Soc 206

COURSE MANUAL
African Social Institutions

SOC 206
University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

Open and Distance Learning Course Series Development
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ISBN 978-021-495-X
General Editor: Prof. Bayo Okunade
University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

University of Ibadan,
Nigeria
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E-mail: ssu@dlc.ui.edu.ng
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Vice-Chancellor
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Foreword
As part of its vision of providing education for “Liberty and Development” for Nigerians
and the International Commstudy sessiony, the University of Ibadan, Distance Learning
Centre has recently embarked on a vigorous repositioning agenda which aimed at embracing
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In conclusion, it is envisaged that the course materials would also be useful for the regular
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Best wishes.
Professor Bayo Okunade

Director
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Course Development Team
Content Authoring Prof. A.S Jegede
Content Editor Prof. Remi Raji-Oyelade
Production Editor Ogundele Olumuyiwa Caleb
Learning Design/Assessment Authoring Tolulope Famaye
Managing Editor Ogunmefun Oladele Abiodun
General Editor Prof. Bayo Okunade
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Introduction to the Course
Welcome to SOC 206 course, this course will give you an insight into diverse
ways behaviours are organised in the Africa towards the maintenance of the
society. This course will equip you with the knowledge of Africa, its people and
the means they have developed to meet their needs and ensure continuity among
their race.
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Contents
Study Section 1 African Social Institutions 9
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 1 10
Summary of Study Session 1 14
In Study session 1, you have learned that: 14
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1 14
Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1 15
Study Session 2 Marriage And Family Institutions I 16
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study session 2 24
Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study session 2 24
Study session 3 Marriage And Family Institutions II 26
Introduction 26
Study session 4 Economic Institutions I 33
Introduction 33
Learning Outcomes for Study session 4 33
Study session 5 Economic Institutions II 45
Expected duration: 1 week or 2 contact hours 45
Introduction 45
Summary of Study session 5 49
Study session 6 Educational Institutions 51
Introduction 51
Study session 7 Religious Institutions 61
Introduction 61
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List three deities in the Yoruba religion 72
Study Session 8: Political Institutions I 74
Introduction 74
Study Session 9 Political Institutions II 88
Introduction 88
Study session 10 The legal institutions 99
Introduction 99
Study Session 11 Cultural Changes in African Social Institutions 110
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Study Section 1 African Social Institutions
Expected duration: 1 week or 2 contact hours
Introduction
In this study session, you will be learning about the concept of social institutions.
Emphasis will be placed on the meaning of social institution, the various forms of
indigenous social institution in African context and functions of social
institutions.
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 1

At the end of the lecture, students should be able to:
1.1 Define and use correctly all of the key words printed in bold. (SAQs 1.1,
1.2, 1.4)
1.2 Explain the importance of social institutions in a society (SAQs1.2)
1.3 Identify major types of social institutions (SAQs 1.3)
1.4 Mention the basic functions of at least three (3) social institutions
(SAQs1.4)
1.1 Meaning, types and Function of Social Institutions

1.1.1 The People of Africa
In sociology, the word ‘people’ refers to a collectivity or group of individuals. The
people of Africa are a group of persons of African descent. They have diverse
ethnic affiliations, differing cultures and numerous languages. For example, we
have the ‘Oromos’ in Ethiopia and Kenya; the ‘Hutus’ and ‘Tutsis’ in Burundi and
Rwanda; the ‘Igbos’, ‘Yorubas’ and ‘Hausas’ in Nigeria; the ‘Madinkas’ in The
Gambia; the ‘Zulus’ in South Africa and so on.
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Fig. 1.1 A figure showing an African man and woman ( picture from google.com)
Fig 1.2 A Map of African Continent showing ethnic groups (map from Wikipedia)
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1.1.2 The Meaning of Social Institutions
Social institutions are the organised means through which a society develops
to meet its basic needs. They are organised ways of doing things. Social
institutions are generally agreed upon by members of a society. By agreeing on
these things, members of each society use these to order their lives and enhance
communal interactions.
A social institution is one of the complex and integrated social norms organised
around the preservation of social values. It is a system of organization that
works to meet basic social needs and connects individual members of society to
the larger culture. According to Eitzen and Baca-Zinn (2001), social institutions
are social arrangements that channel behaviour in prescribed ways in important
areas of social life. Anthony Giddens (1984) defined social institutions as “...the
more enduring features of social life”. Social institutions serve as regulatory
agencies, channelling behaviour in culturally prescribed ways. Although social
institutions are distinct aspects of culture, they are elements of culture.
Box 1.1: Feature of societies

A distinctive feature of societies is the existence of a number of institutions. Social
Institutions are the organized ways each society develop to meet their basic needs
1.1.3 Different Forms Of Social Institutions In Africa

The social institutions in Africa and other countries of the world are many. There
are five basic social institutions on which society revolves. These are the
marriage and family institutions, economic institutions and religious
institutions. Others are the educational institutions and political institutions. A
sixth one that will also be treated in this course is a legal institution. These are
by no means all the social institutions present in societies. Social institutions
vary from country to country and from place to place. The needs and factors
peculiar to each society dictate the institutions that will be formed. Each
institution has various functions it performs in the society. Let us use the family
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institution and the economic institution as examples. The reproduction and care
of the young are served by the institutions of marriage and family. Marriage and
family also prescribe behaviors expected of husband/father, wife/mother, child
and so on. The marriage and family institution is also required to regulate and
control sexual behaviours in the society. The economic institutions regulate how
the resources in the society are sourced and used. It regulates trade and
transactions among its members. It provides methods for the production of
goods and services and methods of the distribution of goods and services
amongst others.
o Do you think that Social institutions vary from country to country and
from place to place place to place? In one sentence support your answer.
• Yes, Social institutions vary from country to country and from place to
place because the needs and factors peculiar to each society dictate the
institutions that will be formed.
1.1.4 Function Of Social Institutions

You have read a little about some functions the family and economic institutions
perform. We will now touch on the functions of the other four social institutions
mentioned in the section above.
The educational institution is dedicated to teaching skills and knowledge to

members of a society. It also serves as a means of transmitting culture and also as
a means of preparing individuals for occupational roles. Also, it serves as a means
of socialising the members of a society.
Religion as a social institution performs the function of providing solutions to

unexplainable occurrences in the society. It also serves as a means of
controlling the natural world. Furthermore, religion plays a role in curbing
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behavioural excesses among members of the society and also, like the
educational institution, serves as an instrument of socialization in the society.
The political institutions and legal institutions are embedded in government. One
of the major functions of these institutions is the maintenance of law and order
in the society. Another function they perform is to protect the society from
external threats and protect members of the society.
Activity 1.1
Take a moment to reflect on what you have read so far. Based on your learning
experience about Africa and social institutions, mention five distinct ethnic
groups in Africa and five different types of social institutions you know.
Activity 1.1 Feedback

Five distinct ethnic groups in Africa are the Madinkas in The Gambia, The Tutsis
in Rwanda and Burundi, the Oromos in Ethiopia, The Igbos in Nigeria and the
Hausas in Nigeria.
Summary of Study Session 1

In Study session 1, you have learned that:
1. The people of Africa are a group of persons of African descent.
2. Social institutions are social arrangements that channel behaviour in
prescribed ways in important areas of social life.
3. There are five major types of social institutions.
4. Social institutions have basic functions they perform in society.
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1

Now that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you
have achieved its Learning Outcomes by answering these questions. You can
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check your answers with the Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end
of this Module.
SAQ 1.1 (tests learning outcome 1.1)
How can you correctly define social institutions?
In your own view why do you think social institutions are important?
There are five major types of social institutions. What are they?
What are the basic functions of three of the social institutions?
Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1

SAQ 1.1:
Social institutions are social arrangements that channel behaviour in prescribed
ways in important areas of social life. They give an understanding of how
societies are maintained.
SAQ 1.2:
They ensure the preservation of social values.
They are structured to meet the basic needs of a group of people.
SAQ 1.3:
The five major types of social institution in all societies are the family, education,
religion, economic and political institutions.
SAQ 1.4:
The functions of social institutions are:

Marriage and family Institution: The marriage and family institution is required
to regulate and control sexual behaviours in the society.
Educational Institution: This institution is dedicated to teaching skills and
knowledge to members of a society.
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Religious Institution: This institution performs the function of providing
solutions to unexplainable occurrences in the society.
SAQ 1.4:
The usefulness of social institutions in the society relate to the functions or roles
they perform in the society.
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Study Session 2 Marriage And Family Institutions I
Introduction
In the last study session, you learnt about the meaning of social institutions and
the major types of social institution in Africa. In this study session and the next
you will be learning about the marriage and family systems as a form of social
institution in Africa. Marriage and family institutions are major social institutions
in Africa. Marriage and family are closely related concepts. Marriage is one
important step that leads to family formation. In this study session, particular
attention will be placed on the concepts of marriage and family, the types of
marriage and family and the role of marriage and family in African societies.

2.2)
2.2 Explain the concept of divorce in marriage (SAQ 2.1, SAQ 2.2).
2.3 list and explain at least 2 the types of marriage (SAQ 2.3)
2.4 Describe the role of bride price and dowry in marriage (SAQ 2.1, SAQ 2.4)
2.1 The Concept of Marriage

2.1.1 Meaning of marriage
Marriage is a system by which a society recognises the right of a man and a
woman to live together and have a stable sexual relationship. Marriage is
diverse throughout the world. Although marriage has some common qualities, it
differs from one society to the other. Marriage brings about new rights, new roles
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and new social relationships. In every marriage, there are three important
prerequisites. Firstly, the families of intending couples are involved; secondly,
there is the payment of a bride price and thirdly, there is a form of religious
undertone to marriage ceremonies.
In most societies in Africa, parental consent to a marriage partner is very

essential. In contracting indigenous African marriages, the decision of the
intending couples’ larger families supersedes the decision of the couples
themselves. The family has a say over who their son or daughter marries with
regards to age, religious affiliations, ethnic groups and so on. Every African
community has ‘rules of incest’ or incest taboos. That is, rules discouraging
intermarriages between close relatives. For instance, it is a taboo for a father to
marry or have sexual intercourse with his daughter. The same goes for mother to
son, brother to sister and sometimes, cousins to cousins. However, these
restrictions vary from societies to societies. For some societies in Africa, there is
an exception to the rule. Some royal families members may be allowed to
intermarry or have sexual intercourse so as to preserve the royal blood from
been contaminated if no royal equal can be found. For example, part of a king’s
coronation is to sleep with his mother. In another society, an heir to the throne
or a king who does not yet have a wife may be required to marry his sister if
there are no eligible ladies that fit the royal status. Among the Ashantis in Ghana,
marriages between cousins are allowed.
Box 2.1: What is marriage?

