Chapter–11

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

Introduction
Various phenomena like interference, diffraction, and polarization of light were
explained by the wave nature of light. The wave nature of light is further supported
by Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetism and the production and detection of
electromagnetic waves in 1986 by Hertz.
The photoelectric effect by Hertz, Compton effect by Compton, and Stark effect by
Stark were discovered in the 20th century and were explained by the quantum theory
of light. According to which, the light consists of packets of energy. Each packet of
energy is called a photon or quantum of light (E = hυ) where h is Planck’s constant,
υ is the frequency of light, c is the velocity of light and these packets of energy travel
in straight line with the speed of light.

Hence, it was concluded that light is of dual nature as some phenomena were
explained by the wave theory of light and some by particle nature of light, In this
unit, we shall study the dual nature of radiation and matter.

Emission of electrons:
We know that metals have free electrons (negatively charged particles) that are
responsible for their conductivity. The free electron is held inside the metal surface by
the attractive forces of the ions. The electron can come out of the metal surface only if
it has got sufficient energy to overcome the attractive pull.
A certain minimum amount of energy is required to be given to an electron to pull it out
from the surface of the metal. If it has got sufficient energy to overcome the attractive
pull then only the electron can come out of the metal surface. This phenomenon of
emission of electrons from the metal surface is called electron emission.

Work Function
To pull out electrons from the surface of the metal, a certain minimum amount of
energy is required. This minimum energy required by the electron is called the work
function of the metal. Work function is generally denoted by 'w' or φ0 and measured
in eV (electron volt).
The work function (φ0) depends on the properties of the metal and the nature of its
surface.

Process of Electron Emission

The minimum energy required for the electron emission from the metal surface can be
supplied to the free electrons by any one of the following physical processes:

(i). Thermionic emission

The process of emission of electrons when a metal is heated is known as thermionic
emission. The emitted electrons are called thermions. Emitted number of thermions
depends on the temperature of the metal surface.

(ii). Field emission

The process of emission of free electrons when a strong electric field (10 8 V/m) is
applied across the metal surface is known as field emission.

(iii). Photoelectric emission

The process of emission of electrons when the light of suitable frequency is incident
on a metal surface is known as photoelectric emission. These photo-generated
electrons are called photoelectrons.

Threshold Frequency
The minimum frequency of light that can emit photoelectrons from a material is called
threshold frequency or cut-off frequency of that material.

Threshold Wavelength
The maximum wavelength of light which can emit photoelectrons from a material is
called the threshold wavelength or cut-off wavelength of that material.

Electron Volt
One electron volt is the energy acquired by an electron when it has been accelerated
by a 1-volt potential difference. (1 eV = 1.602 × 10–19 J)

Photoelectric Effect
When an electromagnetic radiation of suitable frequency is incident on a surface,
electrons can be liberated from the metal surface. This phenomenon is known as the
photoelectric effect . The emitted electrons are called photoelectrons and the current
so produced is called photoelectric current.
To have photo emission, the frequency of incident light should be more than some
minimum frequency. This minimum frequency is called the threshold frequency (𝜈o).
It depends on the type of the metal. Alkali metals (lithium, sodium, potassium,
cesium, etc.) show a photoelectric effect with visible light.

Hertz’s Observations
The phenomenon of photoelectric emission was discovered in 1887 by Heinrich
Hertz while studying experimentally the production of electromagnetic waves by
means of spark discharge. He found that when the emitter plate was illuminated by
ultraviolet light, high-voltage sparks across the detector loop were enhanced. This
observation led him to conclude that light facilitated the emission of some electrons.

From this, it was concluded that when suitable radiation falls on a metal surface, some
electrons near the surface absorb enough energy from the incident radiation to
overcome the attraction of the positive ions in the material of the surface.

Hallwachs’ and Lenard’s observations

Hallwachs, in 1888, undertook the study further and connected a negatively charged
zinc plate to an electroscope. He observed that the zinc plate lost its charge when it was
illuminated by ultraviolet light. Further, the uncharged zinc plate became positively
charged when it was irradiated by ultraviolet light. Positive charge on a positively
charged zinc plate was found to be further enhanced when it was illuminated by
ultraviolet light. From these observations he concluded that negatively charged particles
were emitted from the zinc plate under the action of ultraviolet light

Lenard’s Observation
Lenard observed that when ultraviolet radiation was allowed to fall on the emitter
plate of an evacuated glass tube enclosing two electrodes, current flows. As soon as,
the ultraviolet radiations were stopped, the current flows also stopped. These
observations indicate that when ultraviolet radiations fall on the emitter plate,
electrons are ejected from it which are attracted towards the positive plate by the
electric field.
Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect
It consists of an evacuated glass or quartz tube having two electrodes. Electrode ‘C’ is
a photosensitive plate, which emits photoelectrons when exposed to ultraviolet
radiation. The electrode ‘A’ is a charge-collecting plate. The tube has a side window,
which will allow the light of a particular wavelength to pass through it and falls on the
photosensitive plate ‘C’.

