5

5.
1: PROBLEM DEFINITION
Situation:
Water is released through Grand Coulee Dam.
A = W d, W = 100 yd = 300 ft.
Q = 110000 ft3 = s:
Find:
Calculate river depth (ft).
Assumptions:
Make a reasonable estimate of the river velocity (V = 5 mi= h = 7:3 ft= s).
PLAN
Apply ‡ow rate equation.
SOLUTION
The discharge is given by
Q = AV
Solving for depth
Q 110; 000 ft3 /s

d = =
VW 300 7:3 ft2 s
d = 50:2 ft
1
5.2: PROBLEM DEFINITION
Situation:
Fill a jar with water and measure the time to …ll.
Find:
Calculate discharge ( m3 = s).
Calculate velocity ( m= s):
Assumptions:
Make an estimate of the cross-sectional area for the faucet (d = 0:5 in).
V = 2 L, t = 13 s.
PLAN
Apply ‡ow rate equation.
SOLUTION
The discharge is
2L 0:001 m3
Q =
13 s 1L
Q = 0:000154 m3 = s
Faucet outlet area

2
2 2 1m
A= D = (0:5 in) = 0:000127 m2
4 4 39:37 in
Discharge velocity
Q 0:000154 m3 /s
V = =
A 0:000127 m2
V = 1:2 m= s
2
Situation:
Another name for the volume ‡ow rate equation could be:
a. the discharge equation
b. the mass ‡ow rate equation
c. either a or b
SOLUTION
Correct answer is (a), the discharge equation.
3
Situation:
Liquid ‡ows through a pipe at constant velocity.
Find:
If a pipe twice the size is used with the same ‡ow rate, …nd whether the ‡ow rate
is (a) halved, (b) doubled, or (c) quadrupled.
SOLUTION
Use discharge equation, Q = AV .
Since the diameter is doubled, the area is quadrupled so correct answer is c) .
4
Situation:
For ‡ow of a gas in a pipe, which form of the continuity equation is more general?
a. V1 A1 = V2 A2
b. 1 V1 A1 = 2 V2 A2
c. both are equally applicable
SOLUTION
The correct answer is (b). Equation (b) is more general, because it allows density to
vary. If the density is di¤erent at location 1 from the density at location 2, then Eq.
(a) is not applicable.
5
Situation:
Water ‡ows in a pipe.
Q = 0:057 m3 /s, D = 0:27 m.
Find:
Mean velocity (m/s).
PLAN
Apply the ‡ow rate equation.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q
V =
A
0:057 m3 = s
=
4
(0:27 m)2
V = 0:996 m/s
6
Situation:
V = 10 ft/s; D = 21 in.
Find:
Discharge in cfs and gpm.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q = VA
= (10 ft= s)( ) (1:75 ft)2
4
Q = 24:1 ft3 /s
= (24:1 ft3 /s)(449 gpm/ft3 /s)
Q = 10; 800 gpm
7
Situation:
V = 4 m= s, D = 2 m.
Find:
Discharge in m3 /s and cfs.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q = VA
= (4 m= s) (2 m)2
4
Q = 12:6 m3 /s
Q = (12:6 m3 /s)(1=0:02832)(ft3 =s)=(m3 =s)
Q = 445 cfs
8
Situation:
A pipe carries air.
V = 50 m= s, D = 0:10 m.
Properties:
Air (20 C) Table A.2: R = 287 J= kg K:
p = 253 kPa abs
Find:
Mass ‡ow rate ( kg= m3 ):
PLAN
1. Use Ideal Gas Law to …nd density.
2. Use Mass Flow Rate equation to …nd m.
_
SOLUTION
1. Ideal gas law
p
=
RT
253; 000 Pa
=
(287 J= kg K) (273 + 20) K
= 3:009 kg= m3
2. Flow rate equation
m
_ = VA
= 3:009 50 ( 0:102 =4)
_ = 1:18 kg/s
m
9
Situation:
A pipe carries natural gas.
V = 16 m= s, D = 1:5 m.
Find:
Mass ‡ow rate ( kg= m3 ):
Properties:
Methane (15 C, 200 kPa gage) Table A.4: R = 518 J= kg K:
PLAN
1. Apply the ideal gas law to …nd .
2. Use the ‡ow rate equation to …nd m.
_
SOLUTION
1. Ideal gas law
p
=
RT
(101 + 200) 103 Pa
=
(518 J= kg K) (273 + 15) K
= 2:018 kg= m3
m
_ = VA
= 2:018 kg= m3 16 m= s (1:5 m)2 =4
m
_ = 57:1 kg= s
10
Situation:
Air ‡ows in a rectangular air duct.
A = 1:0 m 0:2 m, Q = 1000 m3 = h:
Find:
Air velocity (m/s).
Properties:
Air (30 C, 100 kPa).
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q
V =
A
1000 m3 = h (1 h=3600 s)
=
(1:0 m 0:2 m)
V = 1:39 m= s
11
Situation:
r
In a circular duct the velocity pro…le is v(r) = V0 1 R
.
Find:
V
Ratio of mean velocity to center line velocity, V0
.
PLAN
Apply the integral form of the ‡ow rate equation, because velocity is not constant
across the cross-section.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation Z
Q= vdA
where dA = 2 rdr: Then

Z R
r
Q = V0 1 2 rdr
0 R
r2 r3
= V0 (2 ) jR
2 3R 0
R2 R2
= 2 V0
2 3
= (2=6) V0 R2
Average Velocity
Q
V =
A
V Q 1
=
V0 A V0
(2=6) V0 R2 1
=
R2 V0
V 1
Vo
= 3
12
Situation:
Two dimensional ‡ow in a channel of width W and depth D.
2
4x2
V (x; y) = VS 1 W 2 1 Dy 2 :
Find:
An expression for the discharge: Q = Q(VS ; D; W ).
PLAN
Apply the integral form of the ‡ow rate equation, because v is not constant over the
cross-section.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Z Z Z
Q = V dA = V (x; y)dxdy
Z W=2 Z D
4x2 y2
= VS 1 1 dydx
W=2 y=0 W2 D2
Q = ( 94 )VS W D
13
Situation:
Water ‡ows in a pipe with a linear velocity pro…le.
Vmax = 15 ft= s, Vmin = 9 ft= s.
D = 4 ft, so r0 = 2; and r02 = 4
Find:
Discharge in cfs and gpm.
PLAN
Apply the integral form of the ‡ow rate equation with area expressed as a function
of radius.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Z
Q = V dA
ZAr0
= V 2 rdr
0
The equation for the velocity distribution is a straight line in the form V = mr + b
with V = 15 ft/s at r = 0 and V = 9 ft/s at r = r0 yielding V = 15 ft/s 6r=r0 :
Z r0
(Vmax Vmin ) r
Q = Vmax 2 rdr
0 r0
Z r0
6r
Q = 15 2 rdr
0 r0
15 6
= 2 r02
2 3
15 6
= 2 4:00
2 3
Q = 138 cfs
gal= min
= 138 ft3 = s 449
ft3 = s
Q = 62; 100 gpm
14
Situation:
Water ‡ows in a pipe with a linear velocity pro…le.
Vmax = 8 m= s, Vmin = 6 m= s.
D = 2 m.
Find:
Discharge (m3 = s).
Mean velocity (m= s):
PLAN
Apply the integral form of the ‡ow rate equation with area expressed as a function
of radius.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Z
Q = V dA
ZAr0
= V 2 rdr
0
The equation for the velocity distribution is a straight line in the form V = mr + b
with V = 8 m/s at r = 0 and V = 6 m/s at r = r0 yielding V = 8 m/s 2r=r0 :
Z r0
2r
Q = 8 2 rdr
0 r0
8 2
= 2 r02
2 3
8 2
= 2 1:0
2 3
Q = 20:9 m3 =s
Mean velocity
Q
V =
A
20:9 m3 =s
=
(1 m)2
V = 6:67 m= s
15
Situation:
Air ‡ows in a square duct with velocity pro…le shown in the …gure.
D = 1 m, Vmax = 10 m= s.
Find:
(a) Volume ‡ow rate ( m3 = s).
(b) Mean velocity ( m= s).
(c) Mass ‡ow rate ( kg= s).
Properties:
Air: = 1:9 kg= m3 .
PLAN
Use various form of the ‡ow rate equation.
Use the integral form of the ‡ow rate equation because velocity is not constant of the
area.
SOLUTION
The velocity pro…le is V = 20y: For y = 0 to y = 0:5 is calculated below. Notice in
line 3 of the math, Q is multiplied by 2 because the total discharge is the area both
above and below the centerline in the …gure provided in the problem statement.
dQ = V dA
dQ = (20y)dy
Z 0:5
Q = 2 V dA
0
Z 0:5
= 2 20ydy
0
40y 2 0:5
= j
2 0
= 20 0:25
Q = 5 m3 /s
Mean velocity
Q
V =
A
5 m3 = s
=
1 m2
V = 5 m/s
Mass ‡ow rate
m
_ = Q
= (1:9 kg/m3 )(5 m3 =s)
_ = 9:5 kg/s
m
16
Situation:
An open channel ‡ow has a 30o incline.
V = 15 ft= s.
Depth = y = 3 ft:
Width = x = 40 ft.
Find:
Discharge (cfs).
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q = V A
= (15 ft= s) (3 ft cos 30 ) (40 ft)
Q = 1560 cfs
17
Situation:
A rectangular channel has a 30o incline.
u = y 1=3 m= s.
Depth = y = 1 m.
Width = x = 1:2 m.
d = 1 m cos(30o ) = 0:866 m
Find:
Discharge ( m3 = s).
PLAN
Apply the integral form of the ‡ow rate equation becuse velocity is not constant over
the area.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Z 0:866
Q = y 1=3 (1:2 dy)
0
Z 0:866
= 1:2 y 1=3 dy
0
1:2
= y 4=3 j00:866 m
4=3
Q = 0:743 m3 /s
18
Situation:
A rectangular channel has a 30o incline.
u = 8[exp(y) 1] m= s.
y = 1 m, x = 2 m.
Find:
Discharge (m3 = s):
Mean velocity ( m= s):
PLAN
Apply the integral form of the ‡ow rate equation becuse velocity is not constant over
the area.
SOLUTION
Discharge.
Z 0:866
Q = V dA where dA = 2dy
0
Z 0:866
Q = (8)(ey 1)2 dy
0
= [(2)(8)(ey y)]0:866
0
Q = 8:18 m3 /s
Mean velocity
Q
V =
A
8:18 m3 =s
=
2 0:866 m2
V = 4:72 m/s
19
Situation:
Water enters a weigh tank from a pipe.
t = 1 min, W = 80 kN.
Find:
Discharge (m3 =s).
Properties:
Water (20 C), Table A.5: = 9790 N/m3 :
PLAN
De…nition of discharge is a volume/time.
SOLUTION
V
Q =
t
W
=
t
80; 000 N
=
9790 N= m3 1 min 60 s= min
Q = 0:136 m3 /s
20
Situation:
A duct is attached to a jet engine intake on a drone.
m
_ = 180 kg= s, V = 80 m= s.
Find:
Pipe diameter (m).
Properties:
Air ( 17 C, 60 kPa) Table A.2: R = 287 J= kg K.
p = 60 kPa.
PLAN
1. Apply the ideal gas law to …nd .
2. Use the ‡ow rate equation to …nd A from m
_ and then …nd D.
SOLUTION
1. Ideal gas law
p
=
RT
(60 103 Pa)
=
(287 J= kg K)(273 17) K
= 0:8166 kg/m3
m
_ = AV
So
m
_
A =
V
180 kg= s
=
(0:8166 kg= m3 )(280 m= s)
= 0:7872 m2
A = ( =4)D2 = 0:7872 m2
1=2
4 0:7872 m2
D =
D = 1:00 m
21
Situation:
Water enters a lock for a ship canal through 180 ports.
Ap = 2 ft 2 ft; Arise = 105 ft 900 ft.
Vrise = 6 ft= min.
Find:
Mean velocity in each port (ft= s).
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
X
Vp Ap = Vrise Arise
6
180 Vp (2 2) ft2 = ft= s (105 900) ft2
60
Vport = 13:1 ft/s
22
Situation:
Water ‡ows through a rectangular and horizontal open channel.
u = umax (y=d)n , umax = 9 m= s.
d = 1:7 m, and n = 1=6:
Find:
Discharge per meter of channel width (m2 = s).
Mean velocity, V (m/s).
PLAN
Apply the ‡ow rate equation, considering that velocity is not constant of the cross-
sectional area.
SOLUTION
Discharge per meter
Z d
y n umax d
q = umax
dy =
0 d n+1
9 m= s 1:7 m
= 1
6
+1
q = 13:1 m2 /s
Mean velocity
q
V =
d
13:11 m2 = s
=
1:7 m
V = 7:71 m/s
23
Situation:
A ‡ow with a linear velocity pro…le occurs in a triangular-shaped open channel.
Vmax = 6 ft= s, d = 1 ft; wmax = 0:5 ft.
Find:
Discharge (cfs).
PLAN
Apply the ‡ow rate equation, considering that velocity is not constant of the cross-
sectional area.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation Z
Q= V dA
where V = 6y ft/s; dA = xdy = 0:5 ydy ft2

