7.

PROPELLER DESIGN

Propellers are designed to absorb minimum power and to give maximum efficiency,
minimum cavitation and minimum hull vibration characteristics.

The above objectives can be achieved in the following stages:

1. Basic design
2. Wake adaptation
3. Design analysis

1. Basic design

By using semi-empirical methods (i.e. standard series model propeller data and
cavitation diagrams) and simple beam theory, stress prediction, the diameter, pitch,
blade surface area and weight of the propeller are obtained.

2. Wake adaptation

By using analytical procedures (e.g. vortex flow based lifting line methods) and
simple blade section design methods the basic design is further optimised (i.e. pitch
distribution and sectional blade shape) with respect to the non-uniform axial wake
flow in which the propeller works.

3. Design analysis

Using advances analytical procedures (i.e. Lifting surface based methods), the
optimised design is analysed in 3-D wake. If the analysis demonstrates unsatisfactory
performance of cavitation hull pressures, shaft forces and moments, blade section
geometry are modified by trial and error until the problem is solved.

a) Propeller Design Basis

The term propeller design basis refers to:

i. Power
ii. Rotational speed
iii. Ship speed.

that are chosen to act as the basis for the design of the principal propeller geometric
features.

1. Resistance and Power Estimation

A ship owner usually requires that the ship will achieve an average speed in service
condition (fouled hull in full displacement and rough weather), VSERVICE, at a certain
engine power. Initial acceptance will be the basis of demonstration of a higher speed

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on trial condition (clean ship usually in light displacement), VTRIAL, at some power,
i.e.

VTRIAL = VSERVICE + δV

where δV is the speed increase due to the fouled hull, rough weather and other effects,
and is usually taken as 1 knot.

A contract between the ship owner and the shipyard will state that the ship should
achieve VTRIAL with the engine developing, say, 85% of its Maximum Continuous
Power or Rating (MCR).

Under the above circumstances resistance (R) and the effective power (PE) for a range
of speed (covering VTRIAL and VSERVICE) are estimated using appropriate methodical
series data or statistical analysis data, or model test results. This PE is the effective
power in trial condition. The effective power in service condition (PESERVICE) is then
calculated such that

PESERVICE = (1 + x) PETRIAL

where (1+x) is the sea margin that the ship resistance is increased usually by 10 or
20% in average service conditions. Sea margin is due to the extra resistance on the
ship caused by fouling on the hull and propeller, weather, waves and wind conditions.

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 b) The Use of Standard Series Data in Design
2. Determination of Optimum RPM and Propeller Size (Diameter) (General
Case)

To determine an optimum rotational speed N (RPM) for a propeller when absorbing

certain delivered power PD and a propeller diameter D in association with the ship
speed VS.

i) Propeller type is chosen depending on the ship type, maximum efficiency,

noise reduction, ease of manoeuvrability, initial installation coast, running
cost, maintenance requirements.
ii) Number of blades is determined by the need to avoid harmful resonant
frequencies of the ship structure and the machinery.
iii) BAR is chosen to avoid cavitation on the propeller blades. Larger the BAR
results in less cavitation susceptibility but increase in section drag and
hence a loss in the efficiency of the propeller. BAR is initially determined.
iv) First it is necessary to determine a mean design Taylor wake fraction (wT)
from experience, published data or model test results.
v) Advance propeller speed VA can be determined as VA=(1-wT)VS
vi) Diameters of behind hull and open water are calculated as Dmax is assumed
to be usually percentage of the draught

Dmax = DB = aT
a<0.65 for bulk carriers and tankers
a<0.74 for container ships

where DB and T are the behind hull diameter and draught of the ship, respectively.

When the diameter is determined the diameter should be as large as the stern of hull
can accommodate, to obtain the maximum propeller efficiency. The typical figures of
the clearances of propeller-hull, propeller-rudder and propeller-baseline should be:

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X 5% to 10% of D
Y 15% to 25% of D
Z up to 5% of D

This DB should not exceed the limits of propeller-hull clearances.

vii) Open water diameter D0 is then calculated by increasing the DB by 5% and

3% for single and twin screws respectively.

D0 =
DB
1 − 0.05
for single screw propellers

viii) This diameter D0 should absorb the delivered power for trial condition at
the optimum RPM which would correspond to the maximum propeller
efficiency.

ix) From the Power-Speed diagram (PE vs. VS) PETRIAL is read off at the
VSTRIAL

12000

10000

8000
PE (kW)

Trial Condition
6000 Service Condition

4000

2000

0
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
VS (Knots)

Propulsive efficiency ηD is obtained by iteration for the optimum RPM, N.