The window is made of quartz covered with a filter. The electrons collected by plate
A (collector), are emitted by the plate C. Battery creates the electrical field between
collector and emitter. The potential difference between plates C and A is maintained
by the battery, which can be varied.

From a commutator, the polarity of the plates C and A can be reversed. Thus with
respect to emitter C, plate A can be maintained at a desired positive or negative
potential. The electrons are attracted, when the collector plate A is positive with
respect to the emitter plate C. Electron emission causes the flow of electric current in
the circuit.
Voltameter (V) measures the potential difference between the emitter and collector
plates. Microammeter (μA) measures the resulting photocurrent flowing in the circuit.
The current flowing in the circuit can be increased or decreased by varying the
potential between collector plate A and emitter plate C. We can also vary the intensity
and frequency of the incident light.

(i). Effect of Intensity

According to this, Photoelectric current for a fixed frequency of incident radiation, the
photoelectric current increases linearly with an increase in the intensity of incident
light.
Keeping the frequency of the incident radiation and the potential difference between
the collector(A) and the Surface (C) at constant values, the intensity of incident radiation
is varied. The corresponding photoelectric current is measured in the micro-ammeter.
It is found that the photo electric current increases linearly with the intensity of incident
radiation .

Since the photoelectric current is directly proportional to the number of photoelectrons

emitted per second, it implies that the number of photoelectrons emitted per second is
proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.

(ii). Effect of Potential

When the collector (A) is made negative with respect to C, the emitted electrons are
repelled and only those electrons which have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the
repulsion may reach to the collector(A) and constitute current.
So the current in ammeter falls. On making Collector (A) more negative , number of
photoelectrons reaching the collector further decreases.

For specific negative potential of the collector, even the most energetic electrons are
unable to reach collector and photoelectric current becomes zero.
It remains zero even if the potential is made further negative than the specific value of
negative potential.
This minimum specific negative potential of the collector with respect to the emitter
(photo sensitive surface) at which photo-electric current becomes zero is known as the
Stopping Potential (VO) for the given surface.
It is thus the maximum kinetic energy 1 mv2 of the emitted photoelectrons. If charge
2
and mass of an electron are e and m respectively then 1 mv2 = 𝑒𝑉𝑜
2

We can now repeat this experiment with incident radiation of the same frequency but
of higher intensity I2 and I3 (I3 > I2 > I1). We note that the saturation currents are now
found to be at higher values. This shows that more electrons are being emitted per
second, proportional to the intensity of incident radiation. But the stopping potential
remains the
same as that for the incident radiation of intensity I1, as shown graphically in Fig.
Thus, for a given frequency of the incident radiation, the stopping potential is
independent of its intensity. In other words, the maximum kinetic energy of
photoelectrons depends on the light source and the emitter plate material, but is
independent of intensity of incident radiation.
According to this, photoelectric current for a fixed frequency increases with an
increase in the potential applied to the collector.

(iii). Effect of Frequency

According to this, the energy of the emitted electrons depends on the frequency of the
incident radiations. The stopping potential is more negative for higher frequencies of
incident radiation.

Keeping the photosensitive plate (C) and intensity of incident radiation a constant, the
effect of frequency of the incident radiations on stopping potential is studied.
Fig shows the variation of the photo electric current with the applied potential
difference V for three different frequencies. From the graph, it is found that higher the
frequency of the incident radiation, higher is the value of stopping potential Vo. For
frequencies ν3 > ν2 > ν1, the corresponding stopping potentials are in the same order (Vo
)3 > (Vo )2 > (Vo )1.
It is concluded from the graph that, the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
varies linearly with the frequency of incident radiation but is independent of its
intensity.
If the frequency of the incident radiation is plotted against the corresponding
Stopping potential, a straight line is obtained as shown in Fig
From this graph, it is found that at a frequency νo, the value of the stopping potential is
zero. This frequency is known as the threshold frequency for the photo metal used. The
photoelectric effect occurs above this frequency and ceases below it.
Therefore, threshold frequency is defined as the minimum frequency of incident
radiation, below which the photoelectric emission is not possible completely. The
threshold frequency is different for different metals.

