)

𝑑𝑅
Marginal Revenue = 𝑑𝑥

INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTION

 Let I be an interval contained in the domain of a real valued function f. Then

f is said to be

(i) increasing on I 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝐼 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑦), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐼.

(ii) strictly increasing on I 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝐼 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑓(𝑦), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐼

(iii) decreasing on I 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝐼 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑓(𝑦), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐼.

(iv) strictly decreasing on I 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝐼 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝑓(𝑦), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐼

 (a) f is strictly increasing in (𝑎, 𝑏) 𝑖𝑓 𝑓’(𝑥) > 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏)

(b) f is strictly decreasing in (𝑎, 𝑏) 𝑖𝑓 𝑓’(𝑥) < 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏)

 A function will be increasing or decreasing in R if it is so in every interval of R

 f is a constant function in [𝑎, 𝑏] 𝑖𝑓 𝑓’(𝑥) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏)

TANGENTS AND NORMALS

Let given curve be y=f(x)

𝑑𝑦
 Slope of tangent to the curve at (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑚 = [𝑑𝑥 ]
𝑥=𝑥1

1
 Slope of normal to the curve at (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = − 𝑚

 Equation of tangent at (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) 𝒊𝒔 𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )

𝟏
 Equation of normal at (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) 𝒊𝒔 𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = − 𝒎 (𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )

D.SREENIVASULU, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed. PGT(MATHEMATICS), KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA. Page 14

APPROXIMATION

Let y = f(x)
𝑑𝑦
∆𝑦 = . ∆𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = 𝑦 + . ∆𝑥
𝑑𝑥

i.e 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥). ∆𝑥

MAXIMA AND MINIMA

First Derivative Test:

Let f be a function defined on an open interval I. Let f be continuous at a critical

point c in I. Then

(i) If f ′(x) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through c, then
c is a point of local maxima and maximum value of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓( 𝑐) .
(ii) If f ′(x) changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through c, then
c is a point of local minima and minimum value of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓( 𝑐) .
(iii) If f ′(x) does not change sign as x increases through c, then c is neither a
point of local maxima nor a point of local minima. Infact, such a point is called
point of inflexion.
Second Derivative Test
Let f be a function defined on an interval I and c ∈ I. Let f be twice differentiable
at c. Then
(i) 𝑥 = 𝑐 is a point of local maxima if 𝑓 ′(𝑐) = 0 and 𝑓 ″(𝑐) < 0 The values f (c) is
local maximum value of f .
(ii) (ii) x = c is a point of local minima if 𝑓 ′(𝑐) = 0 and 𝑓 ″(𝑐) > 0 In this case, f (c)
is local minimum value of f .
(iii) The test fails if 𝑓 ′(𝑐) = 0 and 𝑓 ″(𝑐) = 0. In this case, we go back to the
first derivative test and find whether c is a point of maxima, minima or a point
of inflexion.
Absolute maxima and absolute minima (maxima and minima in a closed interval)
 Given 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 [𝑎, 𝑏]

 Find 𝑓’(𝑥)

 Let 𝑓’(𝑥) = 0

D.SREENIVASULU, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed. PGT(MATHEMATICS), KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA. Page 15

  Find critical values. (i.e find the values of x if 𝑓’(𝑥) = 0 ). say
𝑥 = 𝑥1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑥2
 Calculate 𝑓(𝑎), 𝑓(𝑥1 ), 𝑓(𝑥2 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑏).

 Identify maxima and minima values of f(x).