Z 1
q = (6y) (0:5ydy)
0
3y 3 1
= j
3 0
q = 1 cfs
24
Situation:
Flow in a circular pipe.
V = Vc (1 (r=ro )2 )n , where n is a coe¢ cient that has dimensions.
Find:
Mean velocity of the form V = V (Vc ; n):
PLAN
Apply the ‡ow rate equation, considering that velocity is not constant across the
cross-sectional area.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Z
Q = V dA
A
Z r0 " #
2 n
r
= Vc 1 2 rdr
0 r0
Z !n
ro 2
r 2r
= r02 Vc 1 dr
0 r0 r02
This integral is in the form of

Z U
U n+1
un du =
0 n+1
so the result is
2 n+1
r
1 r0
Q = r02 Vc jr00
n+1
1
= Vc r02
n+1
Q
V =
A
1
V = n+1 Vc
25
Situation:
Flow in a circular pipe.
V = Vc (1 (r=ro )2 )n .
Find:
Mean velocity of the form V = V (Vc ; n):
PLAN
Apply the ‡ow rate equation, considering that velocity is not constant across the
cross-sectional area.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Z
Q = V dA
A
Z r0 " #
2 n
r
= Vc 1 2 rdr
0 r0
Z !n
ro 2
r 2r
= r02 Vc 1 dr
0 r0 r02
This integral is in the form of

Z U
U n+1
un du =
0 n+1
so the result is
2 n+1
r
1 r0
Q = r02 Vc jr00
n+1
1
= Vc r02
n+1
Q
V =
A
1
V = n+1 Vc
26
Situation:
D = 4 in, m
_ = 75 lbm= min.
Find:
Mean velocity (ft/s).
Properties:
Water (60 F), Table A.5: = 1:94 slug= ft3 = 62:37 lbf= ft3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
m
_
V =
A
75 lbm= min
60 s= min
V =
62:37 lbf= ft3 ( 4 4
( 12 ft)2 )
V = 0:230 ft/s
27
Situation:
D = 0:17 m, m
_ = 1022 kg= min.
Find:
Mean velocity (m/s).
Properties:
Water (20 C), Table A.5: = 998 kg= m3 :
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
m
_
V =
A
1022 kg= min
60 s= min
=
998 kg= m ( 4 (0:17 m)2 )
3
V = 0:752 m/s
28
Situation:
Water enters a weigh tank.
W = 4765 lbf, t = 15 min.
Find:
Discharge in units of cfs and gpm.
Properties:
Water (60 F), Table A.5: = 62:37 lbf= ft3 :
SOLUTION
V
Q =
t
W
=
t
4765 lbf
= 3
62:37 lbf= ft (15 min) (60 s= min)
Q = 0:0849 cfs
264:2 gps 60 s
= 0:08449 cfs
35:31 cfs 1 min
Q = 37:9 gpm
29
Situation:
A shell and tube heat exchanger with one pipe inside another pipe. Liquids ‡ow
in opposite directions.
Speed and discharge same in each pipe.
Vo = Vi ; Qo = Qi .
Find:
Find ratio of diameters.
PLAN
Use discharge equation Q = AV and neglect pipe wall thickness.
SOLUTION
Discharge and velocity the same so
Q = Ainner V = Aouter V
Therefore
(Do2 Di2 ) = Di2
4 4
so p
Do
Di
= 2
30
Situation:
A heat exchanger has three pipes enclosed in a larger pipe.
V = 13 m= s, Dsmall = 1:5 cm with wall thickness 3 mm.
Dlarge = 11 cm.
Find:
Discharge inside larger pipe.
PLAN
Use discharge equation, Q = AV where A is net area inside large pipe.
SOLUTION
The outside cross-sectional area of each smaller pipe is
A= (1:5 + 0:6)2 = 3:46 cm2

