Nina Marie Robles Steven Dave Dequina

01 Introduction

02 Magnetic Dipoles

03 Magnetic Field Vectors

overview
04 Diamagnetism

05 Paramagnetism

06 Ferromagnetism

07 Antiferromagnetism

08 Ferrimagnetism
 09 Temperature Effect

10 Magnetic Domains

11 Magnetic Hysteresis

overview
12 Magnetic Anisostropy

13 Soft Magnets

14 Hard Magnets

15 Magnetic Storage

16 Superconductivity
refer to how certain materials can interact with 01 Introduction
magnetic fields or its about whether something can be
attracted to a magnet or become a magnet itself.

Magnetism is a phenomenon by which a material

exerts either attractive or repulsive force on another.

Basic source of magnetic force is movement of

electrically charged particles. Thus, magnetic behavior
of a material can be traced to the structure of atoms
 01 Introduction
Electrons in atoms have a planetary motion in that
they go around the nucleus. This orbital motion and
its own spin cause separate magnetic moments, which
contribute to the magnetic behavior of materials.
Thus every material can respond to a magnetic field.

However, the manner in which a material responds

depend much on its atomic structure, and determines
whether a material will be strongly or weakly
magnetic
 01 Introduction

Magnetic moment due to spin of an electron.

q - charge on the electron

h – Planck’s constant
me – mass of electron

Bohr magneton is the most fundamental magnetic

moment.
Why not all Orbital moments of electrons
also cancel out each other –
materials are thus no net magnetic moments
if there is no unpaired
magnets? electron/s.
According to Pauli exclusion
rule, two electrons with same
energy level must have opposite
spins – thus so are their
magnetic moments, which cancel
out each other.
01 Introduction
02

Are found to exist in magnetic materials, analogous to

electric dipoles.

Is a small magnet composed of north and south poles instead

of positive and negative charges.

Within a magnetic field, the force of field exerts a torque that

tends to orient the dipoles with the filed.

Figure shows that the magnetic field lines of force around a

current loop and a bar magnet.
02

Magnetic forces are generated by moving electrically

charged particles. These forces are in addition to any
electrostatic forces that may already exist.

It is convenient to think magnetic forces in terms of

distributed field, which is represented by imaginary lines.
These lines also indicate the direction of the force.
03

Is an invisible force field that surrounds a magnet or an

object with magnetic properties.

If a magnetic field is generated by passing current I through

a coil of length l and number of turns n, then the magnetic
field strength, H (units A/m).

I - current
l – length of coil
n – number of turns
03

Magnetic flux density (induction) is the measure of lines

within a medium. It has units as weber (Wb) /m2 or tesla and
is defined as

μ – permeability

It is a specific property of the medium, and has units as

Wb/A.m or henry (H) /m.
03

Relative magnetic permeability, is defined as

μr is a measure of the degree to which material can be

magnetized.

where μ0 - magnetic permeability of vacuum.

03

If M- magnetization defined as M, is defined as

then

χm is called the magnetic susceptibility and is given as

04

Repelled by magnets

Very weak; exists ONLY in presence of an external

field, non-permanent.

Applied external field acts on atoms of a material,

slightly unbalancing their orbiting electrons, and
creates small magnetic dipoles within atoms which
oppose the applied field. This action produces a
negative magnetic effect known as diamagnetism.
04

The induced magnetic moment is small, and the

magnetization (M) direction is opposite to the
direction of applied field (H).

Thus the relative permeability is less than unity i.e.

magnetic susceptibility is negative, and is in order
of -10^-5

Materials such as Cu, Ag, Si, and aluminum are

diamagnetic at room temperature.
05

Are weakly attracted to magnets, but they don't

become magnets on their own

Slightly stronger; when an external field is applied

dipoles line-up with the field, resulting in a positive
magnetization. However, the dipoles do not interact.

Materials which exhibit a small positive magnetic

susceptibility in the presence of a magnetic field are
called para-magnetic, and the effect is termed as para-
magnetism.
05

In the absence of an external field, the orientations of

atomic magnetic moments are random leading to no net
magnetization.

