CEC 211

Civil Engineering Construction III

WEEK 1 1.0 VARIOUS PROCESSES AND SEQUENCE
OF HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Importance of engineering survey in route location of highway

WEEK 2 2.0 Engineering Survey

2.1 Setting out cross section and profiles
2.2 Right of way
2.3 Bush clearing and felling of trees
2.4 Spoil and hauling of materials

WEEK 3 3.0 Processes for the blasting of rocks

3.1 Setting out
3.2 Setting out culvert and bridge
3.3 Procedures for setting out tangents and curves
3.4 Procedure for carrying out earth works such as; cutting and filling sub – grade

WEEK 4 SITE VISIT TO SEE THE PROCESSES OF

BLASTING ROCKS

WEEK 5 5.0 Borrow Pits, Uses and control

5.1 Relevance of side drains compaction
5.2 Thickness requirement for sub – base
5.3 Relevance in site test for sub – base
5.4 Camber and super – elevation

WEEK 6 6.0 Soil stabilisation

6.1 Stone base macadam
6.2 Priming
6.3 Sand curing
WEEK 7 7.0 Surface dressing and surface treatment
7.1 Asphaltic concrete for high wheel road
7.2 Component of asphaltic concrete
7.3 Marshall stability for asphaltic concrete
7.4 Difference between binder course and surface
References:
1. Gichega, E.J “Essential of Highway Engineering” McMillan Press 1988
2. A.Wignall & P.S Kendric “Road- Theory and Practice”, William Heinemann Ltd,
London 1982.
3. NBTE Civil Engineering Construction III CEC211 Note.
NOT FOR SALE
 WEEK 1 & WEEK 2
1.0 PROCESSES AND SEQUENCE OF HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

1.1Introduction

Once the need for a new highway or for improvement of the existing facility is established,
the approach to selecting an appropriate route involves a variety of surveys and investigation.
The location of a new major road can require consideration of many factors, which normally
require the inputs of economists, geologists, planners and surveyors as well as road engineers
when it comes to traffic volumes and preliminary estimates of the proposed road.

Whatever the location being considered, location surveys provide fundamental information
for the economic, environmental and social analyses which have major influences on the final
location of the new road as well as its geometric and structural design.

1.2 Importance of engineering surveying in route location of highways

 Engineering surveys are very important because if not carried out properly, the error
may lead to delay, extra cost and contractual complications.

 Engineering surveys enable the engineer to select a cost effective route among the
many alternative routes.

2.0 ENGINEERING SURVEYS

Before finalizing the alignment of a highway, engineering surveys must be carried out.

2.1 The surveys are generally completed in four stages as follows:

1. Desk study
2. Reconnaissance survey
3. Preliminary survey
4. Final location survey

(1. Desk Study:

The first stage in any highway location study is the examination of all the available data of
the area in which the road is to be constructed. This is usually carried out in the office before
any field investigation. This is the first step carried out in an engineering survey. This
involves studying the topographic map of the area and the likely routes of the proposed roads
may be marked on it. This sheet gives the contours, drainage features, existing roads, other
communication facilities, villages and towns. This now will serve as a valuable data source.

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At the completion of this stage of study, the engineer will be able to select the general area
through which the highways can transverse.

The following are the types of information that might be gathered for the desk study:

(1 General land survey: location of the site on published maps and chart, aerial photographs,
site boundaries, outlines of structures and building lines, ground contours, natural drainage
lines, position of survey stations and benchmarks.
(2 Restrictions applying to a particular area e.g. mines area, scientific interest area.
(3 Grounds conditions: geological maps, flooding, erosion, landslide and sinking history.
(4 Sources of material for constructions: natural materials, tips and waste materials and
imported materials.
(5 Drainage and sewage: name of sewage, land drainage and other authorities concerned.
(6. Water supply: name of the authorities concerned and their bylaws, pressure characteristics
of the main e.t.c.

(2. Reconnaissance survey:

After the desk study, direct observation is made in order to fill in omissions in the
information gathered during the desk study, so as to mark out corridor areas that are
obviously unsuitable. Survey team will go to the area under study with the minor surveying
instruments like Abney level, Pedometer, Tangent Clinometers etc. to do a rough survey of
the area under study. In difficult terrain, walkie talkie sets are useful for communication.

During this survey, data is collected on topography of the area (plain, rolling mountainous or
steep), length of the road along various alternatives, soil condition, Right of Way available,
rainfall and temperature data. The rough survey is done along the alternatives proposed in the
map study and feasibility of the road alignment is checked along the different routes.

The main objective of this survey is to examine the physical characteristics of the area for
determining the most feasible route or routes for further detailed investigations. The data
collected should be adequate to examine the feasibility of all different routes.

Finally there will be a set of routes which are to be further studied in the next step.

(3. Preliminary survey:

The alternative routes which are proposed after a rough survey in the second step are
surveyed in detail using some advanced instruments like levels, chain and theodolite. Aerial
Photogrammetric is best suited for this type of survey.

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Different kinds of surveys, such as Soil investigations, cross-sectioning and profiling, marine
surveying, hydrology data collection, obligatory points, industries and population surveys are
carried out along the routes and from these, it is easier to have a fair comparison of the
different routes.

The preliminary survey is a large scale study of one or more feasible routes within a corridor.
The purpose of the preliminary survey is to remove all unsuitable alignments and to arrive at
the final alignment for the proposed road and collection of all physical information that may
affect the location of the proposed road way.

Economic evaluation of each possible route is considered along with Environmental

Evaluation as highway construction has a significant impact on surroundings. It results in a
paper location that defines the line for the subsequent final location survey. The baseline
transverse is established for the tentatively accepted route or routes recommended in the
recess report.

This traverse consists of a series of straight lines and deflation angles that approximately
follows the recommended lines. The baseline traverse is stationed continuously from the
beginning to the end of the survey. Every angle point should be referenced to at least two
points outside the area likely to be occupied by the road construction.

To provide data for a profile of the baseline, levels are taken at all marked stations as well as
important breaks in ground. The elevations at crossroads, stream and other critical points on
the line are also determined. Based on the survey data, a preliminary survey strip map of the
proposed route is developed. The minimum information shown on this map includes all
tangents and all natural and manmade surface and subsurface features that might affect the
selection of the paper alignment e.g the location of all fences, properties and buildings.