4
The cross-sectional area between the large pipe and the small pipes is
A= (11)2 3 3:46 = 84:64 cm2 = 0:008464 m2

4
The discharge is
Q = AV = 0:008464 m2 13 m= s
Q = 0:110 m3 = s
31
Situation:
V = 9 ft= s, D = 5 in = 0:4167 ft:
Find:
Discharge in units of cfs and gpm.
Mass ‡ow rate (kg/s):
Properties:
Water (60 F), Table A.5: = 1:94 slug= ft3 :
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q = VA
= (9 ft= s) (0:4167 ft)2
4
Q = 1:23 cfs
264:2 gps 60 s
= 1:227 cfs
35:31 cfs 1 min
Q = 551 gpm
Mass ‡ow rate
m
_ = Q
= 1:227 cfs 1:94 slugs/ft3
_ = 2:38 slugs/s
m
32
Read §4.2, §5.2 of EFM11e, and the internet to …nd answers to the following questions.
Find:
a. What does the Lagrangian approach mean? What are three real-world examples
that illustrate the Lagrangian approach? [use examples that are not in the text].
SOLUTION
Generally, a Lagrangian approach means to observe or describe the motion of a body
of matter of …xed identity. In ‡uid mechanics, the Lagrangian approach means moni-
toring the movement of a ‡uid particle, or clump of particles, along a given streamline.
Answers may vary for the real-world examples, but they could include looking at the
density change of a given mass of air in a balloon as a function of temperature, pre-
dicting the motion of a leaf ‡oating in a river by knowing the location of a given
streamline, watching a charged particle being moved from one battery pole to an-
other through electrophoresis gel, or a person riding on a roller coaster saying: “my
velocity now is fast and downward. . . .. now it’s slow and upward. . . .”
Find:
b. What does the Eulerian approach mean? What are three real world examples
that illustrate the Eulerian approach? [use examples that are not in the text].
SOLUTION
The Eulerian approach involves selecting a region in space and then describing the
motion that is occurring at points in that region. In addition, the Eulerian approach
allows properties to be evaluated at spatial locations as a function of time. This is
because the Eulerian approach uses …elds. In ‡uid mechanics, this means that you
keep track of the whole velocity or pressure …eld; de…ning the …eld for all x and t (1D),
or x, y, and t (2D), or x, y, z and t (3D). Mass can ‡ow from one "cell" in a ‡ow …eld
to the next one. Answers may vary for the real-world examples, but examples could
include air being allowed to exit a balloon, the ‡ow in and out of reservoir based on
a function of head di¤erences and assuming that the inlet and outlet are on di¤erent
streamlines, or a groundwater ‡ow model for which you know the pressure gradient
in a sandstone aquifer that extends from a mountain range to a river. The Eulerian
approach to describing the person on the roller coaster is to imagine a big cloud of
latitude, longitude, and elevation points (x, y, z …eld) through which the person is
traveling, and then predicting the location of the person as being pulled from a high
point to a low point by the gravity …eld through which they are also traveling.
Find:
c. What are three important di¤erences between the Eulerian and the Lagrangian
approach?
SOLUTION
33
Answers will vary. Some di¤erences are given here.
1. L: de…ned unit of mass moving through space E: A …eld is quanti…ed in space, and
any amount of mass moves according to that …eld.
2. L: Doesn’t use …elds. E: Uses …elds
3. L: Used in solid mechanics, and closed systems. E: Used for control volume (open
system) solutions.
4. L: In ‡uids, v = f(s, t), where s is location on a streamline. E: in ‡uids, v = f (x,
y, z, t)
Find:
d. Why use an Eulerian approach? What are the bene…ts?
SOLUTION
The bene…t of using a Eulerian approach is that you just need to be able to describe
the ‡ow …eld, such as the pressure distribution, everywhere throughout the system,
which is often possible if you know the ‡ow …eld conditions at various boundaries
and times. When using the Lagrangian description in ‡uids, in order to evaluate
properties at an arbitrary point in a ‡ow …eld, the pathline that starts where the
‡ow …eld is known and passes through the desired point must be located. This is not
a straight-forward technique. The problem is accentuated with unsteady ‡ow where
di¤erent pathlines may pass through the same point at di¤erent times.
Find:
e. What is a …eld? How is a …eld related to the the Eulerian approach?
SOLUTION
A …eld is some variable that has been de…ned over some spatial region, such as the
pressure gradient as a function of x, y and z at some time t. If the …eld is unsteady,
it changes for di¤erent times t. For the Eulerian approach, we de…ne gravity …elds,
pressure …elds, velocity …elds, magnetic …elds, etc., in a x,y,z spatial system, and then
predict the movement of matter through the …eld given certain boundary conditions
and initial conditions.
Find:
f. What are the shortcomings of describing a ‡ow …eld using the Lagrangian descrip-
tion?
SOLUTION
One must know where the streamlines are at all times, which is di¢ cult in many
systems, especially those with turbulence.
34
Situation:
Properties.
Find:
What is the di¤erence between an intensive and extensive property?
SOLUTION
The value of an extensive property depends on the amount matter and an intensive
property is independent of the amount of matter. An example of an extensive property
is volume because the volume depends on the amount of matter contained in the
volume. Volume per unit mass (reciprocal density) is independent of the amount of
mass.
35
Situation:
State whether each of the following quantities is extensive or intensive:
a. mass
b. volume
c. density
d. energy
e. speci…c energy
SOLUTION
a. mass –extensive, because it depends upon amount
b. volume –extensive, because it depends upon amount
c. density – intensive, because density doesn’t vary if you have more or less of a
substance (assuming T and P are the same). Also, when you divide and extensive
by an extensive property, you get an intensive property.
d. energy –extensive, because it depends upon amount
e. speci…c energy –intensive, because it is energy per mass. When you divide and
extensive by an extensive property, you get an intensive property.
36
Situation:
What type of property do you get when you divide an extensive property by another
extensive property –extensive or intensive?
Hint: Consider density.
SOLUTION
When you divide an extensive property by another extensive property, you get an
intensive property.
37
Situation:
Control surface and volume.
Find:
What is a control surface and control volume?
Can mass pass through a control surface?
SOLUTION
A control volume is volume de…ned in space and the control surface encloses the
control volume. The control volume can translate, rotate and dilate or contract with
time.
Mass can pass through the control surface and, hence, through the control volume.
38
Situation:
In Fig 5.11 in §5.2 of EFM11e,
a. the CV is passing through the system.
b. the system is passing through the CV.
SOLUTION
The answer is (b), the system, which is a de…ned mass (think of the system as a dyed
collection of molecules), is moving through the CV.
39
Situation:
Reynolds transport theorem.
Find:
The purpose of Reynolds transport theorem.
SOLUTION
The Reynolds transport theorem is used to relate Lagrangian equations to their
Eulerian counterpart forms. The Lagrangian equations for conservation of mass,
momentum and energy can be converted to their Eulerian forms by application of the
Reynolds transport theorem.
40
Situation:
Mass is ‡owing into and out of a tank.
Vi = 10 m= s, Ai = 0:10 m2 , i = 3:00 kg= m3 .
Vo = 5 m= s, Ao = 0:20 m2 , o = 2:00 kg= m3 .
Find:
Select the statement(s) that are true.
SOLUTION
Mass ‡ow out
m
_ o = ( AV )2
= 2 kg= m3 (0:2 m) (5 m= s)
= 2 kg/s
Mass ‡ow in
m
_ i = ( AV )1
= 3 kg= m3 (0:1 m) (10 m= s)
= 3 kg/s
Since the mass ‡ow in is not equal to the mass ‡ow out, the ‡ow is unsteady.
Only selection (b) is valid .
41
Situation:
A piston in a cylinder is moving up and control consists of volume in cylinder.
Find:
Indicate which of the statements are true.
SOLUTION
a) True, there is no ‡ow entering or leaving across the control surface:
b) True, since there is no mass ‡ux across the control surfaces, the mass in the control
volume does not change with time.
c) True, since the mass in the control volume is constant, V=constant
cv so increases
as volume decreases.
d) True, assuming the piston is moving rapidly, there is no time for heat transfer so
temperaure must increaese.
e) True, due to piston motion the velocity of the gases in the cylinder will be changing
with time.
42
Situation:
Two ‡ow cases: a closed tank is …lled with a ‡uid and a pipe contracts.
V = 11 ft= s, A = 1:4 ft2 , = 2:1 slug= ft3 .:
V1 = 1:8 ft= s, A1 = 3:3 ft2 , 1 = 2 slug= ft3 .
V2 = 3:96 ft= s, A2 = 1:5 ft2 , 2 = 2 slug= ft3 .
Find:
(a) Value of b.
(b) Value of P
dBsys =dt:
(c) Value of b RV A
(d) Value of d=dt cv b dV
SOLUTION
Case (a) Case (b)

1) b = 1 1) B = 1
2) dBsys =dt = 0 2) dBsys =dt = 0
P P P P
3) b V A= V A 3) b V A= V A
= 2 11 1:4 = 1:8 3:3 2 3:96 1:5 2
P P
b V A = 32:3 slugs/s b V A=0
R R
4) dtd cv b dV = +32:3 slugs/s 4) dtd cv b dV = 0
43
Situation:
The law of conservation of mass for a closed system requires that the mass of the
system is:
a. constant
b. zero
SOLUTION
The answer is (a), constant, by de…nition.
44
Situation:
Consider the simpli…ed form of the continuity equation, Eq. 5.29 of EFM11e. An
engineer is using this equation to …nd the Q C of a creek at the con‡uence with a
large river, because she has automatic electronic measurements of the river discharge
upstream (Q Ru ) and downstream (Q Rd ) of the creek con‡uence.
Find:
a. Which of the 3 terms on the left-hand side of Eq. 5.29 of EFM11e will the
engineer assume is zero? Why?
b. Sketch the creek and the river and sketch the CV you would select to solve this
problem.
SOLUTION
a. The engineer will assume that the dtd mcv term is zero. This is because there
can’t be any water stored at the con‡uence, which is the fork where 2 drainages join
together (con=with; ‡uence=‡ow) so ‡ow in must equal ‡ow out. Make a sketch
(part b) to see how this works.
b. Sketch not shown here. One possible sketch consists of 2 tubes coming into the
con‡uence, one for the creek, and one for the river upstream of the con‡uence. You
could make a small box for the con‡uence –that box would be your control volume,
or CV. You would then sketch one tube leaving the box, for the downstream reach of
the river. Your CV doesn’t have a place (e.g. a lake or a dam) for storage, so dtd mcv
is zero.
45
Situation:
Pipe ‡ows full with water.
Find:
Is it possible for the volume ‡ow rate into the pipe to be di¤erent than the ‡ow
rate out of the pipe?
SOLUTION
Application of the continuity equation to a control volume passing through the inlet
section and outlet section shows
Z
d
0= dV + m_ out m _ in
dt cv
Since the density is constant
d
0= ( Vcv ) + m
_ out m
_ in
dt
Since the volume of the control volume is constant the unsteady term is zero so
m_ out = m
_ in :
Therefore, the answer is: No, according to continuity.
46
Situation:
Air ‡ows in a tube.
Find:
Is it possible for the mass ‡ow rate into the tube to be di¤erent than the ‡ow rate
out of the tube?
Air is pumped into one end of a tube at a certain mass ‡ow rate. Is it necessary that
the same mass ‡ow rate of air comes out the other end of the tube?
Application of the continuity equation over a control surface that includes the inlet
and outlet shows Z
d
0= dV + m _ out m_ in
dt cv
The density of the air in the control volume can change with time, the unsteady term
may not be zero and m _ out 6= m
_ in
47
Situation:
Tire develops a leak.
Find:
How do air and density change with time?
How is air density related to tire pressure?
Assumptions:
Constant temperature.
SOLUTION
If an automobile tire develops a leak, how does the mass of air and density change
inside the tire with time?
Assume the e¤ective volume of the tire is unchanged. The air mass in the tire will
decrease. Also, since the tire volume is constant, the air density will also decrease.
Assuming the temperature remains constant, how is the change in density related to
the tire pressure?
From the ideal gas law, a decrease in density relates directly to a decrease in pressure.
48
Situation:
Two pipes are connected in series.
D1 = 3D2 , V1 = 4 m= s.
Find:
Velocity in smaller pipe ( m= s).
SOLUTION
Use continuity equation for discharge. Q = AV which is valid since density is con-
stant.
Alarge Vlarge = Asmall Vsmall

Alarge
Vsmall = Vlarge
Asmall
= 4 m/s 32
Vsmall = 36 m= s
49
Situation:
The level in the tank is in‡uenced by the motion of pistons A and B moving left.
VA = 2VB , DA = 3 in, DB = 6 in.
Find:
Determine whether the water level is rising, falling or staying the same.
Sketch:
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation. Select a control volume as shown above. Assume it
is coincident with and moves with the water surface.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Z
d
m
_o m
_i = dV
dt cv
Z
d
2VB AA VB AB = dV
dt cv
where AA = ( =4)32 ; AB = ( =4)62 and AA = (1=4)AB : Then