When an external field is applied dipoles line-up with

the field, resulting in a positive magnetization.

However, because the dipoles do not interact,

extremely large magnetic fields are required to align
all of the dipoles.
(a) Diamagnetic materials don't have tiny magnets in them
naturally. But when we bring a magnet close, these materials
make tiny magnets that point in the opposite direction of the
magnet.

(b) Paramagnetic materials don't have tiny magnets in them

either, but when we bring a magnet close, they create tiny
magnets that point in the same direction as the magnet.

Both diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials are considered

nonmagnetic because they exhibit magnetization only when
in the presence of an external field.
06

These materials are strongly attracted to magnets and

can become magnets themselves.

Possess magnetic susceptibilities approaching 10^6 .

Above the Curie temperature, ferro-magnetic materials

behave as para-magnetic materials and their
susceptibility is given by the Curie-Weiss law, defined as

C – material constant
T – temperature
Tc – Curie temperature
07

Dipoles line-up, but in opposite directions, resulting in zero

magnetization

When the strength of anti-parallel spin magnetic moments is

equal, no net spin moment exists, and resulting
susceptibilities are quite small.

One noticeable characteristic of anti-ferro-magnets is they

attain maximum susceptibility at a critical temperature called
Neel temperature. At temperatures above this, anti-ferro-
magnets become para-magnetic.
08

Some ceramic materials exhibit net magnetization. bove this, anti-ferro-

magnets become para-magnetic.

In a magnetic field, the dipoles of a cation may line up with the field, while
dipoles of other cation may not. These ceramics are called ferrites, and the
effect is known as ferri-magnetism.

These ceramics are good insulators, electrical losses are minimal, and hence
ferrites have lot of applications in devices such as high frequency
transformers.
08
09

Temperature does have a definite effect on a materials’ magnetic

behavior.

With rising temperature, magnitude of the atom thermal vibrations

increases. This may lead to more randomization of atomic magnetic
moments as they are free to rotate.

Usually, atomic thermal vibrations counteract forces between the adjacent

atomic dipole moments, resulting in dipole misalignment up to some extent
both in presence and absence of external field.
10

Each domain consists of magnetic moments that are aligned, giving rise to
a permanent net magnetic moment per domain.

Each of these domains is separated from the rest by domain boundaries /

domain walls.

Bolch walls (Boundaries) - are narrow zones in which the direction of the
magnetic moment gradually and continuously changes from that of one
domain to that of the next.
 10

Domains exist even in absence of external field.

In a material that has never been exposed to a magnetic field, the individual domains
have a random orientation. This type of arrangement represents the lowest free energy.

When a magnetic field is imposed on the material, domains that are nearly lined up with
the field grow at the expense of unaligned domains. This process continues until only the
most favorably oriented domains remain.

In order for the domains to grow, the Bloch walls must move, the external field provides
the force required for this moment.
10

When the domain growth is completed, a further increase in the

magnetic field causes the domains to rotate and align parallel to the
applied field. At this instant material reaches saturation magnetization
and no further increase will take place on increasing the strength of the
external field.

Under these conditions the permeability of these materials becomes

quite small.
10
11

Is important in various applications, such as in the cores of transformers

and in magnetic storage devices like hard drives, where it helps store
information

Once magnetic saturation has been achieved, a decrease in the applied

field back to zero results in a macroscopically permanent or residual
magnetization, known as remanance, Mr. The corresponding induction,
Br, is called retentivity or remanent induction of the magnetic material.
This effect of retardation by material is called hysteresis.
11

Coercivity (Hc) is the strength of the magnetic field needed to remove induced
magnetization (make it zero). You have to apply this field in the opposite direction to the
original magnetic field.

If you keep increasing the field in the opposite direction, the material will become
magnetized in the opposite direction, reaching a maximum point.