The drawing will enable the centreline to be selected on paper in the office so that it best fit
the topography while meeting the intended traffic service requirement.

Finally, one among all of the routes is chosen and drawings are prepared on the sheet which
will show its alignment to be marked on the ground.

(4. Final location survey:

The result of the preliminary survey leads to the selection of the final alignment which is the
position of the centre of the highway on the ground.

Final location survey involves fixing the final, permanent, centreline of the road, while at the
same time gathering the additional physical data needed to complete the highway design,
construction, specifications, estimated quantities and schedule for land acquisition purposes.

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The centre line (including all curves) is translated on the ground continuous transit survey
and pegging at the same time. The centre line that is pegged during the final location survey
should closely follow the paper location on the preliminary survey map conforming as much
as possible to important control points.

Suitable reference (at least two) should be marked permanently on the ground. The centre
line should be staked at 50m intervals in plain terrain and 20m intervals in hilly terrain, bench
marks should be left permanently at 250m intervals. The profiling, cross-sectioning and soil
investigation are carried out very precisely. CBR values are also found to find out the design
thickness of the pavement.

2.1 Setting out cross section and profiles

Profile/Longitudinal Sections:
The profile/longitudinal section of the route is a side view or elevation in which the
longitudinal surfaces are highlighted. Longitudinal sections are carried out on an existing
ground in order to determine the existing ground profile along a particular line i.e the centre
line of existing or proposed work. Profile levels are taken along a path that holds interest for
the designer.

Longitudinal sections are very important in the construction of highways because it helps in
determining their formation line for the road and also in determining the area of cut and fill.

In roadwork, preliminary surveys often profile the proposed location of the Centreline (CL).
The proposed (CL) is staked out at an even interval (20/30/50m) or depending on the
designer. Rod readings are taken at the even station locations and at any other point where the
ground surface has a significant change in slope. When the rod is moved to a new location
and it cannot be seen from the instrument, a turning point is necessary so that the instrument
can be moved ahead and the remaining stations levelled.

Fig.2.0 Ground profile/Longitudinal section

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Cross-section: The cross section shows the end view of a section at a station and is at right
angles to the centreline. In roadwork, rod readings are taken along a line perpendicular to
Centreline (CL) at each even station.

After the centre line has been marked on the ground, cross section levels are then taken at
right angles on both sides along the centreline locations previously levelled.
The cross-sections are taken at 50m-100m intervals as well as all sections where there is
change in grade, topography. The section should cover the entire road land as well as
anticipated lands temporarily to be acquired for borrow pits. Finding the areas of the cross
sections is the first step in obtaining the volume of earthwork to be handled in route
alignment projects.

Fig. 2.1 Cut and Fill crossection

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2.2 Right-of-Way (R.O.W) Acquisition

Right of Way (R.O.W) is the right to build and operate a railroad line, road, or utility on land
belonging to another. The term right of the way is used to indicate the area of land acquired
along alignment by the highway authorities.

The acquisition is done by either paying compensation for private property acquired or by
arranging transfer of land. Costs tend to be much higher in commercial areas, and landowners
in these areas are often unwilling to give up their property for highway construction.

Before the physical execution of any highway project is taken up, it is necessary the
concerned highway authority should have required legal right over the area which is to form
the permanent road land as well as the strip of land which is to be temporarily acquired
primarily for borrowing earth materials during construction. The final location of survey
normally brings out full and detailed particulars of the area to be acquired.

Fig: 2.2 Right Of Way

2.3 Bush clearing and felling of trees

The first sequence in a road construction project is the clearing of the site which involves
bush clearing, felling of trees and removal of stumps. The approach of clearing the site
involves the use of earth moving machines like the bulldozer which is used to clear the site of
trees and stumps by pushing the tree, while the rooter or ripper is used to fell down trees by
driving its teeth into the ground to loosen and pull out roots of trees. The scraper also digs,
pulls out stumps and picks its load by scraping the ground and then transporting the material
out of the site.

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2.4 Spoil and hauling of materials
Whatever may be the type of pavement required for a highway, the preparation of the
formation involves two primary operations namely embankment and excavation. Ideally the
selection of optimum horizontal and vertical alignment should result in the volume of
material excavated within the limit of the road scheme being equal to the amount of the fill
required in embankment, so that there is no need to waste good materials or import expensive
materials elsewhere.

Spoil:
In engineering practice it might not be always possible as some excavated materials might be
unsuitable for the use of embankment, therefore they have to be discharged or wasted. When
this is done it is called spoil. Surplus earth is also thrown into the spoil bank.

Hauling of materials:
This entails bringing of excavated materials from borrow pits, or dumping of surplus earth
into spoil banks from adjourning areas to the highway to or from the site. The product of the
amount of excavation and the distance which it is moved is known as haul. It involves
loading and unloading excavated materials.

Haul:
Is the distance over which material is transported, it is also used to describe the volume-
distance of material moved it is expressed in "Station metres".

Borrow pits:
This is a pit formed on temporary roads, due to the excavation of the earth materials. Borrow
pit is normally elevated than the natural soil (lateral hill). It is from this that materials that
could be used for road construction are obtained. It could be within the construction or
adjacent site. The choice of borrow pits depends on the quantities of volume of earthwork
that could be obtained and utilized as road materials. This could be estimated by calculating
roughly by using either L*B and Height or if it is cone using its formula. Control could be
done by visual inspection, to determine if it is coarse, grained or fine grained. Digging of the
trial pit and taking the samples to the laboratory for tests to determine whether the properties
of the material meet the recommended standard.

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 WEEK 3
3.0 PROCESSES FOR THE BLASTING OF ROCKS

Blasting is the process of breaking a mass of rock into pieces using explosives. Rock blasting
consists of drilling holes in a rock mass at depths, in diameters, and at spacing so that an
explosive can fracture the rock in a controlled manner. The rock must fracture enough to
displace it and break it down to the size of the intended use. Rock blasting is performed to
fracture rock so that it may be excavated for construction or quarried for aggregate
processing.

Drill and blast design is an important part of mine planning and management, with a major
impact on safety and efficiency. Good miners are well trained in these skills. Once the blast
holes have been drilled they will be packed with explosives. The explosives will then be
remote-detonated in order to break up the rock.

After loosening the rock by explosives, this large-size stones are then crushed into smaller
size stones are then crushed into the smaller sizes.

