Misr University for Science and Technology

Faculty of Engineering
Electronics and Communications Engineering Department
`

Electronics I Laboratory

ECE 201

Fall 2023

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Student Name:
Section:

Exp. Experiment Title Date Grade

No.

1 The Diode Characteristics.

2 Halfwave and Full wave

rectifiers
The Diode Limiter
3

4 The Diode Clampers

5 Zener Diode Regulator

6 Diode Logic Circuits

Common Emitter Amplifier

7

2
 INTRODUCTION

A laboratory experiment, although a powerful learning tool in the educational process, is a double-
edged sword. In order to receive the benefits, it can provide, you must follow several rules so that
your experiment will be successful. This section illustrates these rules.

BREADBOARDING
The breadboard is designed to accommodate the experiments that you will perform. The various
transistors, diodes, integrated circuit devices, resistors, capacitors, and other components, as well
as power and signal connections, all tie directly to the breadboard. Figure 1 shows the top view of
the “solderless” breadboarding socket, which is manufactured or sold by several companies,
including AP Products, Continental Specialties, and Radio Shack.
Breadboarding is an art that cannot be learned in a few minutes. Rather, it takes practice and
experience to develop an efficient technique.

Figure 1

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When breadboarding, keep the following rules in mind:
1. Only no. 22, 24, or 26 insulated wire should be used, and it must be solid, not stranded!
2. Never insert too large wire or component lead into a bread- boarding terminal.
3. Never insert a bent wire. Straighten out the bent end with a pair of pliers before insertion.
4. Try to maintain an orderly arrangement of components and wires, keeping all connections as
short as possible. Generally, the circuit is arranged on the breadboard in the same way that it
appears on a schematic diagram. This rule is useful when you are trying to locate possible wiring
errors.

RULES FOR SETTING UP THE EXPERIMENTS

Throughout this laboratory guide, you will have the opportunity to breadboard a variety of circuits.
Before setting up any experiment, you should do the following:
1. Plan your experiment. Know what types of results you are expected to observe.
2. Disconnect or turn off all power and external signal sources from the breadboard.
3. Clear the breadboard of all wires and components from previous experiments, unless instructed
otherwise.
4. Check the wired-up circuit against the schematic diagram to make sure that it is correct.
5. Unless otherwise instructed, never make component or wiring changes on or to the breadboard
with the power or external signal connections to the breadboard. This rule reduces the possibility
of accidentally destroying electronic components and equipment.
6. When you have finished, make sure that you disconnect everything before you clear the
breadboard of wires and components.

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 Table of Contents:

Exp. No. Experiment Title Page

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1 The Diode Characteristics.

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2
Halfwave and Full wave rectifiers
The Diode Limiter 16
3

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4 The Diode Clampers

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5 Zener Diode Regulator

34
6 Diode Logic Circuits

Common Emitter Amplifier 37

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 Experiment (1): The Diode Characteristics

1.1 Objective and Background

The objective of this experiment is to examine characteristics of a silicon diode. When the diode’s
anode is at a higher potential than is the cathode, the diode is forward biased. For conventional
current flow, current will flow through the diode from anode to cathode. Unlike a resistor, in which
the current is directly (that is, linearly) proportional to the voltage across it, the diode is a nonlinear
device. When the diode is forward biased, a small but measurable voltage drop, called the barrier
potential, occurs across the diode. For germanium diodes, this value is typically 0.3 V; for silicon
diodes, it is approximately 0.7 V.

1.2 Required Components and Equipment

• Resistors (1/4 W):
o 10-ohm
o 100-ohm
o 1 k-ohm

• 1N914 (1N4148 or equivalent) silicon, small-signal diode

• 0—15 V dc power supply
• Signal generator
• Dual trace oscilloscope
• Breadboarding socket

1.3 Useful Formula

The determination of Rf, the diode forward resistance, is shown graphically in Figure 1-1.

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 Figure 1-1 Graphic determination of diode forward resistance.