You can reverse the field again, creating a loop of how the field and magnetization
change. This loop is called a hysteresis loop or B-H plot or M-H plot, showing how a
material responds to changing magnetic fields.
11
12

The M (or B) versus H behavior for a ferromagnetic single crystal is

anisotropic— that is, dependent on the crystallographic direction along
which the magnetic field is applied.

The crystallographic direction for which Ms is achieved at the lowest H

field is an easy magnetization direction.

Energy losses in transformer cores made of magnetic ferrous alloys may

be minimized by taking advantage of anisotropic magnetic behavior
 13

Soft magnets are characterized by low coercive forces and high

magnetic permeabilities; and are easily magnetized and de-
magnetized.

They generally exhibit small hysteresis losses.

Application of soft magnets include: cores for electro-magnets, electric

motors, transformers, generators, and other electrical equipment.
 14

Hard magnets are characterized by high remanent inductions and high

coercivities.

These are also called permanent magnets or hard magnets.

These are found useful in many applications including fractional horse-

power motors, automobiles, audio- and video- recorders, earphones,
computer peripherals, and clocks.

They generally exhibit large hysteresis losses.

 14

Domain wall motion is much more difficult for the

hard magnetic materials, which results in larger
hysteresis loops; because greater fields are
required to demagnetize these materials, the
magnetization is more permanent.
15

Information storage is accomplished using magnetic materials; the two

principal types of magnetic media are hard disk drives and magnetic
tapes.
The storage medium for hard disk drives is composed of nanometer-size
grains of an HCP cobalt–chromium alloy. These grains are oriented such
that their direction of easy magnetization is perpendicular to the plane of
the disk.
For tape-memory storage, either needle-shaped ferromagnetic metal
particles or plate-shaped ferromagnetic barium–ferrite particles are
employed. Particle size is on the order of tens of nanometers.
16

Superconductivity has been observed in a number of

materials; upon cooling and in the vicinity of absolute zero
temperature, the electrical resistivity vanishes.

The superconducting state ceases to exist if temperature,

magnetic field, or current density exceeds a critical value.
16

For type I superconductors, magnetic field exclusion is complete

below a critical field, and field penetration is complete once HC is
exceeded. This penetration is gradual with increasing magnetic
field for type II materials.

New complex oxide ceramics are being developed with

relatively high critical temperatures, which allow inexpensive
liquid nitrogen to be used as a coolant.
16

For type I superconductors, magnetic field exclusion is complete

below a critical field, and field penetration is complete once HC is
exceeded. This penetration is gradual with increasing magnetic
field for type II materials.

New complex oxide ceramics are being developed with

relatively high critical temperatures, which allow inexpensive
liquid nitrogen to be used as a coolant.
OPTICAL
PROPERTIES
OF MATERIALS
 01 INTRODUCTION 09 TRANSMISSION

02 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION 10 COLOR

overview
03 LIGHT INTERACTION WITH 11 OPACITY AND TRANSLUSCENCY
SOLIDS IN INSULATOR

04 ATOMIC AND ELECTRONIC 12 LUMINISCENCE

INTERACTIONS
PHOTOCONDUCTIVITY
05
OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF 13
METALS

06 REFRACTION 14 OPTICAL FIBERS IN

COMMUNICATION

07 REFLECTION

08 ABSORPTION
| Introduction

Optical Property
refers to a material’s response to
exposure to electromagnetic
radiation and, in particular, to
visible light.
| electromagnetic radiation

considered to be wavelike, consisting of electric and magnetic field

components that are perpendicular to each other and also to the
direction of propagation

light
heat (or radiant energy)
radar, radio waves
x-rays
| electromagnetic radiation