The processes of blasting consist of the following operations:

1. Drilling holes
2. Filling with explosive
3. Tamping
4. Firing

Holes are drilled by one of the following methods:

a. Jumper
b. Percussion

Types of explosives

(1. Black powder.

(2. Dynamite.
(3. Ammonium nitrate fuel oil (ANFO)
(4. Slurries

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 Fig: 3.0 Drilling plan and blasting pattern

3.1 Setting out

Setting out is the field work required for marking out on the ground, the positions of some
engineering work which is proposed to be carried out and the position of which has been
drawn upon the survey plan, which was previously prepared. On flat and rolling terrain the
horizontal alignment can be set out as a number of straight lines. These straight lines are later
on joined by curves.

A road would require its centre line to be marked on the ground with great accuracy, by pegs
driven into the ground every 50m/30m/20m, each of these stations being marked with a peg,
and the chainage is carried out continuously along the straight lines and round curves.

Setting out is performed with the theodolite and chain or steel tape. When a change in the
direction of the straight occurs, a peg must be fixed to mark the intersection of the straight. At
this point of intersection, a curve is being introduced to ease the running at the intersection
angle.

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 Fig: 3.1 Highway setting out

3.2 Procedures for setting out tangents and curves

Curves are normally provided to change the direction in gradient way when two straight
alignments meet at an intersection in horizontal or vertical plane. The horizontal curve
provides a transition between two tangent strips of roadway. It is a curve in plan provided to
the direction of the centreline of the pavement of the road.

While vertical curve is provided when there is a change in grade i.e. where two contrary
gradients meet; the alignment is connected by a curve to smoothen out the vertical profile.

Reasons for providing curves:

(a. Topography of the country.

(b. To provide access to a particular locality.
(c. To avoid certain land or structures not acquirable such as religious and monumental
places.
(d. Preservation of existing amenities.
(e. To break the monotony and mental strain on driver when a long stretch of roads are to be
provided and also to stop the driver from speeding.

3.3 Procedure for carrying out earth works such as; cutting and filling sub
– grade

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The execution of the new highway construction involves earthwork. Earthwork mainly
consists of preparing the subgrade to bring it to a suitable grade by compacting it adequately
to withstand the subsequent loads. The subgrade may be either in excavation or embankment,
depending on the topography and finalized alignment of the road.

Excavation (cut) refers to excavation in cutting down to formation level for the new highway.
The excavated material is then carted to adjacent areas where the formation is to be above the
natural ground level and where „fill‟ is required to form an embankment up to the necessary
formation level.

Embankment therefore is when the grade line of a highway is required to be raised above the
existing ground level.

Fig: 3.2 Ground profile showing formation level and area of cut and fill

Procedure of fill for embankment

The filling operation for embankment involves the use of stakes and string profile by fixing
them at certain distances across the road.

Stakes profile consists of the vertical bamboo poles fixed vertically at the two ends of the
formation width of the road. The slope or the gradient having been established, the string is
then tied to the bamboo and slope pegs. The height of the horizontal string shows the height
of the embankment, while the sloping string represents the side slopes. The earth is then filled
between the strings and rolled by a roller machine to minimize air void.

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 Fig: 3.3 Procedure of fill for embankment

The subgrade is compacted in the layers of the lift of 150mm by rolling with a road roller or
compacting machine weighing not less than 5400kg, 4to12 passes maximum. Water should
be applied at slightly above the O.M.C uniformly to the sub grade, a day prior to rolling in
amount as directed. AASHO recommends a minimum density requirement for embankment
compaction as 95%. Granular soils should be compacted as 95-100% modified AASHTO
density. Fine grained soil possessing low degree of plasticity should be compacted to
approximately 100% of standard AASHO at moisture content near laboratory optimum. Good
compaction increases bearing capacity and slope stability, reduces settlements and
undesirable volume changes. Adopt a proper slope more than the angle of repose for that soil.

Note that: Angle of repose is the angle of the slope to the horizontal at which different types
of soil attain stable position when left exposed to weathering conditions (for loose soil (30° -
45°), for dry sand (25° - 35°). Turfing the side slopes, provide counter beams at suitable
intervals in case of high embankments. Provide riprap, maintain proper drainage of
foundation soil and embankment itself with the aid of drain or catch water drains.

Procedure for cutting (excavation)

The method is the same as for embankment but the position level makes the operation to be
the reverse of the embankment.

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 Fig: 3.4 Procedure for cutting (excavation)

Depth of cutting=d. The side slopes having been decided upon say 1, ½. A very
Common slope used, but depending upon the nature of the material to be excavated. The
surface along the section of the cutting is level. Stakes are fixed with the slope stakes and
steps taken as for embankment.

WEEK 4
4.1 VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT FOR HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTIONS

In highway construction machinery is useful where a large quantity of work is to be done in a

concentrated area in limited time, this means that with the help of machines many complicated and
gigantic work can be done economically in shorter duration. Therefore the knowledge of machinery
usually required for the road construction is essential. In road construction project different machinery
is required for different type of jobs.

4.2 The sequence of job operations can be as follows:

1. Clearing the site
2. Formation of sub grade- embankment or cutting
3. Spreading of materials
4. Rolling or compaction
5. Surfacing

1. Clearing of the site: for site clearance generally the following machinery can be used: (a)
Bulldozer (b) Rooter or ripper (c) Tractor (d) Scraper

2. Formation of sub – grade: for this purpose earth digging machine is also used as dragline.
For preparing the sub – grade generally the following machinery is used: (a) Tractor (b)
Grader (c) Shovel (d) Rollers (e) Bulldozer (f) Dragline (g) Trucks

3. Manufacturing and spreading of Materials: generally the following equipment is required:

(a) Crushers (b) Trucks (c) Aggregate distribution

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 4. Rolling or compaction: for rolling compaction a roller is used

5. Surfacing: for bituminous surfacing the following equipment is required: (i) Bitumen boiler
(ii) Bitumen sprayer (iii) Aggregate spreader (iv) Bitumen mix spreading machine (v) Rollers
While, Concrete surfacing needs equipment as follows: (i) Central batching and mixing
plant (ii) Concrete pavers (iii) Concrete vibrators (iv) Concrete mixers (v) Concrete sprayer

4.3 RELEVANT EQUIPMENT USED IN HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Ripper: this is a machine mounted on wheels and towed by tractor. It has one or two teeth
which are driven into the ground to loosen the soil and pull out roots. It is used to fell down
the trees and rip materials usually rocks that has been blasted or drilled.