Marriage is a system by which a society recognises the right of a man and a woman to
live together and have a stable sexual relationship. It also enforces a system of taboos
which ensures that certain people do not mate or marry. For example, parents are not
expected to have sexual intercourse with children; brothers are not expected to have
sexual intercourse with sisters.
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2.1.2 Payment of Bride price and Dowry
An essential step to be taken in contracting a marriage between a man and a
woman is the payment of bride price by the man’s family to the woman’s family.
This comes in form of paying a certain amount of money and some listed items
to the bride-to-be’s family. On the other hand, the money or properties a woman
carry from her father’s home to her husband’s house is referred to as a ‘dowry’.
Bride price and dowry are significant in African marriages, although the
requirements vary from society to society. For instance, among the Turkana of
northern Kenya in East Africa, bride price is paid in cattle. The number of cattle
to be collected from an eligible suitor depends on how rich he is. It should be
noted that sometimes, the bride’s family may write off the bride price a groom is
supposed to pay. This kind of marriage may be referred to as ‘gift marriage’.
Fig .2.1 A congo girl in traditionally approved tatoo. Her suitor will have to pay many goats and
cattle, in addition to other gifts to marry her (Picture from Google).
Box 2.2: Solemnisation of a marriage

Most marriages are considered to have been completed after some form of religious
rights. For Christian couple, the final solemnisation of a marriage will be done in
the church, for Muslims, it will be done in the mosque. Some other people may
choose to solemnise theirs in the traditional way in which liberations will be poured
to the ancestors of the couples.
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2.1.3 Endogamy and Exogamy
Can you remember what we discussed earlier about incest taboos? They are a
form of rules restricting certain members of society from mating or marrying. It
ensures that marriages are far enough outside the family. The practice of
marrying outside one's group is termed exogamy while endogamy is defined as
the practice of marrying within the group. In reality, most marriages are
exogamous in some respects and endogamous in others. In West African
societies, marriages are not permitted among relatives. In this respect, they are
exogamous. On the other hand, Africans always tend to marry members of their
own social group. For example, individuals tend to marry a person from the same
ethnic group, religious sect, social class and so on.
Fig. 2.2 A traditional marriage in Africa (Picture from Google)
2.2 Different Kinds of Marriage

Generally, the number of spouses an individual in a marriage has is used to
determine the kind of marriage it is. There are rules in every country which
govern how many persons a man or a woman may marry. The following are some
of the forms of marriage a society may have:
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2.2.1 Monogamy
Monogamy is a major form of marriage. This is the marriage of one man to one
woman at a time. Individuals who separate from or divorce their spouses and
remarries another in their place are referred to as serial monogamists.
2.2.2 Polygamy
Polygamy is another major kind of marriage. It is a plurality of marriage. It is a
form of marriage in which a person is married to many spouses. It is very
common in African societies. There are two variants of polygamy namely
polygyny and polyandry. Polygyny is the marriage in which a man marries more
than one wife while polyandry is a marriage in which a woman is married to
many men. For instance, in Nigeria and South Africa, men are allowed,
traditionally, to marry more than one wife.
Fig. 2.3 Jacob Zuma of South Africa during his traditional wedding ceremony to his third wife
(picture from Google)
There is another form of polygamy called ‘group marriage. This is a combination

of polygyny and polyandry. In this case, groups of men and women enjoy more or
less equal conjugal rights over one another.
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o Every culture has it’s tradition of paying a certain amount of money and
some listed items to the bride-to-be’s family. Do you know the amount that
is paid family in your culture?
o Your response here is dependent on what is obtainable in your culture

which is likely to vary from other cultures. If you are not sure. It would be
good if you found out.
2.2.3 Levirate And Sororate

These two are also referred to as affinal marriages. An affine is a relative by
marriage. In the levirate form of marriage, a man is required to marry the wife or
wives of his deceased brother. It is closely related to another form of marriage
known as widow inheritance. At times, a man may marry his father’s widow or
widows, other than his mother or those widows who are senior to his mother.
The man may be older than some of the wives or be in the same age group.
Levirate is more easily constituted in polygynous societies than in monogamous
ones. If a living brother is already married to one wife that is permitted to marry
by law, he may out rightly refuse to marry his deceased brother’s wife or wives.
Levirate marriage is common among the Luo people in Kenya and in Uganda.
This kind of marriage is also commonly practised in Nigeria, however, it is
gradually fading out.
In sororate, a widower is required to marry the unmarried sister of his deceased
wife. To put it in another way, a woman who is not already married is required to
marry her deceased sister’s husband. Sororate is common where a considerable
bride-price has been paid and the wife’s family feel obliged to provide another
mate for their son-in-law. These two forms of marriages are practised after a
primary marriage has been terminated by death of one of the spouses.
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2.2.4 Ghost Marriage
This is a form of marriage that requires a living brother to take a wife on behalf of
a dead bachelor to raise off springs in the name of the dead person. The Nuer
people practise this form of marriage.
Box 2.3 Duration Of Marriage

Marriages are universally conceived as a permanent tie, but the society provides a
means, whether easy or difficult, of terminating unsuccessful marriages. This is
known as divorce. No society encourages divorce but in practice, it is recognised
that certain conditions make it better to terminate a marriage than have it continue
as a failure and perhaps, as a discouragement to those approaching marriage.
Among the Bagandas of East Africa, a man may divorce his wife at will, sending
her back to her family and demand the return of the bride price. The Baganda
women cannot divorce her husband, however, if she is badly treated, she may run
away and claim the aid from of her clansmen. This kind of situation is very
common in African societies but now-a-days, spouses in a marriage have equal
rights to divorce. Barrenness, impotence, incompatibility, infidelity or adultery
and economic incapability are some reasons why couples may decide to terminate
their marriage.

1. Marriage is one important step that leads to family formation. Families are
brought into existence through marriage and children are a basic feature
of a family.
2. There are different types of marriage and family.
3. There are rules of incest that restrict members of the family from marrying
a close kin.
4. There are guidelines for marriage dissolution for unsuccessful marriages.
5. Kinship is a key aspect of the marriage and family institutions in Africa.
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Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study session 2
of this Module.

How can you define the following terms “marriage, ghost marriage”?
In simple sentences and using a specific example, explain the concept of
divorce in marriage.
SAQ 2.3 (tests learning outcome 2.3. 2.1)
Mention and explain two major types of marriage
SAQ 2.4 (tests learning outcome 2.4, 2.1)
The payment of bride price or dowry is a common phenomena in African
marriage. Describe the role of bride price and dowry in marriage.
Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study session 2

SAQ 2.1:
Marriage is a system by which a society recognises the right of a man and a
woman to live together and have a stable sexual relationship.
Ghost marriage is a form of marriage in which a living brother marries a woman
on behalf of his dead brother, who died as a bachelor, in order to raise off springs
in his name.
SAQ 2.2:
Divorce is the means the society provides for terminating unsuccessful
marriages. An example is among the Bagandas of East Africa. In this case a man
may divorce his wife at will, sending her back to her family and demand the
return of the bride price.
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SAQ 2.3:
Monogamy and Polygamy
There are other types of marriages that are not so prominent but are practised in
some parts of Africa. Some kinds of marriage are more prevalent in some
societies while some are fading away.
SAQ 2.4:
The payment of bride price is an essential step to be taken in contracting a
marriage between a man and a woman by the man’s family to the woman’s
family. This can be in form of paying a certain amount of money and some
listed items to the bride-to-be’s family. On the other hand, the money or
properties a woman carry from her father’s home to her husband’s house is
referred to as a ‘dowry’.
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Study session 3 Marriage And Family Institutions II
Introduction
In the last study session, we began a discussion about marriage and family social
institution. We paid particular look at the marriage institution. We discussed the
meaning and types of marriages in Africa. In this study session, we will look at
the other part: the family institution. You will be learning about the family
systems as a form of social institution in Africa. Remember, marriage and family
institutions go together and you cannot have one without the other Marriage is
one important step that leads to family formation. We all come from one family
or the other. Look back into your own experiences. Before any of your siblings,
relatives, friends or colleagues is eligible to move to their suitors’ homes, they
would have done one form of ceremonial activities or the other which would
involve families of the intending couples. In this study session, particular
attention will be placed on the concepts of family, the types family and the role of
family in African societies.

3.2)
3.2 Describe the link between marriage and family (SAQ 3.3)
3.3 Differentiate the Monogamous extended joint family from the polygamous
extended family (SAQ 3.4)
3.4 differentiate the Nuclear family from the extended family?(SAQ 3.5)
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3.1 The concept of family
3.1.1 Meaning and types of Family
The family is a basic study session of social organisation in African societies and
other countries of the world. Nearly all societies in history have been based on
family groups. Just as societies differs, so do family systems. Families are brought
into existence through marriage and children are a basic feature of a family. The
family provides a platform for the reproduction and rearing of new members of
the society so as the preserve the continuity of the society. A closely related term
to family is kinship. In one sense, kinship is determined by biological factors.
One is related to one’s father and mother by virtue of one’s birth; one’s father and
mother are related by virtue of marriage, living together and procreating
children; children of the same parents are related as a result of being born by the
same parents. However, kinship goes beyond this.
There are various ways of describing families through kinship ties. In this study
session, we will restrict ourselves to three major types. These are the nuclear
family, extended family and clans or sibs. In the next section, we will discuss
these kinship groupings in details.
3.1.2 The Nuclear Family

The nuclear family is a kinship grouping made up of a married couple and their
unmarried children. There are two variants of this type of family and individuals
normally belong to the two types. An individual will belong to a nuclear family in
which he or she is reared. This is called the family of orientation. An individual
will also belong to another type of nuclear family referred to as the family of
procreation. This is the one in which the individual functions in as a parent. The
nuclear family ceases to exist with the death of the parents. The diagram bellow
illustrates what a nuclear family is:
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Father Mother
Children
Fig. 3.1 A typical Nuclear Family.
Key:
Man -
Marries -
Woman -
and they produced three children,
two boys -
and one girl _
3. 1.3 Extended Family

The extended family is the major form of kinship grouping in Africa. It may be in
form of monogamous extended joint family or a polygamous extended family.
The monogamous extended family consist of two or more nuclear families (see
diagram 2.5 ) linked through parent-child or siblings relationships. This type of
family is often characterised by common residence and accompanied by shared
socio-economic obligations. In a patrilocal society (that is, a society in which
decent is traced through men alone), the male offspring at marriage continues to
reside in the family dwelling, together with their wives and children.
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Fig. 3.2 Diagram of a typical monogamous extended family.
The polygamous extended family could either be polygynous or polyandrous.