The spectrum of
electromagnetic
radiation, including
wavelength ranges
for the various colors
in the visible
spectrum.
 | electromagnetic radiation

visible light lies within a very narrow region of the

spectrum, with wavelengths ranging between about 0.4
μm (4 × 10−7 m) and 0.7 μm

perceived color is determined by its wavelength

Example
radiation having a wavelength of approximately 0.4 m
appears violet, whereas green and red occur at about
0.5 and 0.65 m, respectively
light radiation may be transmitted through the medium, some will be absorbed, and some
will be reflected at the interface between the two media

intensity I0 of the beam incident to the surface of the solid medium must equal the sum of
the intensities of the transmitted, absorbed, and reflected beams, denoted as IT, IA, and
IR, respectively, or
03 light interaction with solids

TRANSPARENT
capable of transmitting light with relatively little absorption and reflection
can see through them

TRANSLUCENT
light is transmitted diffusely
light is scattered within the interior to the degree that objects
are not clearly distinguishable when viewed through a specimen
of the material
OPAQUE
impervious to the transmission of visible light
Bulk metals are opaque in the visible spectrum, while electrically insulating
materials can be transparent, and some semiconducting materials are
transparent while others are opaque.
03 light interaction with solids
optical phenomena that occur within solid
materials involve interactions between the
electromagnetic radiation and atoms, ions, and/or
electrons.

two of the most important of these interactions

are
ELECTRONIC POLARIZATION
ELECTRON ENERGY TRANSITIONS
 04 atomic and electronic interaction

ELECTRONIC POLARIZATION
one component of an electromagnetic wave is simply a
rapidly fluctuating electric field
electric field interacts with the electron cloud
surrounding each atom within its path

two consequences of this polarization

some of the radiation energy may be absorbed
electric field interacts with the electron cloud
surrounding each atom within its path (manifested as
refraction)
04 atomic and electronic interaction

ELECTRON ENERGY TRANSITIONS

absorption and emission of electromagnetic
radiation may involve electron transitions
from one energy state to another

change in energy experienced by the

electron, ΔE, depends on the radiation
frequency

ΔE- change in energy

h – Planck’s constant
v - frequency (Hz)
04 atomic and electronic interaction

A second important concept is that a

stimulated electron cannot remain in an
excited state indefinitely; after a short time,
it falls or decays back into its ground state,
or unexcited level, with reemission of
electromagnetic radiation.
05 optical properties of metals

Metals are opaque because the incident radiation

having frequencies within the visible range excites
electrons into unoccupied energy

Total absorption is within a very thin outer layer,

usually less than 0.1 μm; thus only metallic films
thinner than 0.1 μm are capable of transmitting
visible light

All frequencies of visible light are absorbed by

metals because of the continuously available
empty electron states, which permit electron
transitions
05 optical properties of metals
metals are opaque to all electromagnetic radiation on the low end of the
frequency spectrum, including radio waves, infrared and visible light, and
ultraviolet radiation

metals are opaque to all electromagnetic radiation on the low end of

the frequency spectrum, including radio waves, infrared and visible
light, and ultraviolet radiation

Metals are transparent to high-frequency (x- and γ-ray)

radiation.

Because metals are opaque and highly reflective, the perceived color is
determined by the wavelength distribution of the radiation that is
reflected and not absorbed.
05.1 optical properties of nonmetals

By virtue of their electron

energy band structures,
nonmetallic materials may be
transparent to visible light.

By virtue of their electron

energy band structures,
nonmetallic materials may be
transparent to visible light.
Light that is transmitted into the interior of transparent
materials experiences a decrease in velocity, and, as a
result, is bent at the interface

The index of refraction of a material is defined as the ratio

of the velocity in a vacuum to the velocity in the medium
or

n - index of refraction
c - velocity in a vacuum
v - velocity in the medium
06 refraction

magnitude of n (or the degree of bending) will depend

on the wavelength of the light. This effect is
graphically demonstrated by the familiar dispersion or
separation of a beam of white light into its component
colors by a glass prism.

Not only does the index of refraction affect the optical

path of light, but also, as explained shortly, it
influences the fraction of incident light that is
reflected at the surface.
06 refraction
 light radiation passes from one medium into another having
a different index of refraction, some of the light is scattered
at the interface between the two media even if both are
transparent.