Fig 4.0 Ripper

Power saws: these are used in tree cutting and falling.

Bulldozer: is a machine used for earthmoving work. They are mounted on tractor. The equipment is
very versatile.
It can perform the following operation:
a. Clearing and grubbing of vegetation and tree stumps
b. Removing top soil from borrow Areas.
c. Moving earth for short distance
d. Helping trucks out of the pit and towing damaged vehicles
e. Backfilling of trenches and spreading of materials

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 Fig 4.1 Bulldozer

Tractors: A tractor is a multipurpose self propeller machine. Its size and weight varies
according to the purpose it is to be used for. Their primary purpose is to push or pull loads.

Fig 4.2 Tractor

Grader: Is a machine primarily used for levelling or finishing earthwork. Graders

are used for a number of purposes which include: spreading heaped earth into
layers shaping a sub – grade (cross section), for mixing gravel and slope trimming. Graders
are either towed or motorized (self propelled).

Fig 4.3 Grader

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Excavators: These are machines that are used for excavating work. There are
many machines which are available for excavating work under different trade
names such as power shovel, dragline, waling dragline, and clamshell. Basically, all
these machines belong to power shovel family. Shovel is used primarily to excavate and load
into hauling units such as trucks or tractor pulled wagons.

Fig 4.4 Excavator

Pay loaders: They are used in digging, scooping, lifting, carrying and dumping
earth materials into trucks.

Fig 4.5 Pay loader

Trucks: Generally 5 to 10m3 tipper is ideal for transporting materials which

involves loading and unloading. The trucks are loaded by shovel and discharge by
operating a mechanism that triggers the dumping of material by tilting the loading
compartment.

Water tankers: 4000 – 5000 litres capacity are widely used for watering
earthwork and in WBM work. A sprinkler attachment with a bar provides for
uniform distribution at any desired spread.

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Vibratory Roller: It has a drum to compact soil, asphalt or other materials. A vibratory roller
combines static and dynamic forces to increase the load bearing capacity of the surface. The
rollers have weight that can range from 4 to 25 tons.

Fig 4.6 Vibratory Roller

Sheepfoot Roller: Sheep foot roller – this roller consist of a cylindrical hollow drum; on the
surface of the drum, projections of the shape of sheep‟s foot are attached. These temping
feet on the drums are staggered into rows. To obtain the desired weight of the
roller, hollow of the drum is filled with wet sand or stone. It is useful for
compacting silty clay, sandy clay, generally cohesive soils – 8 – 16 passes of
rollers are sufficient.

Fig 4.7 Sheepfoot Roller

Asphalt paver: It is a machine for laying hot mix hot-laid bituminous specifications. The
equipment is self propelled and is capable of laying the bituminous material to any desired
thickness and partially compact it by means of a vibrating screed. The paver has a hopper into
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which the rear dump trucks can discharge the mix. The paver may be crawler mounted
(tracked) or equipped with rubber tyres which permit a greater degree of freedom for
movement.

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 WEEK 5
5.0 CONSTRUCTION SITE WITH REINFORCED CONCRETE ROADS
For the construction of cement concrete roads, the following machinery is needed:
1. Batching and mixing plants
2. Spreading machines
3. Compacting and finishing machines

1. Batching and mixing plants: Materials such as coarse and fine aggregate and cement
are always proportioned by weight in weighing batching equipment. For proper
mixing of the different constituents of cement concrete, mixers which are available in
a variety of sizes are used. Mixing is continued for a period of not less than 1½mins
after all the materials are introduced. Tilting drum type mixers are available in small
sizes, whereas non-tilting drum type is available in large sizes.

2. Transporting, placing and compaction of concrete:Trucks are ideal for transporting

concrete to the site. The delivery of concrete on job site could be in dump truck. The
concrete can be discharged directly into the spreading or pacing machine or dumped
on the prepared subgrade or subbase ahead of the spreader or paver.

3. Placing reinforcing steel: Reinforcing steels are placed at stipulated depth in the
paving slab. This is normally placed by first spreading the concrete to slightly full
depth and slightly under full width; then the preassembled mats of steel are placed on
the surface of the fresh concrete and pushed down to correct position by a mesh
depressing device that travels ahead of the slip form paver. After this a slip form paver
machine is then used in spreading the concrete and compacting through the vibrators
that are normally incorporated in the paver. Finally a transverse floats smoothens the
surface to remove marks left by the strike of the machine. After the paver has passed,
any remaining surface undulations are removed with a diagonal float or tube finisher.
Water is supplied to provide a very fine mist in case the surface has become too dry to
finish. A surface texture of coarse sand paper which is the most satisfactory for
cement concrete pavement is given by giving it a broom finish. This is done by
brushing the surface transversely with heavy stiff broom.

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 WEEK 6
SAFETY DEVICES REQUIRED DURING HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

6. 0 Usage of Diversions in Highway Construction Works

Diversions are used as regulatory means whenever construction work is going on ahead to
communicate of the approaching hazards to drivers in order to warn or alert the driver to
detour or drive through such project with reduction in speed. This is usually done by placing
a diversion sign board where there is a required response to warn of existing or potential
hazard condition. The purpose is to protect the public from likely accident that might happen
without the warning, thereby guarantee safety as construction work progresses.

The mandatory requirements for provision of diversion signs is that at all times during the
construction, these signs must be erect and left in position as long as traffic is utilizing any
temporary running surface and should be placed for enough in advance of the hazard point to
alert the drivers or public to take appropriate action at prevailing speed under the prevailing
condition. Black or Red or Orange or White background and red letters indicators such as
WORK AHEAD, TURN LEFT with arrow indicating the detour.

Apart from diversion signs, beacons and flashlights are also used especially in the night to
call or alert the public to dangerous or hazardous places or at dangerous locations. They are
only to supplement the regulatory signs.

Fig 6.0 Diversion and road closed

6.1 TRAFFIC BARRIERS

Traffic barriers are provided to shield/protect pedestrians, maintenance, construction crews,

or cyclists from dangerous traffic. They also keep vehicles within their roadway and prevent
them from colliding with dangerous obstacles such as trees, buildings, drains and sign
supports. Barriers are available in a large variety of sizes and shapes. Choice of type to use
depends on a variety of factors, including the environment in which the highway is located
and the speed and volume of traffic.