INTEGRALS

INDEFINITE INTEGRALS

1) ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑥2
2) ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
2
𝑥 𝑛+1
3) ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐, 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑛+1

4) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐
5) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐
6) ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥| + 𝑐
7) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥| + 𝑐
8) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥| + 𝑐
9) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥| + 𝑐
10) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐
11) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 + 𝑐
12) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐
13) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐
1
14) ∫ √1−𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = sin−1 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑜𝑟 − cos −1 𝑥 + 𝑐
1
15) ∫ 1+𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = tan−1 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑜𝑟 − cot −1 𝑥 + 𝑐
1
16) ∫ 𝑥√𝑥 2 −1 𝑑𝑥 = sec −1 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑜𝑟 − cosec −1 𝑥 + 𝑐

17) ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐
1
18) ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥| + 𝑐

19) ∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 + 𝑐

D.SREENIVASULU, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed. PGT(MATHEMATICS), KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA. Page 16

 1 1 𝑥−𝑎
20) ∫ 𝑥 2 −𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑥+𝑎| + 𝑐
1 1 𝑎+𝑥
21) ∫ 𝑎2 −𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑔 |𝑎−𝑥| + 𝑐
1 1 𝑥
22) ∫ 𝑥 2 +𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 tan−1 𝑎 + 𝑐
1
23) ∫ √𝑥 2 −𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 | + 𝑐
1
24) ∫ √𝑥 2 +𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 | 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
1 𝑥
25) ∫ √𝑎2 −𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = sin−1 𝑎 + 𝑐
𝑥 𝑎2
26) ∫ √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 2 √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 | + 𝑐
2
𝑥 𝑎2
27) ∫ √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 2 √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 | + 𝑐
2
𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥
28) ∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 2 √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 + sin−1 𝑎 + 𝑐
2

29) ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓′(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐

30) ∫ 𝑢. 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢 ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑥 − ∫[𝑢′ ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢 = 𝑢(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑣(𝑥)
31) ∫[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
32) ∫ 𝑘. 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.

Note: Let antiderivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐹(𝑥)

i.e. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑐, then

1
∫ 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝐹(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐

Partial fractions

𝑃(𝑥)
 The rational function is said to be proper if the degree of 𝑄(𝑥) is
𝑄(𝑥)

less than the degree of 𝑃(𝑥)

 Partial fractions can be used only if the integrand is proper rational

function

S.No Form of rational function Form of Partial fraction

1 1 𝐴
+
𝑏
(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏) 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑏
D.SREENIVASULU, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed. PGT(MATHEMATICS), KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA. Page 17
 2 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝐴 𝑏
+
(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏) 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑏
3 1 𝐴
+
𝑏
+
1
(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏)(𝑥 − 𝑐) 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑏 𝑥−𝑐
4 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝐴 𝑏 1
+ +
(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏)(𝑥 − 𝑐) 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑏 𝑥−𝑐
5 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 𝐴
+
𝑏
+
1
(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏)(𝑥 − 𝑐) 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑏 𝑥−𝑐

6 1 𝐴
+
𝐵
+
𝐶
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 (𝑥 − 𝑏) 𝑥 − 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑎) 2 𝑥−𝑏
7 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
+ +
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 (𝑥 − 𝑏) 𝑥 − 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑎) 2 𝑥−𝑏
8 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 𝐴
+
𝐵
+
𝐶
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 (𝑥 − 𝑏) 𝑥 − 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 𝑥 − 𝑏
𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
+ 2
(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
9
where 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 cannot

be factorized further

Integral of the type

𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟
, ,𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟√𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 √𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐

𝑑
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 𝐴 𝑑𝑥 (𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐) + 𝐵

DEFINITE INTEGRALS

Definite integralas the limit of a sum

∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = lim ℎ. [𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑎 + 2ℎ) + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)ℎ]

ℎ→0
𝑎

𝑏−𝑎
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ℎ = ⇒ 𝑛ℎ = 𝑏 − 𝑎
𝑛
Properties Of Definite Integrals
𝑎
1) ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 0
D.SREENIVASULU, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed. PGT(MATHEMATICS), KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA. Page 18
 𝑏 𝑏
2) ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑏 𝑎
3) ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
4) ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 < 𝑐 < 𝑏
𝑏 𝑏
5) ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
6) ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
7) ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎
2𝑎 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
8) ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ={ 0
0 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)
𝑎
𝑎 2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛. 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
9) ∫−𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ={ 0
0 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑. 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)

APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS

 CURVE – LINE

• CIRCLE – LINE

• PARABOLA – LINE

• ELLIPSE - LINE

 CURVE – CURVE

• PARABOLA – PARABOLA

• PARABOLA – CIRCLE

• CIRCLE -CIRCLE

 AREA OF TRIANGLE

• CO-ORDINATES OF VERTICES ARE GIVEN

• EQUATIONS OF SIDES ARE GIVEN

D.SREENIVASULU, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed. PGT(MATHEMATICS), KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA. Page 19

STEPS

DRAW THE DIAGRAM

MAKE A SHADED REGION

FIND INTERSECTION POINTS

IDENTIFY THE LIMITS

WRITE THE INTEGRAL(S) FOR THE REGION

EVALUATE THE INTEGRAL

THE VALUE SHOULD BE POSITIVE

𝑏
1) 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

D.SREENIVASULU, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed. PGT(MATHEMATICS), KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA. Page 20

 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Methods of solving First Order and First Degree Differential Equations

 Differential Equations with Variables seperables

 Homogeneous differential equations
 Linear differential equations.

Differential Equations with Variables separables

𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥)
• Let the differential equation be 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑔(𝑦)
then 𝑔(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
then integrate on both sides ∫ 𝑔(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑔(𝑦)
• Let the differential equation be 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
then 𝑔(𝑦)
= 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
then integrate on both sides ∫ 𝑔(𝑦) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑦
• Let the differential equation be = 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑦)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
then 𝑔(𝑦)
= 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
then integrate on both sides ∫ 𝑔(𝑦) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Homogeneous differential equations

 A function 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦) is said to be homogeneous function of degree n if

𝐹(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) = 𝜆𝑛 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑑𝑦
 A differential equation of the form 𝑑𝑥
= 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦) is saidto be homogeneous if F(x,y)
is a homogeneous function of degree zero
i.e. if 𝐹(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) = 𝜆0 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦)

𝒅𝒚 𝒚
Steps to solve the homogeneous differential equation of the type: = 𝒇( )
𝒅𝒙 𝒙

 Let 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣
 =𝑣+𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑦 𝑦
 Substitute 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥 and =𝑣+𝑥 in = 𝑓( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
 Then use variables and separables in terms of 𝑦 and 𝑣 only

𝒅𝒙 𝒙
Steps to solve the homogeneous differential equation of the type: 𝒅𝒚
= 𝒇(𝒚)

 Let 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦

D.SREENIVASULU, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed. PGT(MATHEMATICS), KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA. Page 21

 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣
 =𝑣+𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
 Substitute 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 and 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑣 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 in 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑦)
 Then use variables and separables in terms of 𝑥 and 𝑣 only

Linear differential equation

𝒅𝒚
Steps to solve the Linear differential equation of the type: + 𝑷(𝒙)𝒚 = 𝑸(𝒙)
𝒅𝒙

𝑑𝑦
 𝑑𝑥
+ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥)
 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐼𝐹) = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑝(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑦. (𝐼𝐹) = ∫(𝐼𝐹). 𝑄(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝒅𝒙
Steps to solve the Linear differential equation of the type: 𝒅𝒚
+ 𝑷(𝒚)𝒙 = 𝑸(𝒚)

𝑑𝑥
 𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑃(𝑦)𝑥 = 𝑄(𝑦)
 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐼𝐹) = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑝(𝑦)𝑑𝑦
 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑥. (𝐼𝐹) = ∫(𝐼𝐹). 𝑄(𝑦)𝑑𝑦

VECTORS
 Position vector of the point 𝐴(𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 ) is ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐵
 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
 Let 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ then |𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ | = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
⃗⃗⃗
𝑎
 Unit vector of 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ = |𝑎⃗⃗⃗ | , is denoted by 𝑎̂
 Let 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎𝑖̂ + 𝑏𝑗̂ + 𝑐𝑘̂ is said to be a unit vector if |𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ | = 1
⃗
⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑏
𝑎
 Projection of ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎 𝑜𝑛 𝑏⃗ = ⃗
|𝑏|

THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY

 Direction cosines of a line are the cosines of the angles made by the line with the
positive directions of the coordinate axes.
Let a line making the angles with 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 axis are 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 repectively.
Direction cosines are 𝑙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼, 𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽, 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾
 If 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛 are the direction cosines of a line, then l2 + m2 +n2 = 1.
 Direction ratios of a line joining two points 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) are
𝑎 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑏 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 , 𝑎 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1