Laws of photoelectric emission

1. For a given photo sensitive material, there is a minimum frequency called the
threshold frequency, below which emission of photoelectrons stops completely,
however great the intensity may be.
2. For a given photosensitive material, the photo electric current is directly
proportional to the intensity of the incident radiation, provided the frequency is
greater than the threshold frequency.
3. The maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons is directly proportional to the
frequency of incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity.
4. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process. The time lag is very
small between the incidence of radiation and emission of photoelectrons (~10 –9
s or less), even when the incident radiation is extremely dim.

Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation

In 1905, Albert Einstein successfully applied quantum theory of radiation to
photoelectric effect.
Plank had assumed that emission of radiant energy takes place in the quantized form,
the photon, but once emitted it propagate in the form of wave. Einstein further
assumed that not only the emission, even the absorption of light takes place in the form
of photons.
According to Einstein, the emission of photo electron is the result of the interaction
between a single photon of the incident radiation and an electron in the metal. When a
photon of energy h is incident on a metal surface, its energy is used up in two ways:
(i) A part of the energy of the photon is used in extracting the electron from the surface
of metal, since the electrons in the metal are bound to the nucleus. This energy W spent
in releasing the photo electron is known as photoelectric work function of the metal.
The work function of a photo metal is defined as the minimum amount of energy
required to liberate an electron from the metal surface.

(ii) The remaining energy of the photon is used to impart kinetic energy to the liberated
electron. If m is the mass of an electron and v, its velocity then
Energy of the incident photon = Work function + Kinetic energy of the electron

ℎ𝜈= ϕ0 + 1 mv2
2

If the electron does not loose energy by internal collisions, as it escapes from the metal,
the entire energy (hν– ϕ0) will be exhibited as the kinetic energy of the electron.

Thus, (hν– ϕ0) represents the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected photo electron. If
Vmax is the maximum velocity with which the photoelectron can be ejected, then

ℎ𝜈= ϕ0 + 1 m V2max −−(1)

2

This equation is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation.

When the frequency (𝜈) of the incident radiation is equal to the threshold frequency (𝜈o)
of the metal surface, kinetic energy of the electron is zero. Then equation (1) becomes,
h𝜈o = ϕ0 …(2)
Substituting the value of W in equation (1) we get, ℎ𝜈−ℎ𝜈0= 1 m V2max−−(3)
2
Or Kmax = hν – ϕ0 or eVO = hν –ϕ0 –--(4)

This is another form of Einstein’s photoelectric equation.

Experimental verification of Einstein’s photoelectric equation

(1) According to Eq. (4), Kmax depends linearly on 𝜈, and is independent of intensity of
radiation, in agreement with observation.
This has happened because in Einstein’s picture, photoelectric effect arises from the
absorption of a single quantum of radiation by a single electron. The intensity of
radiation (that is proportional to the number of energy quanta per unit area per unit
time) is irrelevant to this basic process.
(2) Since Kmax must be non-negative, Eq. (4) implies that photoelectric emission is
possible only if h𝜈 > ϕ0
Or 𝜈 > 𝜈o
ϕ0
Where 𝜈o = –eq(5)
ℎ
Equation (4) shows that the greater the work function φ0, the higher the minimum or
threshold frequency ν0 needed to emit photoelectrons. Thus, there exists a threshold
ϕ
frequency (𝜈o = 0 ) for the metal surface, below which no photoelectric emission is
ℎ
possible, no matter how intense the incident radiation may be or how long it falls on the
surface
(3) Intensity of radiation as noted above is proportional to the number of energy quanta
per unit area per unit time.
The greater the number of energy quanta available, the greater is the number of
electrons absorbing the energy quanta and greater, therefore, is the number of
electrons coming out of the metal (for 𝜈 > 𝜈o). This explains why, for 𝜈 > 𝜈o,photoelectric
current is proportional to intensity.
(4) The photoelectric equation, Eq. (3), can be written as 𝑒𝑉0=ℎ𝜈− ϕ0

hν ϕ0
𝑉0 = −
e e

PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT: THE PHOTON

(i) In interaction of radiation with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made up of
particles called photons.
(ii) Each photon has energy E (=hν) and momentum p (= h ν/c), and speed c, the speed of
light.
(iii) All photons of light of a particular frequency ν, or wavelength λ, have the same
energy E (=hν = hc/λ) and momentum p (= hν/c = h/λ),
whatever the intensity of radiation may be. By increasing the intensity of light of given
wavelength, there is only an increase in the number of photons per second crossing a
given area, with each photon having the same energy. Thus, photon energy is
independent of intensity of radiation.
(iv) Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
(v) In a photon-particle collision (such as photon-electron collision), the total energy and
total momentum are conserved. However, the number of photons may not be
conserved in a collision. The photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be created.

(v) Mass of photon m = E/c2