1.4 Procedure
1. connect the circuit shown in Figure 1-2A. Adjust the dc power supply to give the voltages across
the 1-k-ohm resistor. For each voltage, measure and record the dc voltage drop (Vd) across the
diode. The diode current is also the current flowing through the 1 k-ohm resistor. Determine the
diode current by using Ohm’s law in each case.
2. Plot the resulting diode curve (diode current versus voltage) on the graph page in this
experiment. Graphically determine the diode’s barrier potential (VB) and forward resistance (RF),
recording your results.
3. Disconnect the power from the breadboard and wire the circuit shown in Figure 1—2B. In this
part, the oscilloscope is set up to function as an X-Y plotter. Set the oscilloscope controls to the
following approximate settings:
Vertical (or Y) input sensitivity: 10 mV/division, dc coupling
Horizontal (or X) input sensitivity: 1 V/division, dc coupling

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 Figure 1-2 Schematic diagram of circuits.
4. After the oscilloscope has warmed up, center the trace dot at the center of the scope’s screen.
Adjust the sine wave frequency of the signal generator to approximately 100 Hz and vary the
generator’s output level so that you observe the characteristic diode curve similar to the one plotted
in Step 2. The oscilloscope display should be similar to that shown in Figure 1-3. If it is not, the
leads of the oscilloscope may be interchanged or there may be wiring error.

Figure 1-3
The horizontal input measures the voltage across the diode (Vd), neglecting the small voltage drop
across the 10-ohm resistor. The vertical input measures the voltage drop across the 10-ohm
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resistor. By Ohm’s law, the vertical input can be made to show the diode current (Id). If the vertical
sensitivity is 10 mV/division, then in terms of the current through the 10-ohm resistor, which is
the same as the diode current, Vertical sensitivity = 10 mV/division / 10-ohm= 1 mA/division

5. As in Step 2, from the oscilloscope’s display graphically determine the diode’s barrier potential
and forward resistance, recording your results. How does this compare with Step 2 for the same
diode?

1.5 Results and Waveforms

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1.6 Conclusion
This experiment examined the characteristics of a silicon diode. You learned how to determine the
diode’s barrier potential and forward resistance. By graphing the diode’s forward characteristic,
you observed that the diode is a nonlinear device.

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 Experiment (2): Halfwave and Full wave rectifiers

2.1 Objective and Background

The objective of this experiment is to study the characteristics of the half-wave rectifier, center-
tapped full-wave rectifier, and bridge full-wave rectifier with and without capacitor filter and
calculate the ripple factor.
Rectifier changes ac to dc and it is an essential part of power supply. The unique property of a
diode, permitting the current to flow in one direction, is utilized in rectifiers.
In half wave rectifier, main power supply is applied at the primary of the step-down transformer.
All the positive half cycles of the stepped down AC supply pass through the diode and all the
negative half cycles get eliminated. Peak value of the output voltage is less than the peak value of
the input voltage by 0.7 V because of the voltage drop across the diode.
In center-tapped full wave rectifier, during the positive half cycle of the transformer secondary
voltage, diode D1 is forward biased and the diode D2 is reverse biased. So, a current flows through
the diode D1, load resistor RL and upper half of the transformer winding. During the negative half
cycle, diode D2 becomes forward biased and D1 becomes reverse biased. The current then flows
through the diode D2, load resistor RL and lower half of the transformer winding. Current flows
through the load resistor in the same direction during both the half cycles. Peak value of the output
voltage is less than the peak value of the input voltage by 0.7V because of the voltage drop across
the diode.
In bridge full wave rectifier, during the positive half cycle of the secondary voltage, diodes D1
and D2 are forward biased and diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased. Therefore, current flows
through the secondary winding, diode D1, load resistor RL and diode D2. During the negative half
cycle, D3 and D4 are forward biased and diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biased. Therefore, current
flows through the secondary winding, diode D3. Load resistor RL and D4. During both the half
cycles, the current flows through the load resistor RL in the same direction. Peak value of the output
voltage is less than the peak value of the input voltage by 1.4 V due to the voltage drop across two
diodes.

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Rectifiers with capacitor Filter: A high value capacitor C is connected in shunt with the load
resistor RL. Capacitor charges to peak voltage when the half cycle appears at the output. After the
peak value is passed, the capacitor discharges through the load resistor RL slowly since the diode
is reverse biased by the capacitor voltage. Before the capacitor voltage drops substantially, next
output cycle arrives and the capacitor recharges to peak.

2.2 Required Components and Equipment

• Resistors (1/4 W):

o 1 k-ohm (3 resistors)
• Capacitors:
o 100 µF (3 capacitors)
• 1N 4001(7 Diodes) silicon
• 220V/6V-0-6V, 100 mA center-tapped transformer.
• 220V/6V, 100 mA transformer (2 transformers)
• Dual trace oscilloscope
• Breadboarding socket

2.3 Procedure

1- Connect the circuit of the half wave rectifier shown in Figure 1 without capacitor after testing
all the components.