After highway construction, provisions are made for safety of the vehicles and its occupants
and other road users. They are made possible by construction of traffic barriers, which are
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used to protect vehicle and their occupants from impact with natural or manmade features
located at the side of the roadway. They are provide in such a way, that the damage caused by
hitting the barrier generally should be less severe than if the vehicle hit the feature located
behind the barrier, thus, they represent a compromise between these two concerns.

Traffic barriers may be classified as bridge railings, kerbs and traffic

separators/median.

a. Kerbs: are provided longitudinally on either sides of the carriageway. Kerbs normally
encourage the vehicle to remain present on the pavement.

b. Bridge railings: are installed on a highway bridge to prevent vehicular or pedestrian

traffic from falling off the structure.

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 c. Traffic separators or median: are provided to separate traffic travelling in opposite
direction and also to avoid head-on collision between vehicles moving in opposite
direction. Also it helps to channelize traffic into streams at intersection and also
protect pedestrians from vulnerable areas.

6.2 Footbridges and pedestrians walkways

a. Footbridges: are provided predominately in urban environments where vehicular
and pedestrian traffic is very high. They are used to make passage easy and safe
vehicles, thereby reducing the chances of accidents.
b. Pedestrian walkways: are also used predominantly in urban environments, but they
are also used in rural areas that are adjacent to schools or other regions, such as
shopping centres, where pedestrian traffic is high. Walkways help to minimize
pedestrians related accidents, also provide free flow of vehicular movement. A
shoulder can sometimes fulfil the role of a walkway if it is constructed and maintained
in a way that encourages pedestrian use. Walkways when installed should however
always be separated from a shoulder preferably by a kerb. Typical width of walkway
is 1.05m to 2.10m. They are normally provided on both sides of pavement as separate
lane intended for the exclusive use of pedestrians.

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 WEEK 7
ROAD FURNITURE ON COMPLETION OF HIGHWAY

7.0 Road sign

These are usually provided to inform, warn or regulate the traffic. They are
essential whenever special regulations apply or where direction or notice of
approaching hazard must be communicated to the public. Road signs are provided
for the following purposes:
a. To achieve the orderly movement of traffic
b. To regulate the traffic behaviours such as parking, overtaking, etc.
c. To direct the traffic on differentiate route
d. To warn the road users of hazardous condition
e. To intercept the heavy traffic in order to allow other vehicles and pedestrians
f. To reduce the chances of accidents

THE ROAD SIGNS ARE CATEGORIZED INTO THREE, NAMELY,

REGULATORY, WARNING AND INFORMATIVE SIGNS.

1. REGULATORY SIGNS
They are mostly circular in shape. The ones with background and red or yellow circles are
prohibitive signs, while mandatory signs are those with blue circles but without red borders.
They give positive instructions to drivers, examples. „Diversion‟, „One Way‟, „Round-
About‟, „Pedestrian Track‟, etc.‟

a. Prohibitive signs: Prohibitive signs give a prohibitive message. These marks are
usually circular with a yellow or white background, black inscription, and red border.
The exception sign here is the STOP sign, which means that you should stop
immediately when you see it.

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--

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b. Mandatory traffic symbols: A mandatory traffic sign gives positive instruction.
Usually, they are circular with a blue background, white inscription, and sometimes
with a white border.

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2. WARNING SIGNS
These are usually triangular in shape with red borders. They warn drivers of hazards ahead.
Examples are, „Stop‟, „No U-Turn‟, „No Horn‟, „No Overtaking‟, and „No Parking‟, etc.

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3. INFORMATIVE SIGNS
Informative signs are usually rectangular in shape and provide guidance, information to
drivers. They include Parking, Hospital, Telephone, Town, Airport, and Construction Zone
signs.

Kilometer posts: Kilometer posts are provided to indicate distance along the road. It
provides the distance from one point to another.

7.1 Advantages of Traffic Light

a. Provide an orderly movement of traffic and increase the traffic handling capacity of
most of intersections at grade.
b. They reduce the frequency of traffic accidents

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c. They provide interruptions to heavy traffic in order to allow traffic to cross the
road.
d. They provide a chance to crossing traffic to cross the road of continuous traffic
flow at reasonable time interval
e. Traffic quality is improved.

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 WEEK 8

8.0 Relevance of side drains compaction

Excess water which is precipitated as rain, hail, snow or sleet is the enemy of earthwork
foundation, pavement and traffic. The water is normally disposed of from the road by
cambering the road surface, providing slope at the shoulders and providing side drains.
Consequently proper surface drainage design is an essential and integral part of economic
road design. Surface drainages deal with the disposal of water from the roadway.

The basic functions of the side drains are to collect the water from the carriage way through
the shoulders and the surrounding area. The different types of side drain are trapezoidal and
triangular in shape. Side drains could be lined or unlined.

Fig: 8.0 Typical crossection of side drain

When the road is an embankment, It is common practice to allow the surface water to flow
across the shoulders and down the slopes to the side drains, but due care has to be taken so
that erosion of the side slopes does not take place. One of the methods of protecting the side
slopes is to retain water at the outer edge of the shoulder in the longitudinal v-shaped drains
and then disposed off at suitable points to the natural ground by means of paved drains.

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 Fig: 8.1 Types of side drains

8.2 Thickness requirement for sub base and relevance in situ tests

Sub-Base course:
The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and the primary
functions are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the intrusion of
fines from the subgrade in the pavement structure. Sub-base is often the main load-bearing
layer of the pavement. Its role is to spread the load evenly over the subgrade.

In rare cases, a pavement constructed over a high quality, stiff sub-grade may not need the
additional features offered by a sub-base course. In such situations, sub-base courses may not
be provided. Type 1 granular materials which compose of crushed rocks or concrete or well
burnt shale and contain up to 12.5% by mass of natural sand that passes 5mm B.S sieve could
be used on sub grades with CBR of 5-15%. The recommended layer compacted thickness for
type 1 and 2 materials is 225mm; minimum 150mm.

8.3 Relevance in site test for subbase

The relevant in situ tests for compaction are by determining the moisture content of the soil
and also the field density.
These could be achieved by:
For moisture content: Speedy moisture test, needle penetration test, time domain
reflectometry and soil moisture capacitance probe. For the density: Core cutter method and
sand replacement method.