Z
d
2VB (1=4)AB VB AB = dV
dt CV
Z
d
VB AB ((1=2) 1) = dV
dt CV
Z
d
dV = (1=2)VB AB
dt CV
d
(Ah) = (1=2)VB AB
dt
dh
A = (1=2)VB AB
dt
Because (1=2)VB AB is positive dh=dt is positive; therefore, one concludes that the
water surface is rising.
50
Situation:
Pipe ‡ows A and B merge into a single pipe.
QA = 0:01t m3 = s, QB = 0:006t2 m3 = s.
Aexit = 0:01 m2 , t = 1 s.
Find:
Velocity at the exit, Vexit :
Acceleration at the exit, aexit :
Assumptions:
Incompressible ‡ow.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Since the ‡ow is incompressible, the unsteady term is zero. Continuity equation
Qexit = QA + QB
1
Vexit = (QA + QB )
Aexit
1
= (:01t m3 /s + 0:006t2 m3 /s)
0:01 m2
= 1t m/s + 0:6t2 m/s = 1:6t2 m/s
Then at t = 1 sec,
Vexit = 1:6 m/s
The acceleration along a pathline at the (s ! x) exit is
@V @V
aexit = +V
@t @x
Since V varies with time, but not with position, there is no convective acceleration
so
@V
aexit = = 1 + 1:2t m/s2
@t
Then at t = 1 sec
aexit = 2:2 m/s2
51
Situation:
Glycerin is gravity separated, and then ‡ows through a pipe reduction in diamater.
Q = 680 L/ s = 0:68 m3 =s
D = 70 cm = 0:7 m
d = 35 cm = 0:35 m
Properties:
Glycerin: SG = 1:26; = 12; 360 N= m3
p1 = 350 kPa
Find:
Pressure at point 2:
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation to …nd 2 velocities given Q and 2 diameters, d and D.
Apply the Bernoulli equation to …nd p2 given p1 ; V1 ; V2 ; z2 ; and z1 = 0:
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Q 0:68 m3 = s
V1 = = = 1:767 m/s
A1 =4 (0:7 m)2
Q 0:68 m3 = s
V1 = = = 7:068 m/s
A2 =4 (0:35 m)2
The Bernoulli equation
52
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2
2g 2g
p2 p1 V12 V22
= + +0 + z2
2g 2g
p2 350; 000 N= m2 (1:767 m/s)2 (7:068 m/s)2
= + 0:8 m
12; 360 N= m3 2 9:81 m/s2 2 9:81 m/s2
p2
= 25:13 m
p2 = 311 kPa
53
Situation:
Air ‡ows through constant area, heated pipe.
D = 4 in, V = 12 m= s.
p2 = 90 kPa; p1 = 100 kPa.
Find:
Velocity at exit.
Determine if the Bernoulli equation be used to relate the pressure and velocity
changes.
Properties:
T1 = 20 C = 293 K, T2 = 80 C = 353 K
PLAN
SOLUTION
The ‡ow is steady so the continuity equation for constant area pipe yields
1 V1 = 2 V2
1
V2 = V1
2
From ideal gas law

1 p1 T2
=
2 p2 T1
so
100 kPa 353 K
V2 = 12 m/s
90 kPa 293 K
V2 = 16:1 m= s
The Bernoulli equation is not applicable because the density is not constant.
54
Situation:
Air ‡ow downward through a pipe and then outward between two parallel disks.
Q = 0:380 m3 = s, r = 20 cm
D = 0:1 m, h = 0:6 cm.
Find:
(a) Expression for acceleration at point A.
(b) Value of acceleration at point A.
(c) Velocity in the pipe.
PLAN
SOLUTION
a)
Flow rate equation
Q Q
Vr = =
A 2 rh
Evaluate convective acceleration along a radial pathline (s ! r)
Vr @Vr
ac =
@r
Q Q
= ( 1)
2 rh 2 r2 h
Q2
ac =
r(2 rh)2
b)
Q
Vpipe =
Apipe
(0:380 m3 = s)
=
4
(0:1 m)2
Vpipe = 48:4 m/s
c)
(0:38 m3 = s)2
ac =
(0:2 m)(2 (0:2 m) (0:006 m))2
ac = 12; 700 m/s2
55
Situation:
Air ‡ow downward through a pipe and then outward between two parallel disks.
Q = Q0 (t=t0 ), r = 20 cm.
D = 10 cm, h = 1 cm.
t0 = 1 s, Q0 = 0:1 m3 = s.
Find:
(a) At t = 2 s, acceleration at point A: a2 :
(b) At t = 3 s, acceleration at point A: a3 :
SOLUTION
Local acceleration
@V @ Q
a` = =
@t @t 2 rh
@ Q0 (t=t0 )
a` =
@t 2 rh
Q0 =t0
a` =
2 rh
(0:1 m3 = s=1 s)
a`;2;3 = = 7:958 m/s2
2 0:20 m 0:01 m
From solution to Problem 5.52 in EFM11e
Q2
ac =
r(2 rh)2
At t = 2s; Q = 0:2 m3 =s
ac;2s = 5; 066 m/s2

a2s = a` + ac = 7:957 5; 066
a2s = 5; 060 m/s2
At t = 3s, Q = 0:3 m3 =s
ac;3s = 11; 398 m/s2

a3s = 11; 398 + 7:957
a3s = 11; 400 m/s2
56
Situation:
Water ‡ows into a tank through a pipe on the side and then out a pipe on the
bottom of the tank.
Aout = Ain = 0:0025 m2 , Atank = p
0:1 m2 ,
At h = 1 m, dh=dt = 0:1 m; V = 2gh.
Find:
Velocity in the inlet: Vin :
Assumptions:
Incompressible ‡ow.
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation. Let the control surface surround the liquid in the
tank and let it follow the liquid surface at the top.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Z
d
m
_o m
_i= dV
dt
cv
d
Vin Ain + Vout Aout = ( Atank h)
dt
dh
Vin Ain + Vout Aout = Atank
dt
p 2
Vin (:0025) + 2g(1)(:0025) = 0:1(0:1) 10
p
19:62(:0025) + 10 4
Vin =
0:0025
Vin = 4:47 m/s
57
Situation:
A bicycle tire is in‡ated with air.The density of the air in the in‡ated tire is 0.4
lbm/ft3 .
V = 0:050 ft3 , Qin = 0:4 ft3 = min.
Find:
Time needed to in‡ate the tire.
Properties:
3
in = 0:075 lb= ft ; CV = 0:4 lb= ft3 .
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation. Select a control volume surrounding the air within
tire.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
d
( Q)in = Mcv
dt
This equation may be integrated to give
( Q)in t = MCV
or
MCV
t =
( Q)in
0:050 ft3 0:4 lb= ft3
=
0:075 lb= ft3 0:4 ft3 =min (1min=60 s)
t = 40:0 s
58
Situation:
A round tank is being …lled with water.
Vp = 10 ft= s, DT = 4 ft, Dp = 1 ft:
Find:
Rate at which the water surface is rising.
Sketch:
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation and let the c.s. move up with the water surface in the
tank.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Z
d
0 = dV+ m _o m
_i
dt CV
d
0 = (hAT ) + ((VR 10)Ap )
dt
where AT = tank area, VR =rise velocity and Ap =pipe area.
dh
0 = AT 10Ap + VR Ap
dt
but dh=dt = VR so
0 = AT VR 10Ap + VR Ap
10Ap (10 ft= s) ( =4)(1 ft)2
VR = =
AT + Ap ( =4) (4 ft)2 + ( =4) (1 ft)2
VR = 0:588 ft/s
59
Situation:
Air ‡ows in a rectangular duct.
Q = 1:2 m3 =s, A1 = 21 cm 50 cm.
A2 = 9 cm 39 cm.
Find:
Air speed for initial duct area, V1 :
Air speed for latter duct area, V2 :
Assumptions:
Constant air density.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q
V1 =
A1
(1:2 m3 = s)
=
(0:21 m 0:5 m)
V1 = 11:4 m/s
(1:2 m3 = s)
V2 =
(0:09 m 0:39 m)
V2 = 34:2 m/s
60
Situation:
A pipe divides into two outlets.
D30cm = 30 cm, DA = 20 cm, DB = 8 cm:
VA = VB , Q = 0:45 m3 / s.
Find:
Discharge in each branch.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q30 cm
V =
Acombined
(0:45 m3 =s)
V =
4
(0:2 m)2 + (0:08 m)2
= 12:35 m/s
QA = V AA
= (12:35 m= s) ( (0:1 m) (0:1 m))
QA = 0:388 m3 /s
QB = V AB
= (12:35 m= s) ( (0:04 m) (0:04 m))
Q18 cm = 0:0621 m3 /s
61
Situation:
Water ‡ows through pipe that is in series with a narrower pipe.
A pipe divides into two outlets.
DA = 12 in, DB = 4 in:
Q = 927 gal/ min.
Find:
Mean velocity in each pipe.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q = 927 gpm = 2:066 cfs