Initially ηD is assumed (i.e. ηD(assumed)=0.7) and the delivered power PD is
x)

calculated as:

PD (TRIAL ) =
PE (TRIAL )
η D ( assumed )
xi) Bp and δ values are calculated for a range of N (e.g. N=80 to 120)

From the Bp-δ diagram open water propeller efficiency, η0 is read off at
the corresponding Bp-δ (D0)
xii)

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 xiii) N (RPM) vs. η0 diagram is plotted and η0max and N values are read off
from the diagram

0.624
0.622
0.62
0.618
0.616
η0

0.614
0.612
0.61
0.608
0.606
0.604
80 90 100 110 120 130
N (RPM)

xiv) ηD is calculated

1− t
η D ( calculated ) = η H η Rη 0 = η Rη 0
1− w

xv) The difference between the ηD(calculated) and ηD(assumed) is calculated as:

ε = η D ( calculated ) − η D ( assumed )

if ε value > εthreshold, go back to step (x) and assume ηD(assumed)=ηD(calculated)

iterate if required

if ε value ≤ εthreshold, ηD(calculated) is converged

and ηD is the latest calculated ηD(calculated)

xvi) Based upon the latest value of ηD break power in trial condition PB(TRIAL) is
calculated as:

PB (TRIAL ) = =
PE (TRIAL )
η Dη S ηS
PD

xvii) Installed Maximum Continuous Power is taken as

=
PB (TRIAL )
0.85

xviii) PD = PBηS

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 B p = 1.158 2.5 and δ B = 3.2808
NPD1 / 2 ND B
xix) are calculated
VA VA

xx) PB/DB is read off at the calculated (Bp, δB) from the Bp-δ diagram and the
mean face pitch is calculated.

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3. Engine Selection

A typical engine layout diagram of is shown in the following figure.

An engine’s layout diagram is limited by two constant mean effective pressure (mep)
lines L1-L3 and L2-L4, and by two constant engine speed lines L1-L2 and L3-L4. The L1
point refers to the engine’s nominal maximum continuous rating. Within the layout
area there is full freedom to select the engines specified MCR point M and relevant
optimising point O, which is optimum for the ship and the operating profile. Please
note that the lowest specific fuel oil consumption for a given optimising point O will
be obtained at 80% of point O’s power. Based on the propulsion and engine running
points, the layout diagram of a relevant main engine may be drawn-in. The specified
MCR point M must be inside the limitation lines of the layout diagram; if it is not, the
propeller speed will have to be changed or another main engine type must be chosen.

Engine margin is an operational margin for the engine which is usually between 10
and 15% of MCR. This point is the continuous operational or service point of the
engine required by the ship owner or the shipyard. It is not recommend to operate the
engine at the 100% of MCR for a long time which may result losses in the
performance of the engine

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 xxi) We have optimum RPM (latest), brake power in trial condition PBTRIAL and
installed maximum continuous power. For engine selection refer to engine
layout diagrams provided by the manufacturers.

Engine Power
(kW) L1 (MCR)

100%MCR Installed power

85%MCR Trial power

L4
L2

L3 Noptimum

Engine Speed, N (RPM)

•
•
assume the number of cylinders

•
calculate the required installed power
from a range of engine select the appropriate one compatible with the
optimum RPM and power range

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4. Prediction of Performance in Service

Prediction of the ship speed and propeller rate of rotation in service condition with the
engine developing 85% of MCR

xxii) PDSERVICE = PBηS

xxiii) Choose a new value of wT to allow for the effects of roughness, wind,
waves, etc.

wTSERVICE=1.1wTTRIAL

xxiv) The previous values for t and ηR are assumed to be the same

xxv) ηDSERVICE is assumed (i.e. ηDSERVICE(assumed)=0.7)

xxvi) Effective power is then calculated

PESERVICE = PDSERVICEη DSERVICE

xxvii) From the power vs. speed diagram VSSERVICE is read off at PESERVICE

xxviii) VA is calculated

V A = VSSERVICE (1 − wTSERVICE )

xxix) B p = 1.158 2.5 and δ B = 3.2808

NPD1 / 2 ND B
are calculated for a range of Ns
VA VA
and the calculated values of Bp-δB are plotted on the Bp-δB diagram

xxx) η0 is read of at the intersection of Bp-δB curve with the PB/DB

xxxi) ηD is calculated

1− t
η D ( calculated ) = η H η Rη 0 = η Rη 0
1 − wTSERVICE

xxxii) The difference between the ηD(calculated) and ηD(assumed) is calculated as:

ε = η D ( calculated ) − η D ( assumed )

if ε value > εthreshold, go back to step (xxv) and assume ηD(assumed)=ηD(calculated)

iterate if required

if ε value ≤ εthreshold, ηD(calculated) is converged

xxxiii) PESERVICE=PDSERVICEηDSERVICE(latest)

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xxxiv) From the power vs. speed diagram VSSERVICE is again read off at PESERVICE
and this is the ship speed in service condition.

xxxv) Bp and δB are read off at the above intersection obtained in (xxix).
NSERVICE is calculated as:

δ BV A
N SERVICE =
3.2088 DB

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5. Determination of Blade Surface Area (BAR) and Cavitation Control

Cavitation control is carried out for trial condition. This is due to fact that the ship
will have the maximum speed in trial condition

xxxvi) Cavitation number σR is calculated for trial condition

xxxvii) Referring to Burril’s cavitation diagram for upper limit load coefficient τc
is read off at the σR

xxxviii) Projected area, Ap, developed area, AD and Blade area ratio BAR are
calculated

If the calculated BAR is less than the selected BAR, the design stage is completed.

If the calculated BAR is greater than the selected BAR, a new BAR greater than the
calculated BAR is chosen. All the calculations are performed for the new BAR.

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