A polygynous extended family consists of an adult male, his two or more wives
and their children (see figure 2.6). This type of family is commonly found among
most tribes in Nigeria, for examples the Yorubas in Western Nigeria and the
Gwoza people in Borno State in Northern Nigeria. This type of family is also
predominant among Muslims compared to Christians. The polyandrous
extended family is a reverse of the polygynous type. It is composed of an adult
female, her two or more husbands and their children.
o Yemi is the fifth child of the third wife. Her father Chief Kolapowole owns a
large compound in the middle of the village that houses his four wives.
From your understanding of types of family, what category does Yemi’s
family fall into? And why that choice?
29
• Yemi comes from a polygamous extended family because in this situation,
her father is the adult male with his four wives and children who all live in
the same compound.
3.1.4 Clans or Sibs

The clan is an extension of the extended family. In this type of family, kinship
alone, rather than kinship and residence, is the determining factor of family
affiliation. Members may live in different communities of in different parts of the
country. Clans are of two types: patrilineal (tracing one’s decent to one’s father.
The individual belongs to the father’s clan) and matrilineal (tracing one’s descent
through one's mother. The individuals belong to the mother’s clan). Clan are not
affected by either marriage or residence nor is their instance of dual clan
membership. Clans are often very large groupings that include individuals who
may not actually come in contact with one another. Clans essentially includes
ones relatives, either near or far, from the same community. Clans are held
together by common history. To illustrate this concept, see Box 3.1
Box 3.1: Illustration for Clans and Sibs

let us use an individual from a particular area in Ilaje, Ondo State, Nigeria, as
an example. His or her clan’s people will be all those who can trace their
lineage to the same ancestors in that area or compound. Among the Yorubas,
clan members are referred to as Molebi or Idile (meaning compound). Those
who cannot trace their origins to these common ancestors are referred to as
strangers.
Activity 3.1
In this chapter, you have learnt about marriage and family institutions in Africa.
Specifically, you learnt about the various types of family and their importance or
roles they perform in the society. Based on what you have learnt, on the types of
30
family you have learnt about how would you describe the kind of family you
directly grew up in?

Basically, there are two types of family; nuclear and extended family. The
description of your family will depend on the size and the people who make up
the kind of family you grew up in.

In Study Session 3, you have learned that:
1. Marriage is one important step that leads to family formation. Families are
brought into existence through marriage and children are a basic feature of a
family.
2. There are different types of family. Nuclear and Extended Family are examples
of types of family
5. Kinship is a key aspect of the marriage and family institutions in Africa.

of this Module
Family is an important part of the society. How can you define the term
“family”?
Marriage is a starting point for the family. Do you support the above
statement?
How can you differentiate the Monogamous extended joint family from the
polygamous extended family?
31
What are the features that differentiate the Nuclear family from the
extended family?
SAQ 3.1:
The family is a basic study session of social organisation in African societies and
other countries of the world. Nearly all societies in history have been based on
family groups the family provides a platform for the reproduction and rearing of
new members of the society so as the preserve the continuity of the society.
SAQ 3.2:
Yes, this is so because, Families are brought into existence through marriage and
children who are products of a marriage grow up in turn get married and start
their homes. In other words marriages is the beginning of the circle of families.
SAQ 3.3:
The monogamous extended family consist of two or more nuclear linked through
parent-child or siblings relationships. This type of family is often characterised
by common residence and accompanied by shared socio-economic obligations.
A polygynous extended family consists of an adult male, his two or more wives
and their children. This type of family is commonly found among most tribes in
Nigeria, for examples the Yorubas in Western Nigeria and the Gwoza people in
Borno State in Northern Nigeria. This type of family is also predominant among
Muslims compared to Christians.
SAQ 3.4:
The nuclear family is a kinship grouping made up of a married couple and their
unmarried children.
The extended family is larger than the nuclear family and is the major form of
kinship grouping in Africa.
32
Study session 4 Economic Institutions I
Introduction
All societies have economic systems. Every society has access to natural
resources in form of land, water, plants, animals and minerals. Apart from having
these resources, every society also has a system for determining who has access
to those resources. There are rules governing access to resources in the
environment or community, rules for transforming these resources into useful
and necessary other items (through labour) and rules for distributing goods and
services. Some economic systems require the use of money while others do not.
In simple and subsistence economies, access to and distribution of resources are
done through simple and less structured means. However, in advanced societies,
access to /and distribution of resources require a high level of structure and
technology. In this study session you will be learn about economic institutions in
Africa.
Learning Outcomes for Study session 4

4.2, 4.3)
4.2 Identify the divisions of labour and explain how it is a feature of the
economic institutions. (SAQs 4.1, 4.2)
4.3 Discuss pastoralism and cattle rearing in Africa, especially in east and west Africa (SAQ
4.3).
4.4 Explain the role of land in African indigenous societies (SAQ 4.4)
33
Fig. 4.1 The Dantokpa Market in Cotonou, Benin. It is one of the most important retailing areas in
Benin, covering over 20 hectares.
4.1 The Meaning of Economic Institution and division of labour

4.1.1 What is Economic Institution
The economic institutions deal with the gathering and the reallocation of
resources in the society. It is a medium by which members of the society interact
with their environment. Among primitive and peasant societies in Africa, their
economic system was largely subsistence. They depended on hunting for
animals, gathering of fruits and vegetables. At some point, they were into rearing
of animals and practised subsistence farming which were dependent on simple
technologies. Among these primitive people, many of the goods they consume
are produced by the people themselves. They produced their own foods, shelter
and clothing. There were no form of large production of goods and redistribution
of these goods. As time went by, more advanced technologies and means of
production were developed. Goods were produced in large quantity and this
necessitated redistribution and exchange. Although the organisation of
production or work differ from society to society, division of labour,
34
specialisation and forced labour are crucial and typical features of all economic
systems and institutions.
4.1.2 Division of Labour by Sex

In every society and in Africa in particular, division of labour is normally done by
sex (that is, gender) and age. Based on sex, different tasks are assigned to men
and women. In African societies, particularly in traditional settings, young girls
are assigned chores that will prepare them for women’s work. For instance, girls
are required to assist their mothers in doing domestic work like cooking,
washing of clothes, taking care of their younger ones, petty-trading and so on. As
for the boys, they are assigned tasks that will prepare them for men’s work such
as grass cutting, assisting their fathers in doings repairs in the home, security
work for the family and the likes.
Fig. 4.2 Women and children fetching water from a small reservoir in Ghana
(Photo by Sanjini de Silva)
A regular pattern of roles or tasks assignment to males and females is that men
are often assigned strenuous tasks while women are often assigned lighter tasks.
For instance, it is men that normally go hunting, herding large animals and
clearing the fields for farming whereas women do the cooking, fetch of water and
gather vegetables and fruits for the family. The reason for the differentiation in
35
the tasks performed by men and women, especially in primitive societies, could
be due to the fact that men are perceived to be stronger than women biologically.
Besides, women go through a lot of stress doing child delivery thereby depleting
their energy. It should be noted, however, that assigning tasks by gender may
not be strictly adhered to as some women are often seen performing male related
tasks while men may also perform female related task.
4.1.3 Division of Labour by Age

It is not all societies that base their division of labour on sex. Some use age as the
basis for assigning tasks and roles to their members. Assignment of tasks and
other responsibilities based on age set or age group is a common phenomenon in
Africa. For example, among the Nyakyusa, a pastoral society in south-eastern
Africa, Monica Wilson reported that boys from six to eleven years herd the cattle
for their parents’ village. Also, age sets are used to recruit men into military work
and other security assignments, building of roads, farming and harvesting of farm
produce and so on.
Fig. 4.3 Young Farmers
4.1.4 Specialisation of Labour

Specialisation of labour began when society members stated to produce food.
Increase in productivity gave men in the society some free time away from
36
subsistence activities and they could, therefore, devote time to developing and
perfecting particular skills or crafts such as pottery, house building, basket
weaving and the likes. In exchange for their products or services, these
individuals were given foods or other gifts. An entire village or neighbourhood
may specialise in a particular product or service which they then sell to their
neighbours or other people. Today, however, specialisation of labour is more
advanced than these. Specialisation of labour has brought about progress in
human communities. It has brought about advance in health and medical
matters, increase in farm yields and so on. However, overspecialisation may be
dangerous because specialised individuals may become useless outside their
field of specialisation or skills in their specialisation area may become obsolete.
For instance, an individual who specialises in constructing rat traps 10 or 15
years ago will be rendered jobless in this current time due to the development of
faster and less dangerous rat trap devices.
4.1.5 Forced Labour

Forced labour was unknown when societies were still practicing hunting and
gathering and horticultural economy. However, forced labour became prominent
when economies of societies became agriculturally based and industrialised. For
instance, in feudal societies, a landowner of an estate often demanded a certain
percentage of a serf’s harvest or demanded that the serf work for him for a
certain numbers of days for using his (landowner) estate for farm work. In some
parts of Africa, a commoner is forced to work on the farm plots owned by the
state and by the temple apart from his own farm plot. In the past, in west Africa,
and in Africa in general, powerful kings and chiefs demanded forced labour from
their subjects and servants. In this modern age, forced labour is practised
indirectly which sometimes comes in form of tax payment. It is mandatory for
every working member of a society to pay a certain percent of his or her earnings
to the government.
37
Fig.3.4. Slavery, a form of forced labour. Slaves working in a cotton field (Picture from Google)
Box 4.1: Rearing of Livestock

African indigenous economy involves the rearing of livestock, the relation
between people and livestock, food production and so on. Livestock in Africa
has various uses of which the most important are those of food and
production of young ones which have monetary values. Livestock in pastoral
Africa includes animals such as horses, camels, goats and sheep and less
important ones like chicken.
4.2 African indigenous economies