Q
VA =
AA
2:066 ft3 = s
=
4
(1 ft)2
VA = 2:63 ft= s
Q
VB =
AB
2:066 ft3 = s
= 2
4
4 12
ft
VB = 23:7 ft= s
62
Situation:
Water ‡ows through a tee.
DA = DB = 4 m, DC = 2 m:
VA = 6 m= s, VC = 4 m/ s.
Find:
Mean velocity in outlet B.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
VA AA Vc Ac
VB =
AB
[(6 m= s) ( =4) (4 m)2 (4 m= s) ( =4) (2 m)2 )]
=
( =4 (4 m)2 )
VB = 5:00 m/s
63
Situation:
Gas ‡ows in a round conduit that tapers to a smaller diameter.
D1 = 1:1 m, D2 = 0:56 m, V1 = 16 m= s:
Find:
Mean velocity at section 2.
Properties:
3
1 = 2:0 kg= m , 2 = 1:8 kg= m3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
1 A1 V1
V2 =
2 A2
2
1 D1 V 1
= 2
2 D2
(2:0 kg= m3 ) (1:1 m)2 (16 m=s)
=
(1:8 kg= m3 ) (0:56 m)2
V2 = 68:6 m/s
64
Situation:
Pipes A and B are connected to an open tank.
QA = 10 ft3 = min, A = 80 ft2 , dh=dt = 1 in= min.
Find:
Discharge in pipe B:
If ‡ow in pipe B is entering or leaving the tank.
Sketch:
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation. De…ne a control volume as shown in the above sketch.
Let the c.s. move upward or downward with the water surface.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Z X
d
0 = dV + V A
dt CV
dh
0 = A + QB QA
dt
dh
QB = QA A
dt
1
= 10 ft = min (80 ft2 )( ft= min)
3
12
QB = +3:33 cfm
Because QB is positive ‡ow is leaving the tank through pipe B.
65
Situation:
A tank has one in‡ow and two out‡ows.
D4in = 4 in = 0:333 ft, V4in = 10 ft= s:
D6in = 6 in = 0:5 ft, V6in = 7 ft= s.
D3in = 3 in = 0:25 ft, V3in = 4 ft= s.
Dtank = 3 ft.
Find:
Is the tank …lling or emptying.
dh
Rate at which the tank level is changing: dt
SOLUTION
2
4
In‡ow = (10 ft= s) ft = 0:8727 cfs
4 12
Out‡ow = (7 ft= s) (0:5 ft)2 + (4 ft= s) (0:25 ft)2 = 1:571 cfs
4 4
Out‡ow > In‡ow, Thus, tank is emptying
dh Q
=
dt A
(1:571 0:8727) ft3 = s
=
(3 ft)2
dh
= 0:0247 ft/s
dt
66
Situation:
A tank is …lled with water over time.
Di = 12 in = 1 ft, Vi = 1 ft= s:
Do = 6 in = 0:5 ft, Vo = 2 ft= s.
h1 = 0 ft; Dtank1 = 1 ft:
Dtank2 = 2 ft, h2 = 10 ft.
Find:
At t = 22 s, if the the water surface will be rising or falling.
Rate at which the tank level is changing: dhdt
Sketch:
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation. De…ne a control volume in which the control surface
(c.s.) is coincident with the water surface and moving with it.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Z
d
dV = m
_i m
_o
dt cv
d
( Ah) = ( AV )in ( AV )out
dt
d
( Ah) = (1 ft)2 (1 ft= s) + (0:5 ft= s)2 (2 ft= s)
dt 4 4
dh
A =
dt 4 8
dh
A =
dt 8
Since Adh=dt > 0, the water level must be rising. While the water column occupies
67
the 12 in. section, the rate of rise is
dh =8
=
dt A
=
8 =4 (1)2
= 1=2 ft/s
Determine the time it takes the water surface to reach the 2 ft. section:
dh
10 = t;
dt
10
t = = 20 secs.
1=2
Therefore, at the end of 20 sec. the water surface will be in the 2 ft. section. Then
the rise velocity will be:
dh
=
dt 8A
=
8 =4 (2 ft)2
dh
dt
= 1=8 ft/sec
68
Situation:
A lake is fed by an inlet and has no outlet. Lake surface area is A(h), where h is
depth in feet.
Qin = 1800 ft3 = s, A(h) = 4:5 + 5:5h mi2 :
QEvap = 12 ft3 = s per mi2 .
Find:
Equilibrium depth of lake.
The minimum discharge to prevent the lake from drying up.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
QEvap. = Qin.
3 2
12 ft /s/mi (4:5 + 5:5h) mi2 = 1800 ft3 /s
Solve for depth h :

h = 26:5 ft. at equilibrium
The lake will dry up when h = 0 and QEvap. = Qin. . For h = 0,
12(4:5 + 5:5 0) = Qin.
Lake will dry up when Qin. = 54:0 ft3 =s
69
Situation:
A nozzle discharges water onto a plate moving towards the nozzle. Plate speed
equals half the jet speed.
Qin = 5 ft3 = s, Vin = 2Vp .
Find:
Rate at which the plate de‡ects water.
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation. Select a control volume surrounding the plate and
moving with the plate.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Qin = Qp
Reference velocities to the moving plate. Let Vo be the speed of the water jet relative
to the nozzle. From the moving plate, the water has a speed of Vo + 1=2Vo = 3Vo =2:
Thus
Qp = Qin
= Vin Ao
3Vo 3
= (Ao ) = (Vo Ao )
2 2
3
= Qo
2
Qp = 7:5 cfs
70
Situation:
A tank with a depth h has one in‡ow ( ft3 /s) and one out‡ow through a 1 ft
diameter pipe. The out‡ p ow velocity is :
3
Q = 20 ft = s, Vout = 2gh, Dout = 1 ft.
Find:
Equilibrium depth of liquid.
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation and the ‡ow rate equation.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Qin. = Qout at equilibrium

Qout = 20 ft3 = s
Flow rate equation
Qout = Vout Aout

p 2
20 = ( 2gh)( =4 Dout ) where D = 1 ft.
Solving for h yields

h = 10:1 ft.
71
Situation:
Flows with di¤erent speci…c weights enter a closed tank through ports A and B and
exit the tank through port C. Assume steady ‡ow. Details are provided on …gure
with problem statement.
DA = 6 in, QA = 3 ft3 = s.
SGA = 0:95, DC = 6 in.
QB = 1 ft3 = s, SGB = 0:85, DB = 4 in.
Find:
Mass ‡ow rate at C.
Average velocity at C.
Speci…c gravity of the mixture.
Assumptions:
Steady state.
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation and the ‡ow rate equation.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
X X
m
_i m
_o = 0
A VA AA B VB AB + C VC AC = 0
C VC AC = 0:95 1:94 slug= ft3 3 ft3 = s + 0:85 1:94 slug= ft3 1 ft3 = s
_ = 7:18 slugs/s
m
Continuity equation, assuming incompressible ‡ow
VC AC = VA AA + VB AB
= 3 + 1 = 4 cfs
Flow rate equation

Q 4 ft3 = s
VC = =
A 4
(0:5 ft)2
VC = 20:4 ft= s
7:18
C = = 1:795 slugs/ft3
4
1:795
SG =
1:94
SG = 0:925
72
Situation:
O2 and CH4 are mixed in a mixer before exiting.
VO2 = VCH4 = 8 m= s.
ACH4 = 1 cm2 , AO2 = 3 cm2 ; Aout = 3 cm2
Find:
Exit velocity of the gas mixture, Ve :
Properties:
From Table A.2: RO2 = 260 J= kg K, RCH4 = 518 J= kg K.
T = 100 C, = 2:2 kg= m3 , p = 204 kPa.
PLAN
Apply the ideal gas law to …nd inlet density. Then apply the continuity equation.
SOLUTION
Ideal gas law
p
02 =
RT
204; 000 Pa abs
=
(260 J= kg K) (273 + 100) K
02 = 2:10 kg/m3
204; 000 Pa
CH4 =
(518 J= kg K) (273 + 100) K
CH4 = 1:06 kg/m3
Continuity equation
X X
m
_i = m
_o
e Ve Ae = O 2 VO 2 AO 2 + CH 4 VCH 4 ACH 4
3
2:10 kg= m 8 m= s 3 cm + 1:06 kg= m3
2
8 m= s 1 cm2
Ve =
2:2 kg= m3 3 cm2
Ve = 8:93 m/s
73
Situation:
A pipe with a series of holes is used to distribute air.
1=2
Qhole = 0:67A0 2 r p .
nhole = 40= m, L = 8 m:
Dpipe = 0:5 m, Dhole = 2:5 cm.
Find:
Velocity of air entering the pipe.
Properties:
From Table A.2: R = 287 J= kg K.
T = 20 C; ppipe = 100 Pa gage
patm = 1 bar = 100; 000 Pa abs
ppipe = 100 Pa gage = 100; 000 + 100 = 100; 100 Pa abs
PLAN
The total discharge out of the holes is equal to the inlet discharge.
Qin = AVin = N Qhole
where N is the number of holes and Qhole is the discharge for each hole.
SOLUTION
The total number of holes
N = 40 8 = 320 holes
The density in the pipe is

p 100; 000 Pa
= = = 1:19 kg/m3
RT (287 J= kg K) (273 + 20) K
The ‡ow rate through the holes is
1=2
2 p
Qhole = 0:67Ao
1=2
2 2 100 Pa
Qhole = 0:67 (0:025 m) = 0:00426 m3 =s
4 1:19 kg= m3
The velocity at the pipe entrance is
N Qhole 320 0:00426 m3 = s
V = =
A 4
(0:5 m)2
V = 6:95 m= s
74
Situation:
Water through a globe valve.
Q = 10 gal= min, r2 = 0:125 in.
D1 = 1 in, D2 = 0:5 in
Find:
Pressure drop across the valve.
Properties:
T = 60 F.
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation between the 1 inch upstream pipe and the opening at
the seat of the valve
SOLUTION
The pressure drop across the globe valve is
p1 p2 V22 V12
=
2g
assuming negligible change in elevation. The p1 is the pressure in the pipe and p2 at
the valve seat. From continuity V2 A2 = V1 A1 so
" #
2
p1 p2 V12 A1
= 1
2g A2
The area between the disc and the seat is
A2 = 2 r r = 2 0:25 in 0:125 in = 0:196 in2
The upstream pipe area is
A1 = r2 = (0:5 in)2 = 0:785 in2
Thus A1 =A2 = 4:0: The volume ‡ow rate is
0:002228 ft3 /s
Q = 10 gpm = 0:02228 ft3 /s
1 gpm
and the velocity in the pipe is
Q 0:02228 ft3 /s 144 in2
V1 = = = 4:08 ft/s
A1 0:785 in2 1 ft2
Thus
p1 p2 (4:08 ft= s)2
= 2
42 1 = 3:88 ft
2 32:2 ft= s
The speci…c weight of water at 60o F is 62.37 lbf/ft3 : The pressure drop is
p2 p1 = 62:37 lbf/ft3 3:88 ft = 242psfd
p2 p1 = 1:68 psid
75
Situation:
Water ‡ow through an ori…ce in a pipe.
D1 = 2:5 cm, Do = 1:5 cm:
1=2
2 p
0:64Ao = A2 , Q = CAo .
p = 10 kPa, Q = 1000 kg= m3 .
Find:
a) Derive equation for discharge.
b) Evaluate discharge across ori…ce.
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation and the Bernoulli equation between pipe and vena
contracta. Neglect elevation change.
SOLUTION
Let point 1) be at the centerline of the upstream pipe and point 2) at the vena
contracta. The Bernoulli equation gives
p1 p2 = (V22 V12 )
2
2
2 V2
= V ( 1)
2 1 V12
A2
= V12 ( 12 1)
2 A2
1 1
= (V1 A1 )2
2 A2 A21
2
A21 A22
= (V1 A1 )2
2 A21 A22
Solving for V1 A1 = Q
s
2(p1 p2 ) A21
Q = A2 ( )1=2
A21 A22
The ratio of the cross-sectional area at the vena contracta to the area of the ori…ce
is
A2
= 0:64
Ao
and
2
A2 0:64Ao Do
= = 0:64
A1 A1 D1
2 2
A2 Do 1:5 cm
= 0:64 = 0:64
A1 D1 2:5 cm
= 0:2304
76
Substitute into discharge equation
s
2(p1 p2 ) 1
Q = 0:64Ao ( )1=2
1 A22 =A21
s
2(p1 p2 ) 1
Q = 0:64Ao ( )1=2
1 0:23042
r
2(p1 p2 )
Q = 0:658Ao
For a p = 10 kPa the discharge is