2. Switch on the main supply. Observe the transformer secondary voltage waveform and output
voltage waveform across the load resistor RL, simultaneously on the oscilloscope.

3. Connect the capacitor filter and observe the waveforms

4. Calculate ripple factor.

5. Repeat for different capacitor values.

5. Repeat the above steps for center-tapped full wave rectifier shown in Figure 2 and bridge full
wave rectifier shown in Figure 3

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 Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

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2.4 Results and Waveforms (without capacitor filter)

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2.5 Results and Waveforms (with capacitor filter)

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 Experiment (3): The Diode Limiter

3.1 Objective and Background

The objective of this experiment is to demonstrate the operation of a diode limiter. Diode limiters
are wave-shaping circuits in that they are used to prevent signal voltages from going above or
below certain levels. The limiting level may be either equal to the diode’s barrier potential or made
variable with a DC source voltage. Because of this clipping capability, the limiter is also called a
clipper.

3.2 Required Components and Equipment

• 15-kOhm resistor, 1/4 W

• 5-kOhm potentiometer
• 1N4001 silicon rectifier diode
• 0-15 V dc power supply
• Signal generator
• Dual trace oscilloscope
• Breadboarding socket

3.3 Procedure
1. Connect the limiter circuit shown in the schematic diagram of Figure 1A. Set your oscilloscope
to the following approximate setting: Channels 1 and 2: 1 V/division, dc coupling and Time base:
1 ms/division. Without any input signal connected to the breadboard, position the two lines on the
oscilloscope’s display so that they are at the same level (that is, zero volts).
2. Now connect the signal generator to the breadboard. Adjust the signal generator’s output level
at 6 V peak-to-peak at a freq. of 200 Hz. You should see two waveforms similar to those shown in
Figure 2. Notice that the positive peaks of the limiter’s output waveform are removed or clipped
off. Notice also that the clipping level is not perfect; the positive peaks are clipped not at zero
volts, but at a small positive voltage. When the input waveform goes positive at a level greater
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than the barrier potential of the diode, the diode is forward biased, the equivalent of a short circuit
in series with a small dc voltage source. Thus, approximately 0.7 volt (the barrier potential for a
silicon diode) is dropped across the diode. When the input waveform goes negative, the diode
looks like an open circuit, and essentially all of the input appears at the output. Such an
arrangement is called a positive limiter because the circuit limits the positive peaks of the input
waveform. Sketch your clipped waveform, showing the positive and negative peak values.

3. Now reverse the polarity of the diode in the circuit, as shown in Figure 1B. How does this
waveform compare with that of Step 2?

The behavior is opposite that of the positive limiter. The waveform has all negative peaks of the
input signal removed, as shown in Figure 3. Again, notice that the clipping level is not perfect; the
negative

peaks are clipped not at zero volts, but at a small negative voltage. Such an arrangement is called
a negative limiter because the circuit clips off the negative peak of the input waveform. Sketch
your clipped waveform, showing the positive and negative peak values.

4. Now connect the circuit of Figure 1C. Apply power to the breadboard and adjust the
potentiometer so that the dc voltage (VDC) is +1.5V. Connect the signal generator, set at 6 v. peak-
to-peak, to the breadboard. What do you notice about the output of the limiter?

The clipping level is higher than that measured in Step 2. The circuit uses a dc source voltage to
bias, or set, the clipping level. Consequently, this arrangement is called a positive-biased limiter.
On the data page at the end of this experiment, sketch the clipped waveform, showing the and
negative peak values.

Note that the positive clipping level is the dc source volt age plus the diode’s barrier potential. For
the diode to become forward biased, the positive peaks of the input signal must be greater than the
dc source voltage and the diode’s barrier potential.

5. Vary the resistance of the potentiometer from one extreme to the other. What happens to the
clipping level?

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The clipping level changes with the setting of the potentiometer. At one extreme, when the dc bias
voltage (VDC) is zero, the positive clipping level should be the same as was measured in Step 2. At
the other extreme, there should be no clipping, as the dc bias voltage is about + 5 V. Since the
input positive peaks are at +3.0 V, the diode is effectively reverse biased and looks like an open
circuit, and thus the input appears unchanged at the output.