8.4 Moisture Content Determination

Speedy Moisture Tester: Speedy moisture tester is used to determine the moisture content
of soils, sand and fine aggregates in the field. It is an easy and portable method.

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 Fig: 8.2 Speedy Moisture Tester
The acetylenes gas produced by the tester is tapped within the tester and registers on the
pressure dial, which is calibrated to read directly in percent of moisture by wet weight of soil.
The amount of gas, which is given off when water and calcium carbide are mixed and react,
is directly proportional to the amount of water present in the sample and results in percentage
moisture taken from a pressure gauge.

This model is used for moisture determination of a 20 g specimen with 20% maximum
moisture content.
M.C = (Wwet soil – Wdry soil) x 100 / Wdry soil
M.C = (Wsp x 100) / (1-Wsp)
Where, M.C = moisture content in percentage (%).
Wsp = moisture content as obtained by a speedy moisture meter expressed as a decimal
fraction.

Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR): TDR involves the determination of the propagation of
the velocity of an electromagnetic pulse sent down a forklike probe installed in the soil. The
velocity is determined by measuring the time taken for the pulse to travel down the probe and
be reflected back from its end. By measuring the time taken by the pulse, the moisture
content of the soil can be established around the probe.

Fig: 8.3 Time Domain Reflectometry

8.5 Density Determination

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Core cutter method: This is used in soft cohesive soil. The cutter is of 10cm diameter and
12.7cm high steel. The volume of the cutter is calculated from internal diameter and its actual
weight without dolly is measured. The cutter is pressed into the soil and the dolly is placed
above the cutter and is gently rammed.

Further ramming is stopped when the top of the dolly is flat with the ground surface. The
cutter is then removed from the ground. Both the cutter and soil and then weighed. Knowing
the weight and the diameter of the cutter, the bulk density of the soil can then be obtained.

Fig: 8.4 Core Cutter

The dry density of soil is computed as follows:

Weight of cutter = W1
Weight of soil + cutter = W2
Weight of soil = W2-W1
w = Water content
V= Volume of cutter
Then,
Bulk density ϒ= (W2-W1)/ V
Dry density ϒd=ϒ/(1+w)

Sand replacement method:

The apparatus used in this method is a cylinder or a graduated glass jar filled with sand
passing between 300 micron and 600micron. A small hole about 10cm diameter and 15cm
deep is dug and the mass of the excavated materials is carefully determined. Sand from the
cylinder is then poured into holes and the weight of the sand required to fill the hole is

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determined. Also, it is important to know the weight of sand in the container before and after
the test. Thereafter, the weight of the sand in the hole is determined. The bulk density of the
sand being known, volume of the sand used in filling the hole; hence volume of the hole is
measured or determined.

Fig: 8.5 Sand Replacement Apparatus

8.6 Camber and super elevation

Camber is defined as the slope of line joining the crown and the edge of the road surface. It is
also known as cross fall or cross slope or transverse slope. Usually camber is constructed in
the road by raising the centre of the carriageway with respect to the edges forming highest
points at the centre. It is mainly provided for drainage and quick disposal of rain water from
the road surface.

It is either elliptical or parabolic. Camber therefore, prevents the entry of water or moisture
into the sub grade and thus the stability of the road base is increased. The removal of water
from the road surface makes it non slippery and safe for driving of vehicles at high speed.
The rate of camber depends upon the amount of rainfall and the type of pavement surface.
The smoother the surface of the pavement, the flatter should be camber.

8.7 The too steep camber causes the following undesirable effect:

i. Uncomfortable sides thrust and drag on the steering of the automobile and excessive trust
of the wheel along the pavement edges causing unequal wears of tyres.
ii. During overtaking operation excessive camber causes discomfort to the occupants.

The recommended camber values for different types of road surfaces are as follows:
(a. high type bituminous surfacing or cement concrete=1 in 60 to 1 in 50
(b. bituminous surfacing 1 in 50 to 1 in 40

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(c. water bound macadam, gravel 1 in 40 to 1 in 33 or earth 1 in 33 to 1 in 25 in the field,
cambering may be checked with the help of a template or camber board.

8.8 Types of Cambers:

Fig: 6.6 Types of camber

8.9 Super elevation

This is the inner tilt given to the cross section of a road on a horizontal curve.

When a vehicle travels in a circular path or curved path, there is a tendency for the vehicle to
fall away from the outer portion of the curve. To overcome this force and for safe travel of a
vehicle, the outer edge of the road is raised above the inner edge. This is known as super
elevation.

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 Fig: 8.7 Super elevation Curve

The following are advantages of providing super elevation:

(i. Higher speed of vehicles when they pass through a horizontal curve.

(ii. Increased volume of traffic.

(iii. Maintenance is reduced; otherwise there will be wearing on the outside wheels.

(iv. The water can drain off easily; therefore, there is no necessity of providing drainage on
the outer edge of the road.

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 WEEK 9
9.0 SOIL STABILISATION

Soil stabilization is any treatment (including, additives or by mechanical blending) applied

to a soil to improve its strength and reduce its vulnerability to water. Soil stabilization is also
the process of treating natural soil in such a manner as to maintain, alter or improve the
performance of the soil as construction material.

It could be done in site or after the soil has been removed and placed in the pavement or
embankment. The availability of good cheap supplies of aggregates is limited and as such
greater attention is being paid to locally-available substitute materials such as stabilized soils
to meet road construction needs; mostly used in capping and subbase layers in road
pavements.

9.1 Importance/Purposes of stabilization:

i. To improve the strength of sub bases, bases and in the case of low cost roads, surface
course.
ii. To bring about the economy in the cost of a road.
iii. To make use of locally available soils and other materials which are otherwise inferior.
iv. To eliminate or improve certain undesirable properties of soils, such as excessive swelling
or shrinkage, high plasticity, difficulty in compaction e. t.c
v. To control dust.
vi. To reduce frost susceptibility.
vii. To increase the load bearing capacity.
viii. To reduce compressibility and thereby settlement.
ix. To improve permeability characteristics.

9.2 Methods of Soil Stabilization:

(i Mechanical stabilization.
(ii Chemical stabilization.

i. Mechanical stabilization

Mechanical stabilization is the process whereby the stability of the soil is increased by
blending the available soil with imported soil or aggregate so as to obtain a desired particle
size distribution and by compacting the mixture to a desired density. Compacting a soil at
appropriate moisture content is itself a form of mechanical stabilization.