s
2 10000 Pa
Q = 0:658 ( 0:0152 m2 )
4 1000 kg/m3
= 0:000520 m3 = s
4
Q = 5:20 10 m3 = s
77
Situation:
A tank is …lled with air from a compressor.
V = 8 m3 , m
_ = 0:5 0 kg= s.
Find:
Time to increase the density of the air in the tank by a factor of 2.
Properties:
3
0 = 1:8 kg= m
PLAN
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Z
d
m
_o m
_i = dV
dt CV
d
( V) = m
_i
dt
d
V( ) = 0:5 0 =
dt
Separating variables and integrating
0:5 0 dt
d =
V
2
0:5 0 dt
jf0 =
2 V
2 2
f 0 0:5 0 t
=
2 V
2
f
t = V 0 2
1
0
= 8 m3 (1:8 kg= m3 )((2)2 1)
t = 43:2s
78
Situation:
An O2 bottlep
leaks oxygen through a small ori…ce causing the pressure to drop.
_ = 0:68pA= RT , V = 0:1 m3 .
m
D = 0:12 mm.
Find:
Time required for the speci…ed pressure change.
Properties:
From Table A.2: R = 260 J= kg K.
T = 18 C; p0 = 10 MPa.
p = 5 MPa.
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation and the ideal gas law.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
d
m
_ out = ( V)
dt
Ideal gas law
p
=
RT
Combining previous 2 equations
V dp
m
_ out =
RT dt
p
Let m
_ out = 0:68A= RT in the above equation
0:68pA V dp
p =
RT RT dt
Separating variables and integrating

p
1 dp (0:68A RT )
=
p dt V
p
p0 (0:68A RT )
`n = t
p V
79
Finding time
V p0
t = p `n
0:68A RT p
A =(0:12 10 3 m)2 = 1:131 10 8 m2
p 4
p
RT = 260 291 = 275:1 m/s
0:1 m3 `n (10=5)
t = = 3:28 104 s
0:68 1:131 m2 10 8 m2 275 m/s
t = 9 h 6 min:
80
Situation:
A tank is draining through an ori…ce.
h1 = 3 m, h = 0:5 m:
DT = 0:6 m, D2 = 3 cm
Find:
Time required for the water surface to drop the speci…ed distance (3 to 0.5 m).
SOLUTION
From Example 5-6 the time to decrease the elevation from h1 to h is
2A
t = p T 1=2
(h1 h1=2 )
2gA2
p p
2 =4 (0:6 m)2 3 0:5 m1=2
= p
2 9:81 m= s2 ( =4) (0:03 m)2
t = 185 s
81
Situation:
Waterqdrains from a pressurized tank.
Ve = 2p + 2gh, ho = 2 m:
A = 1:7 m2 , Ae = 9 cm2 .
Find:
Time for the tank to empty with given supply pressure.
Time for the tank to empty if supply pressure is zero.
Properties:
p = 10 kPa.
Water, Table A.5: = 1000 kg/m3 .
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation. De…ne a control surface coincident with the tank
walls and the top of the ‡uid in the tank.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
dV
= Ae V e
dt
Density is constant. The di¤erential volume is Adh so the above equation becomes
Adh
= dt
Ae Ve
or
Adh
q = dt
Ae 2p + 2gh
Integrating this equation gives
1=2
A 1 2p
+ 2gh j0ho = t
Ae g
or " #
1=2 1=2
A1 2p 2p
t= + 2gho
Ae g
and for A = 1:7 m2 ; Ae = 9 10 4 m2 ; ho = 2 m, p = 10 kPa and = 1000 kg/m3
results in
t = 621 s or 10:3 min (supply pressure of 10 kPa)
For zero pressure in the tank, the time to empty is
s
A 2ho
t = =1210 s or
Ae g
t = 20:1 min (supply pressure of zero)
82
Situation:
Waterpdrains out of a spherical tank that begins at half full.
Ve = 2gh; R = 0:5 m, de = 1 cm.
Sketch:
Find:
Time required to empty the tank.
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation. Select a control volume that is inside of the tank and
level with the top of the liquid surface.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
dV
= Ae Ve
dt
Let
dV dh
=A
dt dt
Continuity becomes
dh Ae p
= 2gh
dt A
The cross-sectional area in terms of R and h is
A = [R2 (R h)2 ] = (2Rh h2 )
Substituting into the di¤erential equation gives

( 2Rh + h2 )
p dh = dt
Ae 2gh
83
or
p 2Rh1=2 + h3=2 dh = dt
2gAe
Integrating this equation results in
4 3=2 2 5=2
p Rh + h j0R = t
2gAe 3 5
Substituting in the limits yields

14 5=2
p R = t
2gAe 15
5
For R = 0:5 m and Ae = 7:85 10 m2 , the time to empty the tank is
t = 1491 s or 24:8 min
84
Situation:
Rocket Propulsion. To prepare for problems 5.87, 5.88, and 5.89 in EFM11e, use the
internet or other resources and de…ne the following terms in the context of rocket
propulsion: (a) solid fuel, (b) grain, and (c) surface regression.
Also explain how a solid fuel rocket engine works.
SOLUTION
Answers will vary, but should include the following elements:
(a) Solid fuel, or solid propellants, are used in rockets
(b) grain is the initial or starting amount of solid, expressed as a length (because it
is a solid, and has some given diameter), also called "charge", of the solid fuel.
(c) surface regression, also called burn rate, is the rate at which the solid fuel is
burned. Since the grain is de…ned as a length, the surface regression is a length/time.
85
Situation:
Propellant fuels an end-burning rocket motor.
Dc = 0:1 m, De = 0:08 m, r_ = 1:2 cm= s.
Find: Gas velocity at nozzle exit plane.
Properties:
3
p = 1770 kg= m , R = 415 J= kg K.
pe = 10 kPa abs, T = 2200 C.
PLAN Apply the continuity equation and the ideal gas law.
SOLUTION Ideal gas law
pe
e =
RT
10000 Pa abs
= = 0:00974 kg/m3
415 J= kg K 2473 K
The rate of mass decease of the solid propellant is p Ac r_ where p is the propellant
density, Ac is the chamber cross-sectional area and r_ is the regression rate. This is
equal to the mass ‡ow rate supplied to the chamber or across the control surface.
From the continuity equation
p Ac r_
Ve =
e Ae
Ac = =4 (0:1 m)2 = 0:00785 m2
Ae = =4 (0:08 m)2 = 0:00503 m2
0:012 m/s
Ve = 1700 kg/m3 0:00785 m2
0:00974 kg/m3 0:00503 m2
Ve = 3410 m/s
86
Situation:
Propellant fuels a cylindrical-port rocket motor.
D0 = 0:2 m, D = 0:12 m:
De = 0:2 m, Ve = 1800 m= s.
pe = 10 kPa; r_ = 1:0 cm= s.
L = 0:4 m.
Find:
Gas density at the exit.
Properties:
3
g = 2000 kg= m , R = 415 J= kg K.
SOLUTION Area of the grain surface (internal surface and two ends)
Ag = DL + 2( =4)(D02 D2 )
= 0:12 m 0:4 m + ((0:2 m)2 (0:12 m)2 ) = 0:191 m2
2
Vg g Ag
e =
Ve Ae
Ae = ( =4) (0:20 m)2 = 0:03142 m2
0:01 m/s 2; 000 kg/m3 0:191 m2
e =
1; 800 m/s 0:03142 m2
e = 0:0676 kg/m3
87
Situation:
Gas is ‡owing from Location 1 to 2 in a pipe expansion. The inlet density, diameter
and velocity are 1 , D 1 , and V 1 respectively. If D 2 is 2D 1 , and V 2 is 21 V 1 , what is
the magnitude of 2 ?
a. 2 = 4 1
b. 2 = 12 1
c. 2 = 2 1
d. 2 = 1
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation, and utilize the de…nition of volume ‡owrate.
SOLUTION
1 D 21 V 1 = 2 D 22 V 2
4 4
2 2 1
1D 1V 1 = 2 (2D1 ) ( V )
2 1
1
1 = 2 (4)( )
2
1 = 2 2
1
2 = 1
2
The correct answer is (b).
88
Situation:
Air is ‡owing from a ventilation duct (cross-section 1) as shown, and is expanding
to be released into a room at cross-section 2. The area at cross-section 2, A2 , is 3
times A1 . Assume that the density is constant. The relation between Q 1 and Q 2 is:
a. Q 2 = 31 Q 1
b. Q 2 = Q 1
c. Q 2 = 3 Q 1
d. Q 2 = 9 Q 1
PLAN
SOLUTION
According to the continuity equation, Q 2 = Q 1 , because there is no storage in the
duct.
Therefore the correct answer is (b).
Note: It is also true that V 2 = 13 V 1 , but the relationship between the two velocities
is not the subject of this question.
NOTE TO INSTRUCTOR:
See Appendix A of the Chapter 1 Solution Manual document for active learning
in-class activities that may be used as a follow-on to this assignment.
89
Situation:
Water is ‡owing from Location 1 to 2 in this pipe expansion. D 1 and V 1 are known
at the inlet. D 2 and P 2 are known at the outlet. What equation(s) do you need to
solve for the inlet pressure P 1 ? Neglect viscous e¤ects.
a. The continuity equation
b. The continuity equation and the ‡ow rate equation.
c. The continuity equation, the ‡ow rate equation, and the Bernoulli equation
d. There is insu¢ cient information to solve the problem
PLAN
We know that we need to apply the continuity equation, utilize the de…nition of
volume ‡owrate, and use the Bernoulli equation which relates pressure, elevation,
and velocity. To verify that there is su¢ cient information to solve the problem, set
up the equations and document the knowns and unknowns.
SOLUTION
A1 V1 = A2 V2
A1 ; V1 and A2 are known, so one can solve for V2