6. Now reverse the polarities of both the diode and the dc power supply in the circuit, as in Figure
1D. Adjust the pot voltage so that dc voltage (VDC) is -1.5v. Connect the signal generator, set at 6
V peak-to-peak, to the breadboard. What do you notice about the output of the limiter?

Note that the clipping level is lower than that measured in Step 3. The circuit uses a dc source
voltage to bias, or set, the clipping level. Consequently, this arrangement is called a negative-
biased limiter. Sketch the clipped waveform, showing the dc positive and negative peak values.

Notice also that the negative clipping level is the dc source voltage plus the diode’s barrier
potential. For the diode to be come forward biased, the negative peaks of the input signal must be
greater than the dc source voltage and the diode’s barrier potential.

7. Vary the resistance of the potentiometer from one extreme to the other. What happens to the
clipping level?

The clipping level changes with the setting of the potentiometer. At one extreme, when the dc bias
voltage (VDC) is zero, the positive clipping level should be the same as was measured in Step 3. At
the other extreme, there should be no clipping, as the dc bias voltage is about -5 V. Since the input
negative peaks are at -3 V, the diode is effectively reverse biased and looks like an open circuit,
and thus the input appears unchanged at the output.

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Figure 1 Schematic diagram of circuits.

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 Figure 2

Figure 3

3.4 Results and Waveforms

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3.5 Conclusion
This experiment demonstrated the operation of a diode limiter, or clipper, which limits signal
voltages from going above or below preset levels. You worked with both positive and negative
limiters whose clipping level was equal to the diode’s barrier potential. In addition, it was shown
how to make the clipping level variable by using an external dc voltage source.

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 Experiment (4): The Diode Clampers

4.1 Objective and Background

The objective of this experiment is to demonstrate the operation a diode clamper. Like the diode
clipper, the clamper is a wave-shaping circuit, but it adds a dc level to the input waveform. Thus,
the clamper is often referred to as a dc restorer. However, unlike that of the clipper, the shape of
the input signal of a clamper is not changed.

4.2 Required Components and Equipment

• 10-kOhm resistor, 1/4 W

• 10-µF electrolytic capacitor, 25V
• 1N4001 silicon rectifier diode
• Signal generator
• Dual trace oscilloscope
• Breadboarding socket

4.3 Procedure
1. Connect the clamper circuit shown in the schematic diagram of Figure1. Set your oscilloscope
to the following approximate settings:

Channels 1 and 2: 2.0 V/division, dc coupling, Time base: 0.2 ms/division

Without any input signal connected to the breadboard, position the two lines on the ‘scope display
so that they are at the same level (zero volts).

2. Now connect the signal generator to the breadboard. Adjust the signal generator’s output level
at 5 V peak-to-peak at a frequency of 1 kHz. You should see two sine waves. Notice that the
clamper’s output signal level is above the input. This action is that of a positive clamper, so that
the input waveform is shifted upward. This effect is the same as that obtained by adding a dc

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voltage onto the input waveform. Sketch both the input and the output waveforms, showing the
positive and negative peak values for both.

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of circuit.

3. Note that the clamping action is not perfect. The negative peaks of the output waveform are
clamped not at zero volts, but at a small negative voltage. When the input waveform goes negative
at a level greater than the barrier potential of the diode, the diode is forward biased, the equivalent
of a short circuit in series with a small dc voltage source. Thus, approximately 0.7 volt (the barrier
potential for a silicon diode, Vd) is dropped across the diode, while the remainder of the peak
negative voltage (Vp — Vd) charges the 10-uF capacitor. On the next positive-going half-cycle,
the diode is reverse biased, looking like an open circuit, and the voltage stored on the capacitor is
then added to the time-varying input voltage. The result is that the peak output voltage is now
approximately equal to the peak-to-peak input voltage, less the voltage drop of the diode.

4. Increase the peak-to-peak input voltage. What happens? Although the peak-to-peak output
voltage increases, its negative peak remains clamped at the same negative voltage level measured
in Step 3. You should find that the positive peak output voltage is again approx. the peak-to-peak
input voltage.

5. Now reverse the polarity of the diode in the circuit, and repeat Steps 2, 3 and 4. Now what
happens?

The behavior is opposite that of the positive clamper. Notice that the clamper’s output signal level
is below the input. This action is that of a negative clamper, so the input waveform is shifted
downward. This effect is the same as that obtained by adding a negative dc voltage onto the input

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waveform. On the data page at the end of this experiment, sketch both the input and the output
waveforms, showing the positive and negative peak values for both.

6. Again you should notice that the clamper action is not perfect. The positive peaks of the output
waveform are clamped not at zero volts, but at a small positive voltage.

7. Increase the peak-to-peak input voltage. What happens?

You should see that although the peak-to-peak output volt age increases, its positive peak remains
clamped at the same positive voltage level measured in Step 6. You should find that the negative
peak output voltage is again approximately equal to the peak-to-peak input voltage.

4.4 Results and Waveforms

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4.5 Conclusion
This experiment demonstrated the operation of a diode clamper. This circuit does not change the
waveshape of the input signal, but merely adds a dc level to the input waveform.

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 Experiment (5): Zener Diode Regulator

5.1 Objective and Background

The objectives of this experiment are to demonstrate (1) the characteristics of a Zener diode and
(2) its use as a simple voltage regulator. Unlike rectifier diodes, Zener diodes are normally reverse
biased, so they maintain a constant voltage across their terminals over a specified range of current.
Like a rectifier diode, a Zener diode can be approximated by a constant dc voltage source in series
with a resistor. When used as a regulator, the Zener diode maintains a dc output voltage that is
essentially constant even though the load current may vary.

5.2 Required Components and Equipment

• Resistors:
o 100-ohm, 1/4 W
o Two 220-ohm 1/2 W
• 1N753, 6.2-V, 400-mW Zener diode
• Signal generator
• Two DMMs (preferred) or VOMs
• Dual trace oscilloscope
• Breadboarding socket
• 0-15 dc power supply

5.3 Procedure
1. Wire the circuit shown in the schematic diagram of Figure 1A.

2. Increase the dc supply voltage in small steps while simultaneously measuring the voltage across
(Vz) and the current through (Iz) the Zener diode. Near the Zener’s knee voltage (approximately
6V), make these steps approximately 0.05 V. Do not exceed a maximum Zener current (40 mA).
Record your data and plot your results for the corresponding Zener current and voltage values on

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the graph provided for this purpose. What do you notice about the current-voltage curve for the
Zener diode?

Note that initially, the Zener diode current is essentially zero for diode voltages less than the knee
voltage. You should find that as the voltage drop approaches the diode’s knee volt age, the diode’s
current increases rapidly, while, at the same time, the voltage stays essentially constant.
Consequently, the Zener diode maintains an essentially constant voltage drop when it is
sufficiently reverse biased.

The 1N753 diode is rated at 6.2 V with a tolerance of 10%. From your graph, determine the voltage
across the Zener diode at a current of approximately 20 mA. Within 10%, your value should be
6.2 V.

3. Determine the internal resistance Zz of your 1N753 Zener diode from your data by taking the
change in Zener voltage, Vz, divided by the corresponding change in current, ∆Iz. Do this
calculation only on the straight-line breakdown region of your diode curve that you plotted in Step
2.

4. Now wire the circuit shown in the schematic diagram of Figure 1B.

5. Apply dc voltage (Vin) to the breadboard. Measure the source current (Is), Zener current (Iz),
load current (IL), and full-load output voltage VFL, recording your values.

6. Now disconnect the 220-ohm load resistor. Measure the source current (Is), Zener current (Iz),
and output voltage with no load VNL, recording your values.

7. Now add a signal generator in series with the dc voltage source as shown in Figure 1C. Adjust
the output of the signal generator at 0.5 V peak-to-peak with a frequency of 1 kHz.

8. With your oscilloscope at point A, observe both the dc and the ac voltage levels, using your
oscilloscope set on dc coupling. You should see a 0.5 V peak-to-peak sine wave sine on a 15-V dc
level above ground.

9. With your oscilloscope at point B, measure the dc output voltage of the Zener diode regulator,
recording your value. At this point you should see virtually no ripple voltage on the regulator’s
output signal. How does this voltage compare with that measured in Step 5?

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10. Now set your oscilloscope to ac coupling and increase its sensitivity to 5 mV/div. You should
now observe a sine ripple signal, but now much smaller than the 500-mV input ripple voltage.
Measure the output peak-to-peak ripple voltage.

Notice that the Zener diode regulator provides a relatively constant output voltage as long as the
input voltage is greater than the Zener’s knee voltage. If there is any voltage variation or ripple on
the input voltage signal, the output remains essentially constant.

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of circuits.

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5.4 Results and Waveforms

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5.5 Conclusion
This experiment demonstrated the characteristics of a 6.2-V Zener diode. The Zener diode is
normally reverse biased so that it maintains a constant voltage between its anode and cathode
terminals over a specified range of current. This experiment demonstrated the concept of voltage
regulation where the output voltage remained essentially constant with changes in load current.

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 Experiment (6): Diode Logic Circuits

6.1 Objective and Background

The objective of this experiment is to demonstrate the function of diodes in basic logic circuits.
An important application of large signal diode circuits is that of performing digital logic functions.
Digital logic gates are circuits which perform logical functions such as AND or OR. In the AND
function, the output is true (a high voltage) only if both inputs are true. In the OR function the
output is true if either input is true. In a typical logic circuit, an AND gate produces a 5V output
only if inputs 1 and 2 are both 5V. The OR gate produces a 5V output if either input 1 or input 2
is 5V.

6.2 Required Components and Equipment

• Resistors (1/4 W):

o 1 k-ohm (2 resistors)
• 1N 4001(4 Diodes) silicon
• 5 V DC power Supply
• Dual trace oscilloscope
• Breadboarding socket

6.3 Procedure
1. To investigate the use of diodes in simple digital logic gates, connect the following circuit
shown in Figure 1

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 Figure 1

2. Measure and record the values of VO at each of the combinations of values of V1 and V2 in Table
1.

3. To investigate another useful logic gate, connect the following circuit shown in Figure 2

Figure 2

4. Repeat procedure step 2 for the values in Table 2 and the circuit of Figure 2.

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6.4 Results
Table 1

V1 (Volts) V2 (Volts) VO(Volts)

0 0

0 5

5 0

5 5

Table 2

V1 (Volts) V2 (Volts) VO(Volts)

0 0

0 5

5 0

5 5

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 Experiment (7): Common Emitter Amplifier

7.1 Objective and Background

The objectives of this experiment are:

1. To measure the open-circuit voltage gain, loaded voltage gain, input resistance, and output
resistance of the common emitter amplifier.

2. To demonstrate the differences in voltage gain and input resistance due to the removal of the
emitter bypass capacitor.

The most important BJT small-signal configuration is the common emitter amplifier. It is
extremely useful because it has high voltage gain, high current gain, moderate input resistance and
moderate output resistance. The common emitter amplifier will be used as the example in most
general amplifier experiments. In many common emitter amplifiers, the emitter resistor is
bypassed, by connecting a capacitor in parallel with it. At high frequencies, the capacitor
effectively shorts the emitter resistor to ground, but at dc the capacitor is large impedance that does
not affect the dc biasing of the circuit. The purpose of the emitter bypass capacitor is to increase
the gain of the amplifier.

7.2 Required Components and Equipment

• Resistors:
o 56 KΩ, 12 KΩ, 3.3 KΩ, 1 KΩ, and 2.2 KΩ
• Capacitors
o 10 µF (2 capacitors)
o 47 µF
• 2N3904 BJT transistor
• Signal generator
• DMM
• Dual trace oscilloscope

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 • Breadboarding socket
• 15 V dc power supply

7.3 Procedure
1. Use Digital Multimeter (DMM) to measure the β of the transistor.
2. To measure the open-circuit voltage gain AV of the common emitter amplifier, connect the
following circuit in Figure 1

Figure 1

3. With the signal generator's frequency set to 10 kHz, and VS = 20mVp-p. Measure and record
the peak-to-peak output voltage VO and the phase relationship between Vin and VO. The open-
circuit voltage gain AV is VO/Vin.
4. To measure the voltage gain from source-to-load, VL/VS of the common emitter amplifier,
connect the circuit in Figure 2.

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5. With the signal generator's frequency set to 10 kHz, and VS = 50mVp-p. Measure and record
the peak-to-peak output voltage VL and the phase relationship between Vin and VL. The voltage
gain from source to load is VL /VS.
6. Disconnect the emitter bypass capacitor CE from the circuit shown in Figure 2 and repeat
procedure steps 3, and 5.

Figure 2

7.4 Results and Waveforms

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40