Mechanical stabilization is achieved by intelligently blending locally occurring materials so

as to obtain a desired grading. It is that a dense, well-graded mass offers high resistance to
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lateral displacement under a load. If the well-graded material is compacted, densification of
the mass takes place. The mechanical strength of the mass is due to the internal friction and
the cohesion. Internal friction is supplied by the coarser particles whereas cohesion is due to
the clay fractions.

Factors affecting the mechanical stability of mixed soil may include:

i. The mechanical strength and purity of the constituent materials

ii. The percentage of materials and its gradation in the mix
iii. The degree of soil binding taking place
iv. The mixing, rolling, and compaction procedures adopted in the field
v. The environmental and climatic conditions

Examples of mechanical stabilization cases:

(i) Soil-aggregate mixtures

(ii) Sand-clay mixtures
(iii) Sand-gravel mixtures
(iv) Stabilization of soil with soft aggregates.

ii. Chemical Stabilization:

Chemical stabilization is a general term implying the use of chemicals such as lime, cement,
sodium silicate, calcium chloride, bituminous materials and resinous materials for bringing
about stabilization. It is normally achieved by mixing the chemicals to the soil. Chemical Soil
Stabilisation is the process of blending and mixing chemical additives to improve the
engineering properties of the soil. The efficiency of the stabilisation depends on the reaction
between the chemical/stabilizer used and the soil particle composition.

Thorough mixing ensures complete incorporation and an overall homogeneous mix.

Regardless of the stabilizing agent used, pre project planning, including laboratory testing, is
important to be certain that the proper amount of stabilizing agent is present to permanently
stabilize the soil and provide the desired result.

i. Cement Soil Stabilization

Soil can be stabilized by mixing it with cement. The cement contains active ingredients that
help in disintegration of soil particles. Besides that, the cement helps in concealing the soil.
Other materials added into the mixture include lime, calcium chloride, sodium carbonate,
sodium sulphate and fly ash. The amount of cement that‟s added into the mixture varies
depending on the type of soil that‟s being stabilized. The recommended amount is 10% on

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gravel, 12% for sandy soils, 15% for silts and 20% for clay soil. This is because each type of
soil has a unique composition and structure.

ii. Lime Soil Stabilization

Lime is ideal for stabilizing clay soils. In fact you can use it as the only agent and get perfect
results. When lime is blended with any type of soil, it helps in cutting back on its plasticity.
This means that it can‟t swell and can‟t shrink. Such soil absorbs very little amount of ground
water because there is no space between the particles. You can actually drive a car on such a
surface without the risk of getting stuck. This is due to the fact that the soil can‟t stretch as
you would expect with other types of soils that are not stabilized.

Fig: Spreading of Lime on a weak soil

Fig: Compaction using sheep foot roller

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 iii. Bitumen Soil Stabilization
During the construction of driveways and parking yards, the soil can be mixed with bitumen
compounds. The bitumen is sticky by nature and it therefore helps in holding the soil particles
together. The structure of bitumen creates a strong layer above the soil that prevents ground
water from being absorbed. Bituminous materials when added to a soil, it imparts both
cohesion and reduced water absorption. Depending upon the above actions and the nature of
soils, examples of bitumen stabilization classifications are:

a. Sand bitumen stabilization

b. Soil Bitumen stabilization

9.3 Stone base macadam

Macadam refers to crushed stone used in the construction of the base course of the road.
Macadam are such roads in which crushed stone is kept bounded by the action of rolling and
the voids are filled with binding materials with the help of water. Binding action is achieved
by using stone chips and stone dust as fillers in the presence of water.

Aggregates used in these macadam road bases are most usually non-flaky crushing rock or
gravel or crushed slag. All primarily rely for their strength and resistance to deformation
upon the interlocking of individual crushed particles and upon the friction between the rough
surfaces in contact. The combination of tightly keyed coarse aggregate bond (internal
friction) with stone chips and dust (good in cohesion) creates a base course equally as good as
other untreated bases.

Macadam is made in layers, each layer not exceeding compacted thickness of about 10 - 15
cm. Road bases in major roads are now normally bound with bitumen or cement. Macadam
could be water bound type, crusher run or dry bound.

Note:
(i. It should not be used as a surfacing layer because it will disintegrate under traffic. Hence,
it should be covered by bituminous surfacing.

(ii. The boulders and broken stones should range between 10cm to 20cm.
(iii. Binding materials should have plasticity index value less than 6 for the construction of
water bound macadam road.

9.4 Priming

Priming and Tack Coat

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Priming is the first single coat or primary coat of the liquid bitumen of low viscosity given
upon the untreated surface of the gravel or water bound macadam bases as a requirement
before the placing of a bituminous pavement or treatment to the surface of the road. Adhesion
between the base and the surface is improved.

The lighter medium curing cutback bitumen (Medium Curing: MC0, MC1) are generally
used for priming or as prime coats. They are fluid enough to penetrate into the base.

The purposes of the priming are

(1. To plug capillary voids in order to halt the upward movement of water.
(2 To coat and bind dust and loose mineral particles, thus hardening and toughening the
surface.

9.5 Tack coat

This is the process of applying a thin layer of bituminous binder on surfaces previously
treated before giving a new bituminous wearing surface. Tack coat glues two asphalt layers
together.

It is normally provided on a primed granular base cause; therefore this shows that priming is
a requirement for tack coats. The binder used for tack coats should penetrate and soften the
surface of an old bituminous mix, so that it binds the old and the new layer tightly together. It
should be cohesive. Medium Curing (MC1) or Rapid Curing (RC) cut back in light grades,
emulsions are commonly used as tack coats.

9.6 Sand curing

After the layer of bituminous material has been laid to complete the finished surface of the
road, traffic is normally detoured until surface is no longer sticky and will not be picked up
by the traffic, but if this cannot be done, a blotter course of sand is normally applied to the
finished surface to cure it and normally it is allowed to set for 24hrs, then the road is then
thrown open to traffic.

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 WEEK 10
10.0 SURFACE DRESSING AND SURFACE TREATMENT

Surface treatment: is a variety of procedure intended to dustproof, waterproof or upgrade

untreated surface or to improve existing pavements. The treatment given to this effect is
called “surface dressing”. When a road surface quality deteriorates with increase in traffic
use, the resulting condition can be improved by applying a surface treatment of some type,
provided that the road is structurally sound.

