TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY points, while valleys and other low-lying
→ A Topographic Survey is a survey that gathers areas are the lowest. data about the elevation of points on a piece of land and presents them as contour lines on a plot. The Methods of representing relief purpose of a topographic survey is to collect survey 1. SPOT ELEVATION data about the natural and man-made features of the - The elevations of important features land, as well as its elevations. and critical points such as road → Determining the relative locations of points junctions, peaks, summits, sags, and (places) on the earth's surface by measuring highway crossings indicated on map. horizontal distances, differences in elevation and HILLS AND ROAD JUNCTIONS directions. ARE OFTEN IDENTIFIED BY THESE NUMBERS SUCH AS HILL Use of Topographic Surveying in Geography: 255, ROAD JUNCTION 129, ETC., • Producing topographic maps
2. HACHURES - Hachures are an older mode of representing relief. They show orientation of slope, and by their • Constructing topographic (cross-sectional) thickness and overall density they profiles provide a general sense of steepness. Being non-numeric, they are less useful to a scientific survey than contours, but can successfully communicate quite specific shapes of terrain.
• Establishing vertical and horizontal control
for accurately defining locations
3. FORM LINES - Lines resembling contours, but representing no actual elevations, that have been sketched from visual observation, or from inadequate or unreliable map sources, to show collectively the configuration of the terrain. Usually represented as dashed lines and do not portray any actual elevations. • Representation of relief: In geography, 4. CONTOUR LINES “relief” refers to the highest and lowest - Contour lines are the greatest elevation points in an area. Mountains and distinguishing feature of a topographic
ENGG_CE_2: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
1|Page map. Contour lines are lines drawn on this, brown dashed lines are drawn a map connecting points of equal along the main ridges. elevation, meaning if you physically followed a contour line, elevation THE CONTOUR LINES would remain constant. Contour lines Characteristics of contour lines: show elevation and the shape of the A contour line is a line of equal elevation; terrain. They're useful because they therefore, two different lines must indicate two illustrate the shape of the land surface - different elevations. Two different contour lines - its topography-- on the map. cannot intersect or otherwise contact each other except at a point where a vertical or overhanging surface, such as a vertical or overhanging face of a cliff, exists on the ground. Figure 19-16 shows an overhanging cliff. The segments of contour lines on the cliff are made as dotted or hidden lines. Aside from the exception mentioned, any point where two different contour line intersect would be a point with two different elevations.
When you are forming a mental image of
5. LAYER TINTING the surface configuration from a study of contour - A method of showing relief on maps lines, it is helpful to remember that a contour line is and charts by coloring different levels a level line, that is, a line that would be formed by in different shades. ... The darker the a horizontal plane passing through the earth at the shade, the higher is the height above indicated elevation. sea level. The altitudes represented by each tint are indicated on the maps and A contour line must close on itself charts. Sometimes referred to as somewhere, either within or beyond the boundaries elevation tint or layer tint. of the map. A line that appears on the map 6. SHADING completely closed may indicate either a summit or - Relief shading involves the use of a depression. If the line indicates a depression is shadows to emphasize the topography shown in Figure 19-16. A contour line marked in of a terrain. this fashion is called a depression contour. 7. HILL SHADING - Hill shading is a technique for creating On a horizontal or level plane surface, the relief maps, showing the topographical elevations of all points on the surface are the same. shape of hills and mountains using Therefore, since different contour lines indicate shading (levels of gray) on a map, just different elevations, there can be no contour lines to indicate relative slopes, mountain on a level surface. On an inclined plane surface, ridges, not absolute height. contour lines at a given equal interval will be 8. RELIEF OR TERRAIN MODEL straight, parallel to each other, and equidistant. - A global relief model, sometimes also denoted as global topography model or Figure 19-16 composite model, combines digital elevation model (DEM) data over land with digital bathymetry model (DBM) data over water-covered areas (oceans, lakes) to describe Earth's relief. 9. RIDGE AND STREAM LINING - Used to emphasize the location of low and high ground. This method is used on aerial photographs. When streams are lined, the main streams and their tributaries are first selected and are draw in blue solid lines between the streams is higher ground. To emphasize
ENGG_CE_2: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
2|Page interpolation) along them before making any attempt to interpolate or to draw the complete contour line as shown Figure 19-28 View B.