P1 V22 P2 V22
+ = +
2g 2g
V1 ; P2 and V2 are known, so one can solve for P1

Thus, we have demonstrated that there is su¢ cient info to solve the problem
Therefore the correct answer is (c).
NOTE TO INSTRUCTOR:
90
Situation:
Water ‡ows in a pipe with a contraction.
Q = 60 ft3 = s, d = 2 ft, D = 6 ft.
Find:
Pressure at point B:
Assumptions:
Water temperature is 50 F:
Properties:
Water (50 F); Table A.5: = 62:4 lbf= ft3 .
pA = 3200 psf:
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation and the continuity equation.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Q 60 ft3 = s
VA = = = 2:122 ft/s
AA =4 (6 ft)2
Q 60 ft3 = s
VB = = = 19:10 ft/s
AB =4 (2 ft)2
The Bernoulli equation
pA VA2 pB VB2
+ + zA = + + zB
2g 2g
pB 3200 lbf/ft2 (2:122 ft/s)2 (19:10 ft/s)2
= + 4 ft
62:4 lbf/ft3 64:4 ft/s2 64:4 ft/s2
pB = 2601 lbf/ft2
pB = 18:1 lbf/in2
NOTE TO INSTRUCTOR:
91
Situation:
An annular venturimeter is mounted in a pipe with air ‡ow at standard conditions.
D = 6 in = 0:5 ft, d = 0:8D:
Find:
Find the volume ‡ow rate
Assumptions:
Flow is incompressible, inviscid, steady and velocity is uniformly distributed.
Properties:
p = 2 in H2 O; = 0:00237 slug= ft3 .
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation.
SOLUTION
Take point 1 as upstream in pipe and point 2 in annular section. The ‡ow is incom-
pressible, steady and inviscid so the Bernoulli equation applies
V12 V2
p1 + z 1 + = p2 + z 2 + 2
2 2
Also z1 = z2 : From the continuity equation
A1 V1 = A2 V2
But
A2 = (D2 d2 )
4
so
A2 d2
= 1
A1 D2
= 0:36
Therefore
V1
V2 = = 2:78V1
0:36
Substituting into the Bernoulli equation
p1 p2 = (V22 V12 )
2
= V 2 (2:782 1)
2 1
= 3:36 V12
92
The standard density is 0.00237 slug/ft3 and the pressure di¤erence is
2 in
p = 62:4 lbf= ft3
12 in= ft
= 10:4 psf
Solving for V1
10:4 lbf= ft2

V12 =
3:36 0:00237 slug= ft3
= 1306 ft2 = s2
V1 = 36:14 ft/s
The discharge is
Q = A1 V1
= (44:2 ft= s) (0:5 ft)2
4
= 7:10 cfs
Q = 426 cfm
93
Situation:
A venturi-type applicator is used to spray liquid fertilizer.
D2 = 1 cm, A2 =A1 = 2,pQ = 8 L= min.
z3 = 0:1 m, Ql = 0:5 h.
Find:
The ‡ow rate of liquid fertilizer.
The mixture ratio of fertilizer to water at exit.
Properties:
T = 20 C.
PLAN
Use the continuity and Bernoulli equation to …nd the pressure at the throat and use
this pressure to …nd the di¤erence in piezometric head and ‡ow rate.
SOLUTION
The Bernoulli equation is applicable between stations 1 (the throat) and 2 (the exit).
p1 V12 p2 V2
+ z1 + = + z2 + 2
2g 2g
From the continuity equation
A2
V1 = V2
A1
= 2V2
Also z1 = z2 so
p1 p2 V22
= (1 22 )
2g
V2
= 3 2
2g
At the exit p2 = 0 (gage)
p1 V22
= 3
2g
The ‡ow rate is 8 L/min or
L 1 min 10 3 m3
Q = 8
min 60 s 1L
3 3
= 0:133 10 m =s
The exit diameter is 1 cm so
A2 = (0:01 m)2
4
5
= 7:85 10 m2
94
The exit velocity is
Q 0:133 10 3 m3 = s
V2 = =
A2 7:85 10 5 m2
= 1:692 m/s
Therefore
p1 (1:692 m= s)2
= 3
2 9:81 m= s2
= 0:259 m
Let point 3 be the entrance to the feed tube. Then
h = h3 h1
p3 p1
= + z3 ( + z1 )
p3 p1
= + (z3 z1 )
= 0:05 ( 0:259) 0:1
= 0:209 m
a) The ‡ow rate in the feed tube is

p
Qf = 0:5 0:209
Qf = 0:228 L/min
b) Concentration in the mixture
Ql 0:228 L/min
=
Ql + Qw (8 + 0:228) L/min
Ql
Ql +Qw
= 0:028 (or 2.8%)
95
Situation:
Air ‡ows upward in a vertical venturi.
V1 = 90 ft= s, A2 =A1 = 0:3:
Find:
De‡ection of manometer.
Assumptions:
Uniform air density.
Properties:
= 0:07 lb= ft3 , = 120 lbf= ft3 .
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation from 1 to 2 and then the continuity equation. Let
section 1 be in the large duct where the manometer pipe is connected and section 2
in the smaller duct at the level where the upper manometer pipe is connected.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
V1 A1 = V2 A2
A1
V2 = V1
A2
1
= (90 ft= s) ( )
0:3
= 300 ft/s
Bernoulli equation
V12 V2
pz1 + = pz2 + 2
2 2
pz1 pz2 = (1=2) (V22 V12 )
0:07 lbf= ft3
pz1 pz2 = (1=2) (300 ft= s)2 (90 ft= s)2
32:2 ft= s2
= 89:0 psf
Manometer equation
pz1 pz2 = h( liquid air )

3
89:0 = h(120 lbf= ft 0:07 lbf= ft3 )
h = 0:742 ft.
96
Situation:
An atomizer utilizing a constriction in an air duct.
Find:
Design an operable atomizer.
SOLUTION
Assume the bottom of the tube through which water will be drawn is 5 in. below the
neck of the atomizer. Therefore if the atomizer is to operate at all, the pressure in
the necked down portion must be low enough to draw water 5 in. up the tube. In
other words pneck must be (5=12) water = 26 psfg. Let the outlet diameter of the
atomizer be 0.5 in. and the neck diameter be 0.25 in. Assume that the change in
area from neck to outlet is gradual enough to prevent separation so that the Bernoulli
equation will be valid between these sections. Thus
Vn2 V2
pn + = p0 + 0
2 2
were n and 0 refer to the neck and outlet sections respectively. But
pn = 26 psfg and p0 = 0
or
Vn2 V2
26 + = 0 (1)
2 2
Vn An = V0 A0
V0 A0
Vn = (2)
An
2
0:5 in
= V0
0:25 in
Vn = 4V0
Eliminate Vn between Eqs. (1) and (2)
(4V0 )2 V02
26 + =
2 2
16 V0 2 V02
26 + =
2 2
2
15 V0
= 26
2
1=2
52=15
V0 =
97
Assume = 0:0024 slugs/ft2
1=2
52=15
V0 =
0:0024
= 38 ft/s
0:5 2
Q = V A = (38 ft= s) ( =4)( ft)
12
= :052 cfs
= 3:11 cfm
One could use a vacuum cleaner (one that you can hook the hose to the discharge
end) to provide the air source for such an atomizer.
98
Situation:
A suction device based on a venturi lifts objects submerged in water.
Ae = 10 3 m2 , At = 0:25Ae , As = 0:1 m2 .
Find:
(a) Velocity of water at exit for maximum lift.
(b) Discharge.
(c) Maximum load supportable by suction cup.
Properties:
Water (15 C) Table A.5: pv = 1; 700 Pa, = 999 kg= m3 :
patm = 100 kPa.
PLAN
SOLUTION
3
Venturi exit area, Ae = 10 m2 ; Venturi throat area, At = (1=4)Ae ; Suction cup
area, As = 0:1 m2
patm = 100 kPa
Twater = 15 C
Bernoulli equation for the Venturi from the throat to exit with the pressure at the
throat equal to the vapor pressure of the water. This will establish the maximum
lift condition. Cavitation would prevent any lower pressure from developing at the
throat.
pv Vt2 pe Ve2max
+ + zt = + + ze (1)
2g 2g
Continuity equation
Vt At = Ve Ae
Ae
Vt = Ve (2)
At
Vt = 4Ve
Then Eq. (1) can be written as
1; 700 (4Ve max )2 100; 000 Ve2max
+ = +
2g 2g
1=2
1 2g
Ve max = (98; 300)
15
1=2
1 2
= (98; 300)
15
Ve max = 3:62 m/s
99
Qmax = Ve Ae
3
= (3:62 m/s)(10 m2 )
Qmax = 0:00362 m3 /s
Find pressure in the suction cup at the level of the suction cup.
pt + h = psuction
psuction = 1; 700 Pa + 9; 800 N= m3 2m
= 21; 300 Pa
But the pressure in the water surrounding the suction cup will be patm + 1 =
(100 + 9:80) kPa, or
pwater psuction = (109; 800 21; 300) Pa