The reflectivity R represents the fraction of the incident

light that is reflected at the interface, or

; Io and IR are the intensities of the incident and reflected

beams, respectively
In principle, light radiation is absorbed in this
group of materials by two basic mechanisms,
which also influence the transmission
characteristics of these nonmetals.

Absorption by electronic polarization is

important only at light frequencies

Other mechanism involves valence band–

conduction band electron transitions, which
depend on the electron energy band
structure of the material
07 absorption

(a) Mechanism of photon absorption

for nonmetallic materials in which
an electron is excited across the
band gap, leaving behind a hole in
the valence band. The energy of
the photon absorbed is Eg, which is
necessarily greater than the band
gap energy Eg. (b) Emission of a
photon of light by a direct electron
transition across the band gap.
07 absorption

Pure nonmetallic materials are either intrinsically transparent or opaque. Opacity

results in relatively narrow-band-gap materials (Eg 1.8 eV) as a result of absorption
whereby a photon’s energy is sufficient to promote valence band–conduction band
electron transitions

Transparent nonmetals have band gaps greater than 3.1 eV.

For nonmetallic materials that have band gaps between 1.8 and 3.1 eV, only a portion of
the visible spectrum is absorbed; these materials appear colored.

Some light absorption occurs in even transparent materials as a consequence of

electronic polarization.
 The phenomena of absorption, reflection, and transmission may be applied to the
passage of light through a transparent solid

For an incident beam of intensity Io that impinges on the front surface of a specimen of
thickness l and absorption coefficient , the transmitted intensity at the back face IT is,

where R is the reflectance; for this expression, it is assumed that the same medium
exists outside both front and back faces.
08 transmission
Transparent materials appear colored as a
consequence of specific wavelength ranges of light
that are selectively absorbed; the color discerned is a
result of the combination of wavelengths that are
transmitted.

If absorption is uniform for all visible wavelengths, the

material appears colorless;

The color discerned is a result of the distribution of

wavelength ranges in the transmitted beam.
 Normally transparent materials may be made translucent or even opaque if
the incident light beam experiences interior reflection and/or refraction.

Opacity results when the scattering is so extensive that virtually none of the
incident beam is transmitted, undeflected, to the back surface.

Translucency and opacity as a result of internal scattering may occur

(1) in polycrystalline materials that have anisotropic indices of refraction;
(2) in two-phase materials;
(3) in materials containing small pores; and
(4) in highly crystalline polymers.
| OPACITY AND TRANSLUCENCY IN INSULATORS
 materials which are capable of absorbing energy and then
reemitting visible light in a phenomenon called luminescence.

luminescence is classified according:

the magnitude of the delay time between absorption
reemission events

If reemission occurs for times much less than one second, the
phenomenon is termed fluorescence; for longer times, it is called
phosphorescence.

Electroluminescence is the phenomenon whereby light is emitted

as a result of electron–hole recombination events that are induced
in a forward-biased diode
additional charge carriers may be generated as a consequence of
photon-induced electron transitions in which light is absorbed; the
attendant increase in conductivity is called photoconductivity.

when a specimen of a photoconductive material is illuminated, the

conductivity increases. This phenomenon is used in photographic
light meters.
Signal transmission through a metallic wire conductor is electronic (i.e., by electrons),
whereas using optically transparent fibers, signal transmission is photonic, meaning that it
uses photons of electromagnetic or light radiation.

Use of fiber-optic systems has improved speed of transmission, information density, and
transmission distance, with a reduction in error rate; furthermore, there is no
electromagnetic interference with fiber optics.

With regard to speed, optical fibers can transmit, in one second, information equivalent
to three episodes of your favorite television program.
| OPTICAL FIBERS IN COMMUNICATIONS
An optical fiber is composed of the following elements:
A core through which the pulses of light propagate
The cladding, which provides for total internal reflection and containment of the light
beam within the core
The coating, which protects the core and cladding from damage

Schematic cross section

of an optical fiber.