4.2.1 Pastoralism and Cattle (rearing) in Africa ( East And West Africa)
Pastoral societies are those who practice subsistence agriculture by grazing
livestock. The most important criterion in the definition of pastoral people is the
organization of their social life around the needs of their herds of cattle. Pastoral
economies are based on domestication of herds of animals, however, members of
these societies get their own agricultural products through trade or through their
own agricultural cultivation. Pastoralists raise and care for livestock like cows,
camels, goats, sheep and so on. Pastoral economic system is mobile in nature. It
requires moving the herds in search of fresh pasture and water. Pastoralism is
found in many variations in Africa.
38
Fig. 3.5 A Kenyan Man From Maasai Commstudy sessiony Rearing His Herds Of Cattle (Picture
From Google).
4.2.2 Pastoral Technology

The technology of pastoralism is simple and is largely dependent on rearing of
animals. On the level of subsistence, pastoralists are merely farmers who
specialize in herding animals. Normally, this specialization includes a good deal
of specialized knowledge about animal husbandry, pasture, and land
transportation technology, exceeding that of their farming neighbours, but not
dramatically. Contrariwise, although many pastoralists also farm, they are
generally not experts. Few pastoral people subsist entirely on animal products.
o There is a tribe in Nigeria popularly known for livestock and pastoral
farming. Who do you think they are?
• They are called the Fulanis. They are popularly known for cattle rearing in
Nigeria. They roam around mostly the Southern part of Nigeria seeking
greener pasture for their livestock
39
4.2.3 Social Organization
Virtually all pastoral societies are built around patrilineal kinship groups. The
minimal functional study session of such societies is usually a co-residential
patrilineal study session of varying dimensions dependent on ecological
variables and political history. The sexual division of labour is sharply marked in
pastoralist societies. First of all, men are often largely responsible for herding
larger stock such as cattle, whereas women engage in handicrafts, food
production and processing, small-stock herding (goats and sheep) and the
milking of livestock at camps. The division of labour is underlined by the grossly
disproportionate emphasis on masculinity in these societies. Herding large
animals is rough, dangerous, and uncomfortable and a cult of masculinity is
perhaps functional even without considering warfare. The more complex
pastoral societies support a certain variety of specialized roles besides the basic
male herdsman and female craft/food processing ones.
4.3 Land in indigenous African societies

Land is a critical factor in natural and human-managed production systems in
Africa. It influences the level of natural capital, social and economic development.
These resources are just as important at the household level as they are at
national and global levels. In Uganda, for example, land constitutes between 50-
60 percent of the asset endowment of the poorest households.
Land in Africa is used for many activities such as agriculture, forestry and animal
husbandry. Other uses of land are for mining and oil extraction. It is critical in
providing shelter and other essential goods and services. It is also an important
means of earning a livelihood. Land is critical to all aspects of human well-being.
It provides food and health and it underlies many social and cultural systems.
Access to land and the resources it offers is at the core of enhancing
opportunities and choices, particularly for those who depend more directly on it.
40
1. Economic institutions deal with the gathering and reallocation of
resources in the society and that there are various modes of exchange in
collecting and reallocating these resources.
2. African indigenous economy involves the rearing of livestock, food
production and so on.
3. Pastoral economies are based on domestication of herds of animals,
however, members of these societies get their own agricultural products
through trade or through their own agricultural cultivation.
4. Land is critical to all aspects of human well-being in Africa. It serves as a
source of livelihood, it provides food and health and it underlies many
social and cultural systems.
5. Market is a medium through which goods and services are distributed in
the society.

Now that you have completed this study session, assess how well you have
achieved its learning outcomes by answering these questions.
How can you describe economic institutions in peasant African societies?
Division of labour is a feature of economic societies. List and explain three types
of division of labour that exists.
Briefly explain the concept of pastoralism and cattle rearing in the African
economy
Land is a critical and important production systems in Africa. What is the
usefulness of land in African indigenous societies?
41
SAQ 4.1:
Among primitive and peasant societies in Africa, their economic system was
largely subsistence. They depended on hunting for animals, gathering of fruits
and vegetables. At some point, they were into rearing of animals and practised
subsistence farming which were dependent on simple technologies. Among
these primitive people, many of the goods they consume are produced by the
people themselves. They produced their own foods, shelter and clothing. There
were no form of large production of goods and redistribution of these goods
SAQ 4.2:
Division of Labour by Sex:
Based on sex, different tasks are assigned to men and women. In African
societies, particularly in traditional settings, young girls are assigned chores that
will prepare them for women’s work. For instance, girls are required to assist
their mothers in doing domestic work like cooking, washing of clothes, taking
care of their younger ones, petty-trading and so on. As for the boys, they are
assigned tasks that will prepare them for men’s work such as grass cutting,
assisting their fathers in doings repairs in the home, security work for the family
and the likes.
Division of Labour by Age:

Assignment of tasks and other responsibilities based on age set or age group is a
common phenomenon in Africa. For example, among the Nyakyusa, a pastoral
society in south-eastern Africa, Monica Wilson reported that boys from six to
eleven years herd the cattle for their parents’ village. Also, age sets are used to
recruit men into military work and other security assignments, building of roads,
farming and harvesting of farm produce and so on.
42
Forced Labour:
In some parts of Africa, a commoner is forced to work on the farm plots owned
by the state and by the temple apart from his own farm plot. In the past, in west
Africa, and in Africa in general, powerful kings and chiefs demanded forced
labour from their subjects and servants. Forced labour was unknown when
societies were still practicing hunting and gathering and horticultural economy.
In feudal societies, a landowner of an estate often demanded a certain percentage
of a serf’s harvest or demanded that the serf work for him for a certain numbers
of days for using his (landowner) estate for farm work.
SAQ 4.3
Pastoral economies are based on domestication of herds of animals, however,
members of these societies get their own agricultural products through trade or
through their own agricultural cultivation. Pastoralists raise and care for
livestock like cows, camels, goats, sheep and so on. Pastoral economic system is
mobile in nature. It requires moving the herds in search of fresh pasture and
water. Pastoralism is found in many variations in Africa.
SAQ 4.4
43
44
Study session 5 Economic Institutions II
Introduction
All societies have economic systems. Every society has access to natural
resources in form of land, water, plants, animals and minerals. Apart from having
these resources, every society also has a system for determining who has access
to those resources. There are rules governing access to resources in the
environment or community, rules for transforming these resources into useful
and necessary other items (through labour) and rules for distributing goods and
services. Some economic systems require the use of money while others do not.
In simple and subsistence economies, access to and distribution of resources are
done through simple and less structured means. However, in advanced societies,
access to /and distribution of resources require a high level of structure and
technology. In this study session we will continue our discussion about economic
institutions in Africa.

5.2)
5.2 List and explain the systems through which goods and services are
exchanged and distributed (SAQ 5.1, SAQ 5.2).
5.3 Discuss the concept of Market exchange (SAQ 5.1, SAQ 5.3)
5.1 Markets in Africa

Market is a medium through which goods and services are distributed in the
society. It is a medium by which goods and services are distributed in the society.
45
Before we go into the discussion on the concept of market, let us look at two
other modes of exchange of goods and services in the society. The first system
through which goods and services are exchanged or distributed is referred to as
reciprocity and the second one is known as redistribution.
5.1.1 Reciprocity
Reciprocity means giving and taking without the use of money. This could be in
form of gift giving or barter. It could also be in form of cheating. Reciprocity is
divided into three forms namely general reciprocity, balanced reciprocity and
negative reciprocity. Generalised reciprocity is a form of gift giving without any
immediate return or conscious thought of one. For example, you are a student.
Your parents invest in your feeding, clothing, education and the likes. They are
doing this, not necessarily because they expect you to reciprocate later, rather,
because, in their old age, you may be in the position to care for them too. A child
who fails to care for his or her parents may be called a lot of bad names but there
are no legal obligations on the child to care for his or her parents.
Box 5.1: Types of Reciprocity

Reciprocity is divided into three forms namely general reciprocity, balanced
reciprocity and negative reciprocity.
Balanced reciprocity is more short term in its expectations of return than

general reciprocity. In this form of reciprocity, the giving is often motivated by a
need for something else. To illustrate this, let us use farm work as an example. A
farmer may offer his services to his kinsman or neighbour in exchange for a kind
of animal the other is rearing. This exchange may not be immediate but a time of
pay back is fixed. Also, farmers who volunteer to assist their colleagues in
ploughing his field may be reciprocated with sumptuous mails and an agreed
portion of the harvest. If your friend did his or her birthday and you bought a gift
for him or her, it is usual to expect something from such a person when you are
46
doing yours. You will expect the person to give you something valuable just as
you have given him or her. This is a kind of balanced reciprocity.
Negative reciprocity is an attempt to take advantage of another person for one’s
benefit. It is has to do with giving something of far lesser value than what one
wants to receive from another person. It is based on the principle of trying to get
the better end of the deal. For instance, if someone wants to force or cajole you
into exchanging your plasma television for a low grade china phone, that will be a
kind of negative reciprocity.
5.1.2 Redistribution
Redistribution is the mode of exchange in which all the goods and services, as
well as money, in society is given to a centralised government who disperses
them out. Goods are given to a central authority and then given back to the
people in a new pattern. For example, government use the tax paid by the
citizens of the country to build hospitals and construct roads for them. The
process of redistribution involves two distinct stages: an inward flow of goods
and services to a social centre followed by an outward dispersal of these goods
and services to the society. Although redistribution is found in some form in all
societies, it is most common in societies with political hierarchy.
47
Fig. 3.6 A market scene in Ghana, West Africa
5.1.3 Market Exchange

Now we are back to our discussion on markets. Market exchange is the third
method of distributing goods and services in the society. A market is a form of
social relation in which the parties participate in exchange. Market exchange is a
mixture of redistribution and reciprocity. In market exchange, there is
competitive buying and selling of goods whose value is based on the laws of
supply and demand. Although the parties can exchange goods and services
through barter, most markets rely on sellers selling their products or services
(including labour) in exchange for cash from buyers. You can say that market is
the process by which the prices of goods and services are established. Market
exchange requires peace in the market area. As consumers move freely from one
seller to another, their safety and protection must be guaranteed.
Activity 5.1
Define what you understand by redistribution.
48
well as money, in society are given to a centralised government who then give
back the goods and services to the people in a new pattern.
Summary of Study session 5

1. Market is a medium through which goods and services are distributed in the
society.
2. There are three modes of exchange for the distribution of goods and services in
the society

Now that you have completed this study session, assess how well you have achieved its
learning outcomes by answering these questions.

What do you understand by markets in Africa?
List and explain two systems through which goods and services are exchanged
and distributed
What do you understand by market exchange?