= 88; 500 Pa
Thus the maximum lift will be:
Liftmax = pAs = (pwater psuction )As

= (88; 500 N/m2 )(0:1 m2 )
Liftmax = 8; 850 N
100
Situation:
A hovercraft is supported by air pressure.
l = 15 ft, w = 7 ft, W = 2000 lbf,
Find:
Air ‡ow rate necessary to support the hovercraft.
Assumptions:
Air is incompressible.
Steady ‡ow.
Viscous e¤ects are negligible.
Air in the chamber is at stagnation conditions (V = 0; p = uniform)
Just under the skirt p = patm
Properties:
Air (T = 60 F; p = 1 atm) ; = 0:00237 slug= ft3 ; Table A.3.
PLAN
Because ‡ow rate is the goal, apply Q = V A: The steps are:
1. Find the pressure in the chamber by apply force equilibrium in the vertical direc-
tion.
2 Find V by applying the Bernoulli equation from inside the chamber to just under
the skirt.
3. Apply the ‡ow rate equation.
SOLUTION
1. Force equilibrium (vertical direction)
pA = W
W 2000 lbf 2
p = = 2 = 19:05 lbf= ft
A (15 7) ft
2. Bernoulli equation (elevations terms are neglected; point 1 is in the chamber; point
2 is underneath the skirt)
V12 V22
p1 + = p2 +
2 2
V22
19:05 lbf= ft2 + 0 = 0 + 0:00237 slug= ft3
s 2
2 19:05 lbf= ft2 slug ft
V2 = = 127:9 ft= s
0:00237 slug= ft3 lbf s2
Q = V A = (127:9 ft= s) (3=12 ft) (30 ft + 14 ft) = 1407 ft3 = s
Q = 84; 400 cfm
101
Situation:
Water forced out of a cylinder by a piston.
d = 2 in, D = 4 in, V = 6 ft= s.
Find:
E- ux velocity and force required to drive piston.
Properties:
T = 60 F.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
V1 A1 = V2 A2
2 2
D 4 in
V2 = V1 =6
d 2 in
V2 = 24 ft= s
Bernoulli equation
p1 V12 V22
+ =
2g 2g
p1 = (V 2 V12 )
2 2
1:94 slug= ft3
= (24 ft= s)2 (6 ft= s)2
2
= 518 psf
Then
2
4
Fpiston = p1 A1 = 518 ( =4) ft
12
F = 45:2 lbf
102
Situation:
On a hot day a fuel pump can cavitate.
Find:
What is happening to the gasoline?
How does this a¤ect pump operation?
Properties:
p2 = 80 kPa; p1 = 100 kPa.
SOLUTION
Sometimes driving your car on a hot day, you may encounter a problem with the fuel
pump called pump cavitation. What is happening to the gasoline?
The temperature of a hot day causes the vapor pressure to increase. The high ‡uid
velocities in a pump can cause the pressure to decrease to the point that cavitation
occurs.
How does this a¤ect the operation of the pump?

At this point, the pump designed to pump liquid is no longer e¤ective.
103
Situation:
Cavitation.
Find:
What is cavitation?
Why does tendency for cavitation in a liquid increase with temperature?
SOLUTION
What is cavitation?
Cavitation occurs when the liquid pressure reaches the vapor pressure and local boiling
occurs.
Why does the tendency for cavitation in a liquid increase with increased tempera-
tures?
The tendency of cavitation to increase with temperature is the result of the vapor
pressure increasing with temperature.
104
Situation:
The following questions have to do with cavitation.
Find:
a. Is it more correct to say that cavitation has to do with
i) vacuum pressures, or
ii) vapor pressures?
SOLUTION
It is most correct to say that cavitation has to do with vapor pressures. Vapor pressure
is a function of the ambient temperature. It may a occur at a pressure that is not a
vacuum with respect to atmospheric pressure at that location. For example, boiling
of water occurs at atmospheric pressure (in an open pot) at 100 C.
Find:
b. What does the word cavitation have to do with cavities, like the ones we get in
our teeth? Is this aspect of cavitation the
(i) cause, or the
(ii) result of the phenomenon?
SOLUTION
Cavitation can cause small holes, or cavities, to be knocked out of the surface of
structures that are adjacent to where it occurs. These small pits grow larger and
larger if the cavitation continues, in the following manner. When cavitation occurs,
small bubbles of vapor are created. As soon as the ‡uid containing such bubbles is
swept into a location of slightly higher pressure, the bubbles implode again. When
the bubbles implode, a shock wave is created that can pit the surface of adjacent
structures, such as the metal of a pump, or the concrete walls of a dam. Therefore
the cavities, are (ii) the result of the phenomenon, not the cause.
Find:
c. When water goes over a waterfall, and one can see lots of bubbles in the water,
is that due to cavitation?
Why, or why not?
SOLUTION
When water goes over a waterfall, the bubbles you see are entrained air. Cavitation
does not occur here because the temperatures are not high, nor are the pressures low
(conditions that would be required to cause the vapor pressure to be reached).
105
Situation:
Cavitation in a venturi section.
D = 50 cm, d = 10 cm.
Find:
Discharge for incipient cavitation.
Properties:
Water (10 C), Table A.5: = 1000 kg= m3 .
pA = 130 kPa, patm = 100 kPa abs.
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation and the Bernoulli equation.
SOLUTION
Cavitation will occur when the pressure reaches the vapor pressure of the liquid
(pV = 1; 230 Pa abs).
Bernoulli equation
VA2 V2
pA + = pthroat + throat
2 2
where VA = Q=AA = Q=(( =4) 0:502 )
Continuity equation
Q Q
Vthroat = =
Athroat =4 (0:10 m)2
2
(Vthroat VA2 ) = pA pthroat
2
Q2 1 1
2 2
2 (( =4) (0:10 m) ) (( =4) (0:50 m)2 )2
= 230; 000 Pa 1; 230 Pa
500Q2 (16; 211 25) = 228; 770 Pa
Q = 0:168 m3 /s
106
Situation:
A sphere moves below the surface in water.
Vo is speed of sphere. Vmax occurs at upper and lower parts of the sphere.
D = 1 ft, h = 12 ft.
Find:
Speed at which cavitation occurs.
Properties:
Water (50 F), Table A.5: = 1:94 slug= ft3 .
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation between the free stream and the maximum width.
SOLUTION
Let po be the pressure on the streamline upstream of the sphere. The minimum
pressure will occur at the maximum width of the sphere where the velocity is 1.5
times the free stream velocity.
Bernoulli equation
1 2 1
po + Vo + ho = p + (1:5Vo )2 + (ho + 0:5)
2 2
Solving for the pressure p gives
p = po 0:625 Vo2 0:5

The pressure at a depth of 12 ft is 749 lbf/ft2 : The density of water is 1.94 slugs/ft3
and the speci…c weight is 62.4 lbf/ft3 : At a temperature of 50o F, the vapor pressure
is 0.178 psia or 25.6 psfa. Substituting into the above equation
25:6 psfa = 749 psfa (0:625) (1:94) Vo2 (0:5) (62:4)

692:2 = 1:21Vo2
Solving for Vo gives
Vo = 23:9 ft/s
107
Situation:
A hydrofoil is tested in water.
h = 1:8 m, V = 8 m= s.
Find:
Speed that cavitation occurs.
Assumptions:
patm = 101 kPa abs; pvapor = 1; 230 Pa abs.
Properties:
T = 10 C, p0 = 70 kPa.
PLAN
Consider a point ahead of the foil (at same depth as the foil) and the point of minimum
pressure on the foil, and apply the pressure coe¢ cient de…nition between these two
points.
SOLUTION
Pressure coe¢ cient
(pmin p0 )
Cp =
V02 =2
where
p0 = patm + 1:8 = 101; 000 kPa + 1:8 m 9; 810 N= m3 = 118; 658 Pa abs.
pmin = 70; 000 Pa abs; V0 = 8 m/s
Then
70; 000 Pa 118; 658 Pa
Cp = = 1:521
500 (8 m= s)2
Now use Cp = 1:521 (constant) for evaluating V for cavitation where pmin is now
pvapor :
(1; 230 Pa 118; 658 Pa)

1:521 =
(1; 000=2)V02
V0 = 12:4 m/s
108
Situation:
A hydrofoil is tested in water.
d = 3:1 ft, V = 20 ft= s.
Find:
Speed that cavitation begins.
Properties:
pmin = 2:7 psi vacuum.
Water (50 F) Table A.5, pv = 0:178 psia.
PLAN
Consider a point ahead of the foil (at same depth as the foil) and the point of minimum
pressure on the foil, and apply the pressure coe¢ cient de…nition between these two
points.
SOLUTION
pmin = 2:7 144 = 388:8 psf gage

p0 = h = 3:1 = 3:1 62:4 = 193:4 psf
Then
(pmin p0 ) ( 388:8 193:4)
Cp = =
2
V0 =2 (1:94 slug= ft3 =2) (20 ft= s)2
Cp = 1:501
Now let pmin = pvapor = 0:178 psia = 14:52 psig = 2; 091 psfg
Then
193:4 psf + 2; 091

1:501 =
(1:94 slug= ft3 =2)V02
V0 = 39:6 ft/s
109

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Q 110; 000 ft3 /s

Faucet outlet area

2. Flow rate equation

2. Flow rate equation

where dA = 2 rdr: Then

where V = 6y ft/s; dA = xdy = 0:5 ydy ft2

This integral is in the form of

This integral is in the form of

The outside cross-sectional area of each smaller pipe is

A= (1:5 + 0:6)2 = 3:46 cm2

A= (11)2 3 3:46 = 84:64 cm2 = 0:008464 m2

Mass ‡ow rate

Case (a) Case (b)

Alarge Vlarge = Asmall Vsmall

where AA = ( =4)32 ; AB = ( =4)62 and AA = (1=4)AB : Then

The Bernoulli equation

From ideal gas law

ac;2s = 5; 066 m/s2

ac;3s = 11; 398 m/s2

Q = 927 gpm = 2:066 cfs

Because QB is positive ‡ow is leaving the tank through pipe B.

Solve for depth h :

12(4:5 + 5:5 0) = Qin.

Lake will dry up when Qin. = 54:0 ft3 =s

Qin. = Qout at equilibrium

Flow rate equation

Qout = Vout Aout

Solving for h yields

Continuity equation, assuming incompressible ‡ow

Flow rate equation

Qin = AVin = N Qhole

The density in the pipe is

For a p = 10 kPa the discharge is

Separating variables and integrating

A = [R2 (R h)2 ] = (2Rh h2 )

Substituting into the di¤erential equation gives

Substituting in the limits yields

t = 1491 s or 24:8 min

SOLUTION Ideal gas law

The correct answer is (b).

A1 ; V1 and A2 are known, so one can solve for V2

V1 ; P2 and V2 are known, so one can solve for P1

Therefore the correct answer is (c).

The Bernoulli equation

10:4 lbf= ft2

Let point 3 be the entrance to the feed tube. Then

a) The ‡ow rate in the feed tube is

b) Concentration in the mixture

pz1 pz2 = h( liquid air )

Eliminate Vn between Eqs. (1) and (2)

pwater psuction = (109; 800 21; 300) Pa

Thus the maximum lift will be:

Liftmax = pAs = (pwater psuction )As

How does this a¤ect the operation of the pump?

p = po 0:625 Vo2 0:5

25:6 psfa = 749 psfa (0:625) (1:94) Vo2 (0:5) (62:4)

Solving for Vo gives

(1; 230 Pa 118; 658 Pa)