D.C.

Generators
Generators are generally classified according to their methods of field excitation and
the behaviour of a d.c. generator on load depends upon the method of field excitation
adopted. Hence d.c. generators are divided into the following two classes:
(i) Separately excited d.c. generators
(ii) Self-excited d.c. generators
D.C. Generator Characteristics
The following are the three most important characteristics of a d.c. generator:
1. Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.) (E0- If)
This curve shows the relationship between the generated e.m.f. at no-load (E0) and the
field current (If) at constant speed. It is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-
load saturation curve. Its shape is practically the same for all generators whether
separately or self-excited. The data for O.C.C. curve are obtained experimentally by
operating the generator at no load and constant speed and recording the change in
terminal voltage as the field current is varied (ii).

On plotting the relation between E0 and If, we get the open circuit characteristic as
shown in (i).

The following points may be noted from O.C.C.:

i. When the field current is zero, there is some generated e.m.f. OA. This is due
to the residual magnetism in the field poles.
ii. Over a fairly wide range of field current (up to point B in the curve), the curve
is linear. It is because in this range, reluctance of iron is negligible as
compared with that of air gap. The air gap reluctance is constant and hence
linear relationship.
iii. After point B on the curve, the reluctance of iron also comes into picture. It is
because at higher flux densities, r for iron decreases and reluctance of iron is
no longer negligible. Consequently, the curve deviates from linear
relationship.
iv. After point C on the curve, the magnetic saturation of poles begins and E0
tends to level off.

2. Internal or Total characteristic (E-Ia)

This curve shows the relation between the generated e.m.f. on load (E) and the
armature current (Ia). The e.m.f. E is less than E0 due to the demagnetizing effect of

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armature reaction. Therefore, this curve will lie below the open circuit characteristic
(O.C.C.). The internal characteristic is of interest chiefly to the designer. It cannot be
obtained directly by experiment.
3. External characteristic (V-IL)
This curve shows the relation between the terminal voltage (V) and load current (IL).
The terminal voltage V will be less than E due to voltage drop in the armature circuit.
Therefore, this curve will lie below the internal characteristic. This characteristic is
very important in determining the suitability of a generator for a given purpose. It can
be obtained by making simultaneous measurements of terminal voltage and load
current of a loaded generator.

A. Separately Excited D.C. Generators

A d.c. generator whose field magnet winding is supplied from an independent external
d.c. source (e.g., a battery etc.) is called a separately excited generator.

The voltage output depends upon the speed of rotation of armature and the field
current (E = Kφω). The greater the speed and field current, greater is the generated
e.m.f. The d.c. generators are normally of self-excited type.
Armature current, Ia = IL
Terminal voltage, V = EIaRa

Characteristics of a Separately Excited D.C. Generator

The obvious disadvantage of a separately excited d.c. generator is that we require an
external d.c. source for excitation. But since the output voltage may be controlled
more easily and over a wide range (from zero to a maximum), this type of excitation
finds many applications.
(i) Open circuit characteristic.
The figure below shows the variation of generated e.m f. on no load with field current
for various fixed speeds. Note that if the value of constant speed is increased, the
steepness of the curve also increases. When the field current is zero, the residual
magnetism in the poles will give rise to the small initial e.m.f. as shown.

(ii) Internal and External Characteristics

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The external characteristic of a separately excited generator is the curve between the
terminal voltage (V) and the load current IL (which is the same as armature current in
this case. As the load current increases, the terminal voltage falls due to two reasons:
(a) The armature reaction weakens the main flux so that actual e.m.f. generated E on
load is less than that generated (E0) on no load.
(b) There is voltage drop across armature resistance (= ILRa = IaRa). Due to these
reasons, the external characteristic is a drooping curve (ii). Note that in the absence
of armature reaction and armature drop, the generated e.m.f. would have been E0
(curve 1). The internal characteristic can be determined from external characteristic
by adding ILRa drop to the external characteristic. It is because armature reaction
drop is included in the external characteristic.
Curve 2 is the internal characteristic of the generator and should obviously lie above
the external characteristic.

B. Self-Excited D.C. Generators

A d.c. generator whose field magnet winding is supplied current from the output of
the generator itself is called a self-excited generator. There are three types of self-
excited generators depending upon the manner in which the field winding is
connected to the armature:

1. Series generator
In a series wound generator, the field winding is connected in series with armature
winding (i) so that whole armature current flows through the field winding as well as
the load.
Since the field winding carries the whole of load current, it has a few turns of thick
wire having low resistance. Series generators are rarely used except for special
purposes e.g., as boosters.
Armature current, Ia = Ise = IL = I
Terminal voltage, V = E I(Ra + Rse)

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Characteristics of Series Generator

i. O.C.C.
Curve 1 shows the open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) of a series generator. It
can be obtained experimentally by disconnecting the field winding from the
machine and exciting it from a separate d.c. source.
ii. Internal characteristic
Curve 2 shows the total or internal characteristic of a series generator. It gives
the relation between the generated e.m.f. E. on load and armature current. Due
to armature reaction, the flux in the machine will be less than the flux at no
load. Hence, e.m.f. E generated under load conditions will be less than the
e.m.f. E0 generated under no load conditions. Consequently, internal
characteristic curve lies below the O.C.C. curve; the difference between them
representing the effect of armature reaction.
iii. External characteristic
Curve 3 shows the external characteristic of a series generator. It gives the relation
between terminal voltage and load current IL:
V E Ia Ra Rse 

Therefore, external characteristic curve will lie below internal characteristic curve by
an amount equal to ohmic drop: Ia(Ra + Rse) in the machine as shown in (ii).

2. Shunt generator
In a shunt generator, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature
winding so that terminal voltage of the generator is applied across it. The shunt field
winding has many turns of fine wire having high resistance. Therefore, only a part of
armature current flows through shunt field winding and the rest flows through the
load.

Shunt field current, Ish = V/Rsh

Armature current, Ia = IL + Ish
Terminal voltage, V = E IaRa

Voltage Build-Up in Shunt generator

E = Kφω

If the generator is run at a constant speed,

some e.m.f. will be generated due to residual

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magnetism in the main poles. This small e.m.f. circulates a field current which in turn
produces additional flux which increases E. This process continues and the generator
builds up the normal generated voltage following the O.C.C. as shown in (i)

The field resistance Rf can be represented by a straight line passing through the origin
as shown in (ii). The two curves can be shown on the same diagram as they have the
same ordinate (iii).

The voltage build-up of the generator is therefore given by the point of intersection of
O.C.C. and field resistance line. Thus in (iii), D is point of intersection of the two
curves. Hence the generator will build up a voltage OM.

Conditions for Voltage Build-Up of a Shunt Generator

The necessary conditions for voltage build-up in a shunt generator are:
i. There must be some residual magnetism in generator poles.
ii. The connections of the field winding should be such that the field current
strengthens the residual magnetism.
The resistance of the field circuit should be less than the critical resistance. In other
words, the speed of the generator should be higher than the critical speed

Critical Field Resistance for a Shunt Generator

The voltage build up in a shunt generator

depends upon field circuit resistance. If the
field circuit resistance is R1 (line OA), then
generator will build up a voltage OM as
shown below. If the field circuit resistance is
increased to R2 (line OB), the generator will
build up a voltage OL, slightly less than OM.
As the field circuit resistance is increased, the
slope of resistance line also increases. When
the field resistance line becomes tangent (line
OC) to O.C.C., the generator would just
excite. If the field circuit resistance is
increased beyond this point (say line OD), the generator will fail to excite. The field
circuit resistance represented by line OC (tangent to O.C.C.) is called critical field
resistance RC for the shunt generator. It may be defined as : The maximum field
circuit resistance (for a given speed) with which the shunt generator would just
excite is known as its critical field resistance. It should be noted that shunt generator
will build up voltage only if field circuit resistance is less than critical field resistance.

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Characteristics of a Shunt Generator
Connections of a shunt wound generator are shown in (i). The armature current Ia
splits up into two parts; a small fraction Ish flowing through shunt field winding while
the major part IL goes to the external load.

i. O.C.C.
The O.C.C. of a shunt generator is similar in shape to that of a series generator as
shown in (ii). The line OA represents the shunt field circuit resistance. When the
generator is run at normal speed, it will build up a voltage OM. At no-load, the
terminal voltage of the generator will be constant (= OM) represented by the
horizontal dotted line MC.

ii. Internal characteristic

When the generator is loaded, flux per pole is reduced due to armature reaction.
Therefore, e.m.f. E generated on load is less than the e.m.f. generated at no load. As a
result, the internal characteristic (E-Ia) cureve 1 drops down slightly as shown in (ii).
iii. External characteristic
Curve 2 shows the external characteristic of a shunt generator. It gives the relation
between terminal voltage V and load current IL.
V E IaRa E IL Ish )R
Therefore, external characteristic curve will lie below the internal characteristic
curve by an amount equal to drop in the armature circuit , (IL + Ish)Ra as shown in (ii).
Note. It may be seen from the external characteristic that change in terminal voltage
from no-load to full load is small. The terminal voltage can always be maintained
constant by adjusting the field rheostat R automatically

3. Compound generator
In a compound-wound generator, there are two sets of field windings on each pole—
one is in series and the other in parallel with the armature. A compound wound
generator may be:
(a) Short Shunt (S) in which only shunt field winding is in parallel with the armature
winding
(b) Long shunt (G) in which shunt field winding is in parallel with both series field
and armature winding

Compound Generator Characteristics

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 The compound generator can be cumulatively compounded or differentially
compounded generator. The latter is rarely used in practice. It may be noted that
external characteristics of long and short shunt compound generators are almost
identical.

External characteristic
In a cumulatively compounded generator, the series excitation aids the shunt
excitation. The degree of compounding depends upon the increase in series excitation
with the increase in load current.

i. If series winding turns are so adjusted that with the increase in load current the
terminal voltage increases, it is called over-compounded generator. In such a case,
as the load current increases, the series field m.m.f. increases and tends to increase
the flux and hence the generated voltage. The increase in generated voltage is
greater than the IaRa drop so that instead of decreasing, the terminal voltage
increases as shown by curve A.
ii. If series winding turns are so adjusted that with the increase in load current, the
terminal voltage substantially remains constant, it is called flat-compounded
generator. The series winding of such a machine has lesser number of turns than
the one in over-compounded machine and, therefore, does not increase the flux as
much for a given load current. Consequently, the full-load voltage is nearly equal
to the no-load voltage as indicated by curve B.
iii. If series field winding has lesser number of turns than for a flat-compounded
machine, the terminal voltage falls with increase in load current as indicated by
curve C Such a machine is called under-compounded generator.

Control of Terminal Voltage in a DC Generator

V E Ia Ra
E = Kφω

There are two methods of controlling the voltage

i. Change the speed of rotation by changing the speed of the prime mover (steam
turbine, diesel engine, motor).
ii. Change the field current (hence changing the flux) by varying the resistance of
the field, RF.

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