SAQ 5.1:
A market is a form of social relation in which the parties participate in exchange.
It is a medium through which goods and services are distributed in the society.
SAQ 5.2: Reciprocity and Redistribution
well as money, in society is given to a centralised government who disperses
them out. Goods are given to a central authority and then given back to the
49
people in a new pattern. For example, government use the tax paid by the
citizens of the country to build hospitals and construct roads for them.
Reciprocity means giving and taking without the use of money. This could be in
form of gift giving or barter. It could also be in form of cheating.
SAQ 5.3:
Market exchange is the third method of distributing goods and services in the
society. A market is a form of social relation in which the parties participate in
exchange. Market exchange is a mixture of redistribution and reciprocity. In
market exchange, there is competitive buying and selling of goods whose value is
based on the laws of supply and demand. Although the parties can exchange
goods and services through barter, most markets rely on sellers selling their
products or services (including labour) in exchange for cash from buyers.
50
Study session 6 Educational Institutions
Introduction
So far, you have learnt about the meaning of social institutions and two of the
major types of social institutions in the last study sessions. You will recall that in
study session two, you learnt something about the marriage and family
institutions and in the last study session, you learnt about economic institutions.
In this study session you will learn about another important social institution in
human societies. This institution is called the educational institution. Go through
the study session carefully and attempt the self assessment questions at the end
of the study session.

6.1 Define and use correctly all of the key words printed in bold. (SAQs 6.1)
6.2 Discuss the role of education as a socialization agent. (SAQs 6.2)
6.3 State the effects of education on social life (SAQs 6.3)
6.4 Identify the problems of the educational institution (SAQs 6.4)
6.1 The meaning and Function of Educational Institutions

6.1.1 What is an Educational Institution?
The educational institution is the social structure concerned with the formal
transmission of knowledge. It has been defined by Kendall (2006) as “...the
social institution responsible for the systematic transmission of knowledge,
skills, and cultural values within a formally organised structure”. Education, as a
process of learning, is as old as human society. It includes teaching formal
knowledge such as reading and writing as well as teaching other things such as
51
morals, values, and ethics which could be informal in nature. Education,
generally, prepares people, both young and old, to fit into the society. Education
is a means by which every society prepares its young people for a place in adult
life and teaches them societal values. It serves the beneficial purpose of educating
children and getting them ready to be productive adults in the society. In
primitive societies, and in indigenous African societies, education takes place at
home – with the parents and family members. However, in modern societies,
education now takes place in schools. That is, education can either be formal or
informal. Informal education takes place at home, in the family while the
informal education takes place in the school environment.
Fig.6.1 School Children in Ghana, Africa (Picture from Google)
6.1.1 Functions of Education

Education is an important agent of socialization and encourages social
integration, especially in countries with diverse populations. Through schools,
students from a variety of cultural backgrounds come into contact with the
mainstream culture. This is not only done by teaching knowledge through books
but also teaching the society’s culture, including moral values, ethics, politics,
religious beliefs, habits, and norms. Furthermore, education provides
52
occupational training. Before now, some centuries back, most jobs and training
were passed on from father to son. However, today, most jobs require at least a
secondary school education, and many professions require a first degree or post-
graduate degree. In addition, education serves as a means of social control or the
regulation of deviant behaviour. For example, going to school everyday keep
young people off the streets and from crime.
6.2 Education as a Socialization Agent

Education plays a large part in the socialization of children into society.
Socialization aims to make the child learn and conform to established norms,
behavioural patterns and societal values. In simple societies, it is done in form of
training children in the appropriate forms of behaviour and skills required by all
members of that society. That is, it is the preparation of children for particular
roles in society.
In modern societies, education is the most important agent of socialization after
the family. Schools are the first impersonal and collective environment that a
child encounters. Whereas schools official function is the transmission of
knowledge, they also promote certain values: honesty, respect and norms such as
not cheating during tests or examination and punctuality. Children also learn to
deal with authority figures other than their parents and with peers.
6.2.1 The Effect of Education on Social Life

One of the effect of education on social life is the promotion and reaffirmation of
culture. Africans believe strongly in according respect to elders, and to
whomever respect is due. Adherence to cultural expectations promotes peace
among members of the society. For instance, a Yoruba boy is schooled,
informally, to prostate while greeting an elder while a Yoruba girl is expected to
kneel down while greeting an elderly person. However, both young and old,
depending on the person’s gender, are expected to prostate (or kneel, as the case
may be) to greet a king irrespective of the age of the king. Failure to do this may
call for sanctions.
53
Fig.6.2 This picture shows a man prostrating himself to a king. (google images)
Yoruba people, from Nigeria are schooled to prostrate for elders and kings.
Another effect of education on social life is the modification of behaviour.
Members of the society who are predisposed to behaving in an unacceptable
manner in the society are corrected and counselled both through informal and
formal means. A good example of how this is done, informally, is the use of
proverbs. Proverbs abound in Africa and these proverbs serve various purposes.
One aspect of proverbs is the corrective aspect. For instance, there is a Yoruba
proverbs that says “ Isé ni oògùn ìsé” (Work is the antidote for poverty). This
proverb is used to caution those who are lazy in their work and/or do not want
to work.
54
Box 6.1:
Education involves systematic, formal transmission of skills, knowledge, and other
aspects of culture. Education has a preventive effect. For instance, in our
society, there are a lot of infectious diseases that are preventable but because
of low awareness and illiteracy, a quite a number of people are getting
infected. However, with right advocacy and education, the prevalence of these
disease diseases are reduced. Through education, people are aware of how to
prevent themselves from contacting diseases. A good example is HIV/AIDs.
People now know what they can do or should not do to prevent getting
infected with HIV/AIDs.
Fig. 6.3 Rwanda - Kibileze - Theogene Niyongana gives a lecture on HIV and AIDS to a
group of people waiting to be tested for the virus at Kibayi Health Centre. By addressing
their status, sufferers learn how to increase their life expectancy (picture from google).
Additionally, education has an intellectual effect on social life. It helps members

of a society to think alike and solve their problems as seem appropriate.
Formal schooling helps members of society to upgrade their status. Those who
are born into poor homes, through formal schooling, can change their economic
status. A high economic status makes members of society show a level of
deference to such a person and inspire those who have not succeeded yet.
o Bisi grew up with her grandmother who taught her several things she
knew how to do well. As a little girl Grandma taught her how to read and
write, how to talk to elders and how to clean the house. Bisi never went to
55
a structured school but she communicates with other members of the
community very well and she is acknowledged as one of the most well
brought up child in the community. Do you consider Bisi as educated. If so
what kind of education has she received.
• It has been said that education, generally, prepares people, both young and
old, to fit into the society. So far Bisi has shown the characteristics of an
educated person. The kind of education she received from her
grandmother is referred to as informal education
6.3 Problems of Educational Institutions

Education, as a social institution, has certain problems. One of the major
problems of formal education in our society is unequal education for young
people and adolescents. The vast majority of the children in Africa, whose
parents cannot afford school fees in private schools, attend public schools. The
quality of education at public and private schools varies greatly in Africa. Private
schools tend to have more modern facilities, smaller classes and expose their
pupils and students to international standard of education in order to boost their
IQs and performance. This is not the case with public schools. Public schools
often do not have teaching facilities, the number of pupils or students per class is
normally large and there is minimal or no exposure to international standards.
Hence, those who attend private schools have a better advantage over those who
attended public schools.
Another problem of the educational institution is what is referred to as
credentialism. This has to do with overemphasis on degrees in giving jobs or
conferring social status. In our society, it is common to find a job advertisement
for an unskilled work that is not connected to any academic requirement, like
laundry, requesting for a secondary school certificate result. Since credentials
are highly valued, individuals may go to any length to get these degrees either by
cheating their way through schools or by forging non existing certificates. There
have been instances in which some political leaders were discovered to have
56
used forged certificates to get nominated and elected into a position only to be
discovered after rigorous probes.
Fig. 6.4 A picture illustrating credentialism (picture from google)
Activity 6.1
What are the two forms education can take?
The two forms of education are formal and informal education. The formal
education takes place in the school environment while the informal education
takes place at home, in one's family.
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1. The educational institution is the social structure concerned with the
formal transmission of knowledge and it can either be in a formal form or
an informal form.
2. Education plays certain important functions or roles in the society.
3. Education is an agent of socialisation.
4. Education has some effects on social life
5. Unequal education and credentialism are two of the problems facing the
educational institution in Africa
have achieved its Learning Outcomes by answering these questions. The answer
to each question comes immediately after the question.

What do you understand by the concept of educational institution and what are
they various forms education can take
How would you describe the role of education as an agent of socialization?
The educational institution has effect on social life. What do you think are some
of these effects?
Like every institution, education is plagued with problems. Discuss two problems
of education in Africa
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SAQ 6.1:
According to the definition given by Kendall in 2006, education is the social
institution responsible for the systematic transmission of knowledge, skills, and
cultural values within a formally organised structure. It is a means by which
every society prepares its young people for a place in adult life and teaches them
societal values. It serves the beneficial purpose of educating children and getting
them ready to be productive adults in the society.
Education can either be formal or informal. Informal education takes place at
home, in the family while the informal education takes place in the school
environment.
SAQ 6.2
Socialization aims to make the child learn and conform to established norms,
behavioural patterns and societal values. In simple societies, it is done in form of
training children in the appropriate forms of behaviour and skills required by all
members of that society. That is, it is the preparation of children for particular
roles in society.
Schools are the first impersonal and collective environment that a child
encounters. Whereas schools official function is the transmission of knowledge,
they also promote certain values: honesty, respect and norms such as not
cheating during tests or examination and punctuality. Children also learn to deal
with authority figures other than their parents and with peers.
SAQ 6.3
One of the effects of education on social life is the promotion and reaffirmation of
culture. Africans believe strongly in according respect to elders, and to whoever
respect is due. Adherence to cultural expectations promotes peace among
members of the society. For instance, a Yoruba boy is schooled, informally, to
prostate while greeting an elder while a Yoruba girl is expected to kneel down
while greeting an elderly person.
Education has a preventive effect. For instance, in our society, there are a lot of
infectious diseases that are preventable but because of low awareness and
59
illiteracy, a lot of people are getting infected. However, with right advocacy and
education, the prevalence of these disease diseases are reduced. Through
education, people are aware of how to prevent themselves from contacting
diseases.
Another effect of education on social life is the modification of behaviour.
Members of the society who are predisposed to behaving in an unacceptable
manner in the society are corrected and counselled both through informal and
formal means.
SAQ 6.4
One of the major problems of formal education in our society is unequal
education for young people and adolescents. The vast majority of the children in
Africa, whose parents cannot afford school fees in private schools, attend public
schools.
Another problem of the educational institution is what is referred to as

credentialism. This has to do with overemphasis on degrees in giving jobs or
conferring social status. In our society, it is common to find a job advertisement
for an unskilled work that is not connected to any academic requirement, like
laundry, requesting for a secondary school certificate result.
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Study session 7 Religious Institutions
Introduction
The topic you will be learning in this study session is a familiar one, just like the
others you have learnt in the preceding chapters. As the study session title
indicates, our focus in this study session will be on religion. Do you know what
religion is? I guess you do because you possibly belong to a religious affiliation.
However, you will be learning about religion from a sociological perspective.
Religion is an important aspect of African societies. Though religion takes
different forms and is expressed in different ways, it is a universal institution.
That is, it is found in all human societies. In this chapter, you will learn about the
meaning of religion, its elements, African traditional religions, religious
practitioners amongst others. Go through the study session carefully and
acquaint yourself with the basic terms related to the concept of religion.