Draw contour lines freehand with a contour pen to
yield uniform widths. Leave breaks in the lines to provide spaces for the elevations. Write the elevation number so they may be read from one or two sides of the map. Some authorities prefer that elevations also be written in a way that the highest elevation numbers are arranged from the lowest to the highest uphill. Show spot elevation at important points such as road intersections. MAP SCALE AND CONTOUR INTERVALS A topographic map is called either large scale, intermediate scale, or small scale by the use of the following criteria: ✓ Large scale: 1 inch = 100 ft or less ✓ Intermediate scale: any scale from 1 inch = 100 ft to 1 inch = 1000 ft ✓ Small scale: 1 inch = 1000 ft or more The designated contour interval varies with purpose and scale of the map and the character of the terrain. Table down below shows the recommended contour intervals used to prepare a topographic map.
CONTOUR MAP CONSTRUCTION
Basically, the construction of a contour map consists of three operations: 1. Plot horizontal control that will serve as the framework of the map. 2. Plot details, including the map location of ground points of known ground elevation. These ground points or contour points will be used as guides for the proper location of INTERPOLATING CONTOUR LINES the contour lines. In the examples of interpolation previously 3. Construct contour lines at given contour given, a single contour line was interpolated intervals. between two points of known elevation a known Take special care in the field to locate ridge and horizontal distance apart, by mathematical valley lines because these lines are usually drawn computation. In actual practice, usually more than first on the map before plotting the actual contour one line must be interpolated between a pair of points, as shown in figure 19-28, View A. Since points, and large number of lines must be contours ordinarily changed direction sharply interpolated between many pairs of points. where they cross these lines and the slopes of ridges Mathematical computation for the location of each and valleys are fairly uniform, these lines aid in line would be time- consuming and would be used drawing the correct contour lines. After plotting the only in a situation where contour line had to be ridge and valley lines, space contour crossings (by located with an unusually high degree of accuracy.
ENGG_CE_2: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
3|Page For most ordinary contour line drawings, one of several rapid methods of interpolation is used. In each case it is assumed that the slope between the two points of known elevation is uniform. LOCATING CONTOUR LINES BY Figure 19-30 shows the use of an engineer’s scale INTERPOLATION to interpolate the contours at 2-foot intervals between A and B. The difference in elevation The map distance between two benchmarks between A and B is between 11 and 12 feet. Select A and B is 15 cm and their elevations above sea the scale on the engineer’s scale that has 12 level are 850.20 m and 939.60 m respectively. graduations for a distance and comes close to Assuming uniformity of slope between A and B, matching the distance between A and B on the map. calculate the map distance from A where each of the In figure 19-30 this is the 20 scale. Let the 0 mark following contours will across the line between the on the 20 scale represent 530.0 feet. Then the 0.20 two benchmarks 860, 880, 900, and 920 m. mark on the scale will represent 530.20 feet, the elevation of A. place this mark on A, as shown. If DETERMINING SLOPE FROM CONTOUR the 0 mark on the scale represents 530.0 feet, then LINES the 11.7 mark represents 530.0 + 11.7, or 541.7 feet, the elevation of B. Place the scale at convenient Shown in the accompanying figure is a angle to the line from A to B, as shown, and draw a portion of a contour map where the contour interval line from the 11.7 mark to B. You can now project is 20 m. If the scaled horizontal distance between the desired contour line locations from the scale to points A and B is 426.36 m and the elevation of A the line from A to B by drawing lines from the and B are 390 m and 300 m, respectively. Determine appropriate scale graduations (2,4,6, and so on) the average slope between the two points in: parallel to the line from the 11.7 mark to B. A. Percent B. Degrees C. Gradient D. Mils E. Grads