Surface dressing: is the process of spaying a thin layer of binder on to existing surfaces,
followed by spreading a layer of chippings which is then rolled. Rolling helps to initiate and
enhance the bond between the binders and the stone chippings and achieve their embedment
in the underlying existing road surface. Surface dressing are used successfully on all types of
roads, from very lightly travelled lanes to motor ways carrying many thousands of vehicles
per day.

Functions of surface dressing:

(1. To provide a dust free pavement surface over the base course.
(2. To improve the non-skid properties of a surfacing.
(3. To prevent falling apart of the road surface.
(4. To provide a clear demarcation between the carriage way and the shoulders.
(5. To seal the entire road surface against the entrance of water or air.

Materials used for surface dressing/treatment:

(1. The binders most easily available for surface dressing work is cut back bitumen, bitumen
emulsions and tar bitumen blend. The grade of the cutback bitumen or bitumen emulsion
used for surface dressing ranges from Slow-curing (SC), Medium curing (MC) , Rapid-
Curing (RC) for cutback and Rapid Setting (R.S), Medium Setting (M.S) to Slow Setting
(S.S) for emulsion, penetration ranges from 80 – 100. The type and grade of bitumen material
depends to a large extent upon the atmospheric conditions of the locality.

(2. Stone chippings which could be crushed gravels, fine minerals aggregate such as stone
dust.

Different types of surface dressing.

There are several types of surface dressing systems which vary according to the number of
layers of chippings and binder applied.
(1. Single Coat Surface Dressing.
(2. 2 Coats Or Double Surface Dressing.

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 Fig: 10.0 Single and Double Surface Dressing

(1. Single Coat Surface Dressing: a single surface dressing consists of a single application
of a binder followed by a single application of chippings. This system is recommended
mainly for low shear stress sites.

(2. 2 Coats or Double Surface Dressing: the double surface dressing is similar to the single
system, but uses two applications of binder and chippings. The first application contains
larger chippings while the second contains smaller ones.

For new roads it is always better to have more than one course. This reduces the deterioration
of the road and makes the road stable. This is normally accomplished by priming followed by
a tack coat and then sealing coat which on application of a thin film of binder to a road
surface in order to close the voids in the surface with the objective of rending it waterproof.
Emulsion is particularly useful as sealing materials.

Surface dressing with emulsion may be carried out when the surface is moist or when no
heating device is available to heat the binder. The emulsion is taken directly from sealed
drums and uniformly spread on the road surface after the base is prepared. The surface is then
gritted with stone chippings of about 6mm in size before the emulsion breaks. That is when
the colour changes from brown to black and rolling is completed.

While cut back is also applied in the same manner for emulsion, but is used when the road is
reasonably dry.

10.1 Asphaltic concrete for high wheel road

The term asphalt concrete denotes a dense-graded road surface made of hot mineral aggregate
mixed with hot asphalt (plant mixed). The need for strong road base materials that would not
crack gave rise to asphaltic concrete being used in road base layers.

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Asphaltic concrete are mechanically laid bituminous materials that rely mainly for their
stability on aggregate to aggregate contact. They have relatively low air void contact after
compaction and gain much durability and some strength from their mortars, this thus makes it
the highest type of dense-grade bituminous pavement, and therefore makes it suitable for
heavily travelled road. Asphaltic concrete provides adequate deformation resistance, skid
resistance durability for a wide range of traffic and climatic conditions.

10.2 Component of asphaltic concrete

Asphaltic concrete consists: coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, filler and binder blended as
per marshal mix design.
(1. Refinery bitumen is most commonly used in asphaltic concrete. The grade of the binder
selected for use is mainly decided by traffic and weather. Grades such as 30 – 40 or 50 – 70
or 40 – 50 penetrations usually specified.
(2. Coarse aggregate is usually crushed rock, gravel, broken stone or slag are generally used.
(3. Fine aggregate such as natural sand, crushed rock fines and crushed slag fines.
(4. Filler: they are in the form of added limestone dust, hydrated lime or Portland cement.
The filler stiffens the bitumen so that the fine aggregate particles are coated with it. The fine
aggregate voids filled with filler bitumen mixture is stronger and less susceptible to
temperature variations then the bitumen alone.

10.3 Marshall stability for asphaltic concrete

Fig: 7.1 Marshall Stability Machine

To aid in ensuring that bitumen has the desired quality for asphaltic concrete, tests to measure
the properties for that purpose are carried out. It measures the plastic deformation properties
of asphalt mixes. This test attempts to get the optimum binder content for the aggregate mix
type and traffic intensity. This is the test which helps us to draw Marshall Stability vs. %
bitumen.

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For asphaltic concrete, a design mix is usually done in order to determine the optimum
quantities of materials to be used. Optimum bitumen content has therefore become a very
important study for determining the stability and resistance of plastic flow of the bitumen to
use. The determination of stability and flow value is done by carrying out the flow Marshall
Test.

The Marshall method uses cylindrical test specimens that are 10.16 cm diameter and 7.62 cm
in height. These are prepared using a specific procedure for heating, mixing and compacting
the bitumen aggregate mixture. The stability of the test specimen is the maximum load
resistance in Newton; the standard test specimen will develop at 60 degree Celsius when
tested. The flow value is the total movement or displacement in units of 0.25mm, occurring in
the specimen between no load and the point of maximum load during the stability test.

Marshall Stability in actual sense measures the frictional and cohesive resistance in
combination.

10.4 The difference between binder course and surface course

Binder course: this is a thin application of emulsified (low grade bitumen). The binder
course generally consists of aggregates having less asphalt. This is normally given upon
untreated compacted surfaces of gravel or water bound macadam bases. Its main purpose is to
distribute load to the base course.

Surface course: this is the uppermost layer of road pavement and is constructed immediately
above the primed base course. It is normally a mixture of mineral aggregate and high quality
asphaltic materials. This course forms the uniform carriageway upon which vehicles run.

The functions and requirements of surface course layer are:

(1. It should offer good skid resistance, withstand high tire pressure.
(2. It should prevent penetration of surface water into underlying layers.
(3. It should withstand traffic turning and braking forces, smoothness and noise control.

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