After studying this study session, you should be able to:
7.1.1 Define and use correctly all of the key words printed in bold. (SAQs 7.1,
SAQ 7.2)
7.2 Explain how religion is a social institution. (SAQ 7.2)
7.3 Identify the characteristics of religion (SAQs 7.3).
7.4 Mention and explain the various types of religious practitioners.
7.5 Discuss the meaning of African traditional religion and their world of
spirits (SAQs 7.5,7.6).
7.6 Describe aspects of the Yoruba religion (SAQs 7.4).
7.7 Explain what is meant by the religion of the oppressed (SAQs 7.2).
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7.1 The meaning, characteristics and practitioners of Religion
7.1.1 What is religion?
What is religion? There is no singular definition for what scholars and lay
persons see as religion. However, for this study, Kendall (2006) definition of
religion will be used. According to him, “religion is a system of beliefs, symbols,
and rituals, based on some sacred or supernatural realm, that guides human
behavior, gives meaning to life, and unites believers into a community”. Religions
are mainly categorized by their beliefs and gods. There are three main types of
beliefs namely monotheism, polytheism and atheism. Monotheism is the belief
in only one God. Christianity, Judaism, and Islam are three good examples of
religion that belief in only one God. Polytheism is the belief in the plurality of
gods. Hinduism and Buddhism are examples of religions with belief in many
gods. Atheism is the belief that there is no God.
Fig.7.1 Religious Symbols (from Google)
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Box 7.1:Religion as a Social Institution
The five religions mentioned above, in the examples, are also the major types
of religions in the world. As a social institution, religion is a pattern of social
action organised around the beliefs and practices that people develop to
answer questions about the meaning of existence. As an institution, religion
persists over time and has an organizational structure into which members are
socialized. Religion help to integrate members of the society into the values of
the society and helps to bind people together in times of crises or confusion as
well as in times of celebration or festivities.
7.1.2 The Characteristics of Religion

Religion has some elements embedded in it. One of the characteristics of religion
is the concept belief. Beliefs are set of doctrines that define a group’s assent to
the basic questions of life, conduct, and salvation. They are propositions which
members of society believe to be true and are culturally instituted. Beliefs have
two dimensions, namely, the sacred and the profane. The sacred is believed to
have supernatural qualities. It is seen as ‘divine’ and therefore, must be treated
with reverence. The profane is that which is seen as secular, common or
ordinary. Another element of religion is ritual. Rituals are a set of actions often
believed to have symbolic value prescribed by religion and performed at regular
intervals for the purpose of reinforcing beliefs, traditions and practices. It is a
kind of routine that reinforces faith. Through rituals, beliefs are explained,
taught, and made real through ceremonies.
7.1.3 Religious practitioners.

In this section, we will only consider three popular types of religious
practitioners in indigenous African religion. These are shamans, priests and
prophets. Shamans and priests can be said to be religious specialists in a given
society who have a connection to the deities who control the supernatural. A
shaman is an individual practitioner whose unusual powers are personal in
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nature. He is not a part of an organised religion and is in direct contact with the
spirit world, usually through a trance state. He usually owes no formal obligation
to any faction within the community itself for his/her position. On the other
hand, a priest or priestess is a religious leader who is part of an organised
religion. A form of priests' initiation and ceremonial activities are carried out for
them before their inductions as members of an established religious
organization. Be-that-as-it-may, different religions have different terms for these
individuals. They could be known as rabbis, ministers, mullahs or imams. As for a
prophet or prophetess, he/she is an individual who receives divine revelation
concerning a society or an individual concerning certain things that needs to be
done or certain steps to be taken to achieve an outcome.
Fig 7.2 A Zulu Shaman

source: (google images)
7.2 African Traditional Religions

Africans have their own traditional religions and each religious expression is
unique to the community or society where it is being practised. The traditional
religions of Africa embody the indigenous beliefs and practices of African
societies that predate the modern period. Generally, the people of Africa believe
in and worship one supreme deity. Although the Supreme Being or the high God
64
is not in the same form in their beliefs, he is also not worshipped with the same
vigour among the different societies. For instance, the Yorubas, in Nigeria, belief
in a Supreme God called Olódùmarè. He is believed to have created the world and
gave the first humans their present habitation; the Nyoro people of Kenya call
God Ruhanga while the Sereer People of Senegal and the Gambia believe in a
universal Supreme Deity called Roog.
Fig 7.2 A religious festival in Burkina Faso

source: (google images)
One peculiar feature of African religion is that it is based mainly on oral

transmission. Rituals, shrines and festivals are also inherent in traditional African
religion. While western religion depends on missionaries to spread their beliefs
among other nations, African indigenous beliefs are not propagated this way.
Indigenous African religious beliefs are unique to the people and are preserved
and passed down orally among the people from generations to generations.
Another main feature of African indigenous religion is magic, witchcraft and
sorcery. These three are different but related. It is important aspects of beliefs
about the interactions between the natural and the supernatural. People
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associated with these practice are believed to have the skills manipulate the
relations between the two worlds.
7.3 Types of Spiritual Forces and Worship Practices (African World

of Spirits)
Though religious practices are different from culture to culture, there are
similarities among them. Scholars use some terms to designate these frequently
found features. The categories and subcategories are many, however, the more
common ones will be discussed in this study. One of these common belief and
practice is Mana. Mana is believed to be an impersonal power running through
everything, but which accumulates in special objects, such as statues, or special
human skills. It is a belief in a supernatural power or influence. The term
originally came from a widespread Polynesian belief. Another common practice
and belief is fetishism. Fetishism is a belief that there is power in inanimate
objects. This may involve touching, worshipping, praying to and even whipping
the objects. Animism is another common practice. Animism is the view that the
natural world is animated or moved by spirits. For instance, the flowing river, the
blowing wind, plants and trees are seen as inhabited by spirits.
Fig 7.3 African world of spirits

source (google images)
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In addition, Animal Spirits’ worship practices are done in some African
countries. This practice involves animal worship. For example, lizards are
revered in Madagascar, an African country located in the south eastern part of
the continent while in some parts of West Africa, leopards are revered. One of the
most well-known types of animal worship is totemism which is a mystical
relationship of kinship study session or clan with a plant or animal or some
natural phenomena. Sometimes the totem is ritually eaten, other times there is a
taboo against killing it.
Fig 7.4 A picture of Totem poles taken in 1928 (google images)
Another religious practice and belief system among Africans is ancestral spirit.
You can also refer to it as ancestors' worship. A belief in ancestral spirits rests on
the conviction that the spirit parts of humans, after departing from the body,
continue to exist in some form. Rituals are made to these spirits, especially spirits
of important or influential people, to give to tribute and/or make appeasement to
them by their living descendants. Those who believe in the worship of the spirits
of their ancestors believe that the spirits have emotions, feelings, and appetites
like living people and they must be treated well to assure their continued good
will and assistance to the living. This is done through what is called ancestor
67
veneration. Another variant of believe in the spirits of the dead is spiritism.
This has to do with communication with the dead through a medium.
7.4 Aspects of Yoruba religion

The Yoruba people are located in the western part of Africa and they have one of
the largest ethnic groups in Sub-Saharan Africa. The religion of the Yoruba
people connotes their indigenous beliefs religious which has been passed down
form one generation to the other through oral history. It is worthy of note that
Yoruba religion is diverse and has no single founder. Apart from the belief in the
supreme God which they call Olódùmarè, they also belief in some lesser gods or
dieties which they see as subordinate to the supreme being. In Yoruba belief
system, Olódùmarè has total control and power over the universe and no one can
question him.
Fig 7.5 Obàtálá’s Priests (Picture from Google)
Apart from Olódùmarè, the Yoruba belief in and worship other divinities, called
òrìsà in the Yoruba language. These divinities are believed to have control over
specific elements in nature. One of these divinities is Obàtálá who they believed
was sent by Olódùmarè to create the world. Obàtálá created humans out of earth
while Olódùmarè gave the breath of life to them. Tradition has it that following
68
his return to heaven, Obàtálá 's immediate descendants began to maintain a
shrine for the very structure in which they themselves were created from - clay,
and where God, first gave men and women his greatest gift, the breath of life.
Thereafter, members of the family were (and still are) installed as priests,
responsible for remembering the intricate and poetic commemorative
ceremonies of their ancestor, Obàtálá.
Fig 7.6 Obàtálá worshippers (Picture from Google).
Other divinities indigenous Yoruba people also belief in and worship are
Òrúnmìlà, believed to be the god of knowledge; Ògún, the god of iron; Sàngó, the
god of thunder; Yemoja and Òsun, mothers or gods of fertility who are associated
with water, amongst others. Another important component of the Yoruba
religion is the belief in Irúnmolès who are spirits or entities sent by the
Olódùmarè to complete given tasks. All these deities or divinities have peculiar
shrines, rituals and festival periods assigned to their worship.
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Fig 7.7 Early 20th century Yoruba divination board (Picture from wikipedia)
7.5 The religion of the oppressed

Karl Marx (1818-1883), a German sociologist and political philosopher,
championed the view that “religion is the opium of the masses”. This expression
is used to explain the fact that religion perpetuates social oppression. It is an
instrument used by the elite to secure their control over the poor or less
privileged. Marx believes that religion makes people passive, non-resistant and
adopt the moral virtues of suffering and hope – just like late Fela Anikulapo Kuti
sang in his song “suffering and smiling”. To illustrate this point, let us use slavery
as an example. From historical facts, slave owners used religion as a tool of
oppression against black slaves. Slaves were required to attend the church
belonging to their white owners in town and listen to a white preacher who
always admonishes them to be submissive and obedient to their masters, not to
steal their masters farm produce or flocks and remain faithful to their owners, no
matter what, all these amidst forced labour, dehumanisation and deprived
human rights.
Other forms of social oppression, perpetrated by religion, can also be found in
issues concerning men’s superiority to women and the belief that some races or
castes are superior to others. In all these cases, the oppressed are often moulded
into happily accepting their assigned inferior status, or when that’s not possible,
they are taught to at least suffer in silence. In summary, religion is like the two
sides of a coin - religion brings some good in a sense but is also capable of be
used to perpetuate great social evils, thereby becoming an instrument of harm.
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Activity 7.1
How religion is a social institution ?
Religion is a social institution in that it helps to socialize and integrate members
of the society into the values of the society and also helps to bind people together
in times of crises or confusion as well as in times of celebration or festivities.