D.SREENIVASULU, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed. PGT(MATHEMATICS), KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA. Page 22

  If 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛 are the direction cosines and 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are the direction ratios of a line then
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑙 = ± √𝑎2 , 𝑚 = ± √𝑎2 , 𝑛 = ± √𝑎2
+𝑏2 +𝑐 2 +𝑏2 +𝑐 2 +𝑏 2 +𝑐 2
 Direction cosines of a line joining two points
𝑥 −𝑥 𝑦 −𝑦 𝑧 −𝑧
𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) 𝑎𝑟𝑒 2𝑃𝑄 1 , 2𝑃𝑄 1 , 2𝑃𝑄 1

where PQ= √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2

 Direction ratios of a line are the numbers which are proportional to the direction
cosines of a line.
 Skew lines are lines in space which are neither parallel nor intersecting. They lie in
different planes.
 Angle between skew lines is the angle between two intersecting lines drawn from any
point (preferably through the origin) parallel to each of the skew lines.
 If 𝑙1 , 𝑚1 , 𝑛1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙2 , 𝑚2 , 𝑛2 are the direction cosines of two lines; and 𝜃 is the acute angle
between the two lines; then 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃|𝑙1 𝑙2 + 𝑚1 𝑚2 + 𝑛1 𝑛2 |
 If 𝑎1 , 𝑏1 , 𝑐1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑐2 are the direction ratios of two lines and 𝜃 is the acute angle

𝑎1 𝑎2 +𝑏1 𝑏2 +𝑐1 𝑐2
between the two lines; then 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = | |
√𝑎12 +𝑏12 +𝑐12 √𝑎22 +𝑏22 +𝑐22

 Vector equation of a line that passes through the given point whose position vector is 𝑎
and parallel to a given vector𝑏⃗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝜆𝑏⃗.
 Equation of a line through a point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and having direction cosines 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛 is
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1
= =
𝑙 𝑚 𝑛
 The vector equation of a line which passes through two points whose position vectors
are 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏⃗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝜆(𝑏⃗ − 𝑎)
 Cartesian equation of a line that passes through two points
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦 𝑧−𝑧
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) 𝑖𝑠 = 𝑦 −𝑦1 = 𝑧 −𝑧1 .
𝑥 −𝑥 2 1 2 1 2 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗ .𝑏
𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
 If 𝜃 is the acute angle between 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎1 + 𝜆𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = | 1 2 |
𝑎2 + 𝜆𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑏
|𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ | 1 2
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1 𝑥−𝑥2 𝑦−𝑦2 𝑧−𝑧2
 If = = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = = are the equations of two lines, then the
𝑙1 𝑚1 𝑛1 𝑙2 𝑚2 𝑛2
acute angle between the two lines is given by 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = |𝑙1 𝑙2 + 𝑚1 𝑚2 + 𝑛1 𝑛2 |.
 Shortest distance between two skew lines is the line segment perpendicular to both the
lines.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
 Shortest distance between 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎1 + 𝜆𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 𝑖𝑠 |(𝑏1 ×𝑏2 ).(𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗2 −𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 )|
𝑎2 + 𝜇𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ×𝑏
|𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ | 1 2
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1 𝑥−𝑥2 𝑦−𝑦2 𝑧−𝑧2
 Shortest distance between the lines: = = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = = 𝑖𝑠
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
𝑥2 −𝑥1 𝑦2 −𝑦1 𝑧2 −𝑧1
| 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 |
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2

√(𝑏1 𝑐2 −𝑏2 𝑐1 )2 +(𝑐1 𝑎2 −𝑐2 𝑎1 )2 +(𝑎1 𝑏2 −𝑎2 𝑏1 )2
⃗ ×(𝑎
𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗2 −𝑎
𝑎1 + 𝜆𝑏⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
 Distance between parallel lines 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎2 + 𝜇𝑏⃗ 𝑖𝑠 | |𝑏 ⃗|
|

D.SREENIVASULU, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed. PGT(MATHEMATICS), KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA. Page 23

  In the vector form, equation of a plane which is at a distance 𝑝 from the origin, and 𝑛̂ is
the unit vector normal to the plane through the origin is 𝑟. 𝑛̂ = 𝑝.
 Equation of a plane which is at a distance of 𝑑 from the origin and the direction cosines
of the normal to the plane as 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = 𝑑.
 The equation of a plane through a point whose position vector is 𝑎 and perpendicular to
the vector 𝑁 ⃗ 𝑖𝑠 (𝑟 − 𝑎). 𝑁 ⃗ = 0.
 Equation of a plane perpendicular to a given line with direction ratios A,B,C and passing
through a given point (𝑥1, 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝐴(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) + 𝐵(𝑦 − 𝑦1 ) + 𝐶(𝑧 − 𝑧1 ) = 0
 Equation of a plane passing through three non collinear points
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 )𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 , 𝑧3 ) 𝑖𝑠 |𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 | = 0
𝑥3 − 𝑥1 𝑦3 − 𝑦1 𝑧3 − 𝑧1
 Vector equation of a plane that contains three non collinear points having position
vectors 𝑎, 𝑏⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 (𝑟 − 𝑎). [(𝑏⃗ − 𝑎) × (𝑐 − 𝑎)] = 0
 Equation of a plane that cuts the coordinates axes at
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
(𝑎, 0,0), (0, 𝑏, 0) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (0,0, 𝑐) 𝑖𝑠 + + = 1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
 Vector equation of a plane that passes through the intersection of planes
𝑟. ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑛2 = 𝑑2 𝑖𝑠 𝑟. (𝑛
𝑛1 = 𝑑1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟. ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 ) = 𝑑1 + 𝜆𝑑2 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜆is any nonzero
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + 𝜆𝑛
constant.
 Vector equation of a plane that passes through the intersection of two given planes
𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑦 + 𝐶1 𝑧 + 𝐷1 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑦 + 𝐶2 𝑧 + 𝐷2 = 0 𝑖𝑠
(𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑦 + 𝐶1 𝑧 + 𝐷1 ) + 𝜆(𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑦 + 𝐶2 𝑧 + 𝐷2 ) = 0
 Two planes 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎1 + 𝜆𝑏 𝑎2 + 𝜇𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 are coplanar if (𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗1 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎1 ). (𝑏
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑏2 ) = 0
 Two planes 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑧 + 𝑑1 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑧 + 𝑑2 = 0 are coplanar if
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
| 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 | = 0.
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
 In the vector form, if 𝜃 is the angle between the two planes,
|𝑛 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
⃗ .𝑛
𝑟. ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑛2 = 𝑑2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 |𝑛⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1||𝑛⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗2 |.
𝑛1 = 𝑑1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
1 2
⃗ .𝑛̂
𝑏
 The angle 𝜙 between the line 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝜆𝑏⃗ and the plane 𝑟. 𝑛̂ = 𝑑 𝑖𝑠 sin 𝜙 = ||𝑏⃗||𝑛̂||
 The angle 𝜃 between the planes 𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑦 + 𝐶1 𝑧 + 𝐷1 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑦 + 𝐶2 𝑧 +

𝐴1 𝐴2 +𝐵1 𝐵2 +𝐶1 𝐶2
𝐷2 = 0 is given by cos 𝜃 = || ||
√𝐴21 +𝐵12 +𝐶12 √𝐴22 +𝐵22 +𝐶22

 The distance of a point whose position vector is 𝑎 from the plane 𝑟. 𝑛̂ = 𝑑 𝑖𝑠 |𝑑 − 𝑎. 𝑛̂|
 The distance from a point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) to the plane 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 + 𝐷 =
𝐴𝑥1 +𝐵𝑦1 +𝐶𝑧1 +𝐷
0 𝑖𝑠 | √𝐴2 +𝐵2 +𝐶 2
|

D.SREENIVASULU, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed. PGT(MATHEMATICS), KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA. Page 24