1. Religion is universal and it is an important aspect of African life.
2. Religion is a social institution that help to socialize and integrate
individuals into the society and also serve as a binding force in times of
crises or celebration.
3. Beliefs and rituals are major components of religion.
4. Shamans, priests and prophets are common religious practitioners in evry
religion who serve to mediate between the members of the society and the
supernatural world.
5. Traditional, Africans beliefs and practices are varied with deep seated
conviction in the existence of spirits who have power over humans.
6. Yoruba religion is the religious beliefs of the Yoruba people. Apart from
believing in a supreme being called Olodumare, they also believe in other
smaller deities called Orisa and special sprits called Irunmole whom they
worship.
7. Although something good is inherent in religion, it can be used as an
instrument of social oppression.

How can you define religion?
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What do you understand by the religion of the oppressed?
Mention two characteristics of religion
List three deities in the Yoruba religion
What is the name of the Supreme God in Yoruba, Sereer and Nyoro
religious beliefs
SAQ 7.6 (tests learning outcome 7.5 and 7.6)
State three religious beliefs and practices among Africans
Mention two religious practitioners you know

SAQ 7.1
According to Kendall (2006), “religion is a system of beliefs, symbols, and rituals,
based on some sacred or supernatural realm, that guides human behaviour, gives
meaning to life, and study unites believers into a community”.
SAQ 7.2
Religion of the oppressed is using religion to perpetuate injustice. Also, religion
makes people passive and non-resistant. It also adopts the moral virtues of
suffering and hope.
SAQ 7.3
Two characteristics of religion are beliefs and rituals.
SAQ 7.4
Obàtálá, Yemoja and Sàngó
SAQ 7.5
The Yorubas call God Olódùmarè, The Sereer People call God Roog while the
Nyoro people call God Ruhanga.
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SAQ 7.6
Three religious beliefs and practices among Africans are totemism ancestral
worship and animism.
SAQ 7.7 Two religious practitioners are shamans and prophets
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Study Session 8: Political Institutions I
Introduction
In this study session, you will learn about another way Africans maintain their
societies and how behaviours are regulated in the society. One basic way the
society is maintained is through the use of power and authority to make
members of the society conform to societal expectations. This approach to the
maintenance of the society is embedded in the political institutions. Although the
political institutions cannot be totally separated from the legal institutions
(which we will treat in the next study session), the political institutions, apart
from the use of power and authority, also provide a means for making group
decisions and administering programmes.

8.1 Define and use correctly all of the key words printed in bold. (SAQs 8.1, SAQ
8.2, SAQ 8.3)
8.2 Identify indigenous political systems in Africa (SAQ 8.2)
8.3 Discuss at least 3 notable kingdoms in the African continent (SAQ 8.2,
8.3).
8.1 The meaning of political institutions and African Political systems

8.1.1 What are Political Organizations?
Political institutions are organizations that provide political representation for
people in the society. Political institutions consist of recognized structures, rules
and principles of maintaining social order, by a duly authorized machinery, in
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human communities. The form of political organisation common in pre-colonial
Africa is monarchical rule, a political system in which a representative from one
family controls the government and power is passed on through that family from
generation to generation.
8.1.2 African indigenous political systems – typology and critique

Africans depend on leaders who can coordinate the daily activities of the society.
While some leadership positions are hereditary, some others are attained
through responsible acts or conduct. It should, however, be noted that leadership
roles differ from one society to another. Some African societies have full-time
permanent leaders with real authority to make important decisions for their
communities while some others have temporary leaders who are constituted as
the need arises. In Africa, leaders could either be kings, queens or chiefs.
Sometimes there is an advisory board as well but there were no professional
administrators. While some African countries operated as chiefdoms or
kingdoms in which members of society are ranked relative to the head, some
were run as states. For instance, Baganda and Bunyoro communities in Uganda
and ancient Egypt are examples of societies which operated as kingdoms.
However, ancient Egypt eventually became a state with stratified social classes in
terms of wealth, power and prestige.
In ancient Egypt, the political administration revolved largely around a single
figure called Pharaoh. His people believed that he was a living god. This status of
divine kingship basically granted pharaoh unlimited power and control over his
subjects. Pharaoh’s people did not own anything. Everything in the land belonged
to Pharaoh. A number of people assisted Pharaoh in his political duties and
carried out his decrees. Amongst these were priests and holy men. These priests
and holy men were given preferential treatment above other people and were a
kind of nobility in their own right. In the early years, the sons of Pharaoh and
other close relatives acted as his principal advisers and assistants. The political
structure of the ancient Egyptians involved other officials, including viziers, the
Prime Minister, army commanders, the principal officers, the Minister of Public
75
Works and tax collectors, who report directly to the Pharaoh. The land was
divided into provinces called Nomes. Each nome had a governor appointed by the
king, and responsible to the vizier.
Fig. 8.1 Five political regions of Africa (picture from Google)
Just like the Egyptian Pharaohs, most African kings are seen as divine or next to
God. In Yoruba land, they are hailed as ‘aláse, èkejì òrisà’ (the commander, the
next to the deity or god). Kings are known to be very powerful and autocratic. In
pre-colonial Africa, kings can do and undo. They can forcefully take another
man’s wife, impose heavy taxation on their subjects, have as many slaves as they
desired and promoted the practice of human sacrifices. Historically, African kings
have been documented to be major facilitators of the European slave trade.
Slavery and wars are endemic aspects of African politics. Before Europeans came
to Africa, African kings, elites and merchants have been involved in the
enslavement of their own people to increase their wealth and prestige. However,
76
European merchants and royal officials were able to tap into existing routes,
markets, and institutions to intensified enslavement in Africa. The incessant wars
promoted the importance of the military and made the sale of captives into the
slave trade an extension of the politics of regions of Africa. For example, in the
area called the Gold Coast, the empire of Asante rose to prominence in the period
of the slave trade. Although gold continued to be a major item of export, by the
end of the 17th century, the value of slaves made up almost two-thirds of
Asante's trade.
8.2 African kingdoms – structures and incorporation in new state

The African continent has a number of pre-colonial kingdoms, headed by kings,
queens or chiefs that range in size and influence. Among the popular pre-colonial
African kingdoms are the kingdom of Axum, the kingdom of Mali, the Ethiopian
kingdom, the Asante kingdom, the Songhay kingdom, the Nupe kingdom, the
Benin kingdom and so on. In the following sections, we will discuss some of these
kingdoms briefly.
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Fig. 8.2 African kingdoms and empires.
8.2.1 Notable Kingdoms in North Africa
The Northern part of the African continent constitutes countries such as Algeria,
Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia and Western Sahara. We will take a brief
look at a kingdom in Tunisia.
Husainid Dynasty, Tunisia

The Husainid Dynasty is the former ruling dynasty of Tunisia. The Husainid
Dynasty replaced the Muradid Danastyin 1705. Kings, known as Beys ruled in the
kingdom with succession to the throne determined by age, that is, the oldest
78
member of the dynasty becomes Bey. The heir apparent to the Bey held the title
Bey al-Mahalla. Since October 2006, the current head of the dynasty is Prince
Muhammad Bey – the grandson of Muhammad Muhammad V an-Nasir.
o Every tribe in a country has a political history that originates from the rise
and fall of kingdoms. Do you agree with this?
• This statement is so true because no country just came into existence
without a past of the rise and fall of a kingdom or kingdoms. Tribes have
stories of their history. Although some stories are quite dramatic others
may just be simple.
8.2.2 Notable Kingdoms in West Africa

The history of West Africa consists of the rise and fall of many kingdoms.
Prominent among these kingdoms are the Benin kingdom, the Oyo Empire, the
Asante (or Ashanti) kingdom, the Nupe kingdom and numerous others. We will
now take a brief look at the kingdom of Ghana, a region formally referred to as
The Gold Coast and the Oyo Empire in Nigeria.
The Empire of Ghana

The Ghana Empire is one of the earliest known kingdoms in West Africa.
Historians believe that the kingdom of Ghana probably began under the
leadership of a great king named Dinga Cisse. The Ghana Kingdom was headed by
a king who was ably assisted by a council of elders. The kingdom was divided
into districts headed by a district leader. The district leaders judiciously guided
each of their districts. The Ghana kingdom had laws that people mostly obeyed.
The trade in salt and gold played a remarkable role in the formation of the Ghana
Kingdom. Ghana never owned gold mines or salt mines but because it was in the
middle of the trade between the salt mines of kingdoms in the north Sahara
Desert and the gold mines of kingdoms to the south, Ghana prospered by
controlling the trade routes. Ghana traded gold with the kingdoms to the north
for salt, then, traded salt with the kingdoms in the south for gold. As trade
increased, Ghana’s rulers gained power. Ghana’s rulers made money by forcing
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traders to pay taxes. The rulers of Ghana used the wealth from their trade in,
especially, these two products, to build a powerful empire.
Additional sources of wealth and trade included wheat, sheep, cattle, honey,
leather, cloth, and tassels made from golden thread. As more and more traders
braved the Trans-Sahara trade routes, bringing spices and silks to Ghana, and
taking gold in trade, the Kingdom of Ghana flourished. Ghana and other West
African kingdoms soon became collectively known as The Gold Coast.
The Oyo Kingdom

Our discussion on the Oyo Kingdom will be largely based on the materials
compiled by Wikipedia, an internet source. You could go to the site and read a
detailed version of the abridged form presented below.
The Oyo kingdom is one of the largest empires in West Africa. Oral history has it
that the Oyo kingdom originated through a Yoruba prince named Òrànmíyàn, the
son of Òdùduwà. Òrànmíyàn, the first Oba (king) of Oyo, was succeeded by Oba
Ajaka, called Aláàfin of Oyo. Ajaka was later deposed because he lacked Yoruba
military virtue and allowed his sub-chiefs too much independence. During the
17th century, Oyo began a long stretch of growth, becoming a major empire. The
Oyo Empire developed a highly sophisticated political structure to govern its
territorial domains. The Aláàfin of Oyo, the king, was the head of the empire and
the supreme overlord of the people.
Box 8.1: Origins of Civilization in Africa

Africa is believed to be the cradle of civilizations by historians. Civilization is
believed to have originated from Egypt as well as Ethiopia.
The Oyo Empire was not a hereditary monarchy, nor an absolute one. A group or
council known as the Oyo Mesi were responsible for selecting the Aláàfin. The
Aláàfin was not always directly related to his predecessor, although he has to be
a descendant of Òrànmíyàn and to hail from the Ona Isokun ward -which is one of
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the three royal wards. The Aláàfin of Oyo appointed certain religious and
government officials, known as the ilaris, who are usually eunuchs, to either do
menial tasks, act as guards or sometimes serve as messengers to the other world
via sacrifice. The Oyo Mesi and the Yoruba Ogboni cult kept the Oba’s power in
check. If the Aláàfin lost favour with the council or his headship is disapproved
by the council, comprising of the Oyo Mesis and the Ogboni Members, the
Bashòrun, one of the key chiefs in the kingdom, will present the Aláàfin with an
empty calabash, or parrot's egg as a sign that he must commit suicide. This was
the only way to remove the Aláàfin because he could not be legally deposed.
8.2.3 Notable Kingdoms in East Africa

East Africa is a vast area encompassing the countries of Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia,
Somalia, Djibouti, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Seychelles, and
Comoros. East Africa has a rich history of kingdoms. The region is known to be
home to one of the earliest known kingdoms in the world known as Nubia
kingdom. Other kingdoms that developed in East Africa include Aksum, the
Buganda Kingdom, Rwanda and the Swahili coast city-states. For the purpose of
our study in this section, we will consider the ancient Rwanda kingdom.
Fig. 8. 3 Map of East Africa (picture from Exploring Africa)
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The Rwandan Kingdom
Rwanda has three major ethnic groups namely Bahutu, Batutsi and Batwa. The
country has a highly organised and centralised system of administration. The
kingdom was presided over by a king referred to as Umwami in Rwandan
language. Rwandan kings are mainly selected from the Nyiginya clan within the
Tutsi sub-group. The power of the Umwami is nearly absolute, however, he was
assisted by three main chiefs namely: a military chief who was responsible for
the army; a cattle chief who oversaw all matters pertaining to cattle keeping,
grazing and settling related disputes and a land chief who was responsible for
agricultural land, produce and related affairs. The chiefs were mainly from the
Tutsi group but most often, the chief of land normally comes from the Hutu
subgroup. Aside these three chiefs, the queen mother also played a significant
role in the administration of the kingdom. The relationship between the king and
the rest of the population was unequal. This inequality was sustained by an
highly organised system called Ubuhake (a clientilist kind of relationship
between the landed elites and the ordinary subjects with little or no lands). With
the exception of wars of conquest and expansion, pre-colonial Rwandan was
largely peaceful. However, for about 20 generations, one Tutsi clan, the Nyiginya,
dominated the political scene.
8.2.4 Notable Kingdoms in Southern Part of Africa

The southern part of Africa comprises of a number of countries amongst which are
Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, Swaziland, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mozambique,
Angola and the republic of South Africa. We shall take a brief look at the Kingdom of
Mutapa in Zimbabwe.
82
Fig. 8.4 Young maidens in South Africa take part in a colourful cultural festival called
reed dance to honour their king and the queen mother (picture from Google)
The Kingdom of Mutapa, Zimbabwe

The Mutapa kingdom stretched between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers of
southern Africa in the modern states of Zimbabwe and Mozambique. The Mutapa
kingdom dates back to sometime in the first half of the 15th century. According
to oral tradition, the first Mwene (King) was a warrior prince named Nyatsimba
Mutota from the Kingdom of Zimbabwe. He was sent to find new sources of salt
in the north. Prince Mutota found the salt among the Tavara, a Shona subdivision,
who he conquered and then established a capital at Zvongombe by the Zambezi.
When Mutota died, he was succeeded by Matope who expanded the kingdom into
an empire encompassing most of the lands between Tavara and the Indian Ocean.
This expansion weakened the Torwa kingdom, the southern Shona state from
which Mutota and his dynasty originated. Mwenemutapa Matope's armies
overran the kingdom of the Manyika as well as the coastal kingdoms of Kiteve
and Madanda. By the time the Portuguese arrived on the coast of Mozambique,
the Mutapa Kingdom was the premier Shona state in the region.
83
Fig. 8.5 Map of Southern Africa (picture from Google).

1. Political institutions are organizations that provide political
representation for people in the society.
2. The political institutions in African in morchinal in nature. They are
operated either as kingdoms or state presided over by a king, queen or
chief.
3. In pre-colonial Africa, kings can be very brutal. They actually facilitated the
European slave trade due to what they were gaining from it.
4. The African continent has a number of notable pre-colonial kingdoms such
as the kingdom of Axum, the kingdom of Mali, the Ethiopian kingdom, the
Asante kingdom, the Songhay kingdom, the Nupe kingdom, the Benin
kingdom amongst others.

How can you correctly define a political institution?
84
Locate and identify the following African political institutions on the map:
1. Central Africa
2. North Africa
3. East Africa
4. West Africa
5. Southern Africa

Discuss at least 3 notable kingdoms in the African continent (SAQ 8.2, 8.3).

SAQ 8.1
Political institutions are organizations that provide political representation for
people in the society.
SAQ 8.2:
85
SAQ 8.3
The Empire of Ghana
The Ghana Empire is one of the earliest known kingdoms in West Africa.
Historians believe that the kingdom of Ghana probably began under the
leadership of a great king named Dinga Cisse. The Ghana Kingdom was headed by
a king who was ably assisted by a council of elders. The kingdom was divided
into districts headed by a district leader. The district leaders judiciously guided
each of their districts. The Ghana kingdom had laws that people mostly obeyed.
The trade in salt and gold played a remarkable role in the formation of the Ghana
Kingdom. Ghana never owned gold mines or salt mines but because it was in the
middle of the trade between the salt mines of kingdoms in the north Sahara
Desert and the gold mines of kingdoms to the south, Ghana prospered by
controlling the trade routes.
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The Oyo Kingdom
The Oyo kingdom is one of the largest empires in West Africa. Oral history has it
that the Oyo kingdom originated through a Yoruba prince named Òrànmíyàn, the
son of Òdùduwà. Òrànmíyàn, the first Oba (king) of Oyo, was succeeded by Oba
Ajaka, called Aláàfin of Oyo. Ajaka was later deposed because he lacked Yoruba
military virtue and allowed his sub-chiefs too much independence. During the
17th century, Oyo began a long stretch of growth, becoming a major empire. The
Oyo Empire developed a highly sophisticated political structure to govern its
territorial domains. The Aláàfin of Oyo, the king, was the head of the empire and
the supreme overlord of the people.
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Study Session 9 Political Institutions II
Introduction
In the last study session, we discussed the role of political institutions in using
power and authority to make members of the society conform to societal
expectations. In this study session, we will discuss the various issues we will be
looking at in this study sessions are the indigenous political systems in Africa,
some empires in Africa, succession to high political offices in Africa, the formal
procedures or rites involved in kingship traditions and the relationship between
kinship and politics.

9.1 Define and use correctly all of the key words printed in bold. (SAQ 9.1, SAQ 9.2,
SAQ 9.4)
9.2 Describe the rules of succession to high political offices in Africa. (SAQ 9.2)
9.3 Explain at least 2 different rituals of kinship. (SAQ 9.3)
9.4 Discuss the relationship between kinship and politics in Africa (SAQ 9.4)
9.1 Succession to high political offices in Africa

There are rules for selecting individuals into positions of authority in any society.
In Africa, the recruitment or succession of an individual into high office is very
important owing to the fact that there are limited high profile positions and these
positions must be occupied by the right person(s). High profile positions such as
the position of a king, the position of the second in command to the king, the
position of the third in command to the king, the position of a military head and
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the position of women leaders are sensitive positions that require scrutinising
possible successors before being selected. In some African societies, succession
to a position is based on lineage. For instance, in Ghana, among the Akan people,
a successor to the throne or any traditional political positions is selected based
on matrilineal affiliations. That is, members of the society assume leadership
positions through their mothers’ family whereas, in Nigeria, individuals assume
leadership positions in connection to their fathers’ lineage. Furthermore, in
some societies, only members of a particular family are recognised as being
qualified to occupy a position of authority, whereas, some others practice
rotational succession like the one practised in Ibadan, the capital of Òyó State,
in which ascension to the throne as a king is rotated among the Ibadan high
profile chiefs. The next in rank to the king that died automatically becomes the
new king. Sometimes, recruitment into some important positions of authority in
the society are honorary in nature based on the recipients’ achievements,
character, bravery and so on.
Fig. 6.6 An Akan king (seated -third from left to right)
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9.2 Rituals of Kingship in Africa
9.2.1 The concept of Rituals of Kingship in Africa
In Africa, the coronation of a king is accompanied by different forms of rites and
ceremonies. That is, the ascension to the throne by a prince or selected king-to-
be, after the death of a old king, requires some form of elaborate rituals. Although
the ceremonies and requirements for a new king to ascend the throne vary
among Africa societies, every society has its own ritual that a king-to-be must
undergo before ascending the throne. According to Peter, Kopsieker, Katiba and
Stiftung (2006), African societies had a known system of succession. There was
a system by which a successor was chosen when a leader, be it a chief, king or
spokesman dies. In some societies, the succession was hereditary. In some
others, a successor could be one designated by the chief or king according to the
criteria determined by the culture of that society or tribe. Some societies had no
hereditary leaders and the choice of a successor depended on special qualities
such as the ability to arbitrate. Normally, however, in most systems, succession
was limited to certain classes or clans in the society. We will look closely at four
different types of rituals kings in Africa undergo before their official installations
as king.
o The procedural ceremonies or rites marking a king’s coronation can also

be referred to as what?
• Rituals of Kinship
9.2.2 Rituals of Kingship in Nyoro

The Nyoro people are located in Uganda, East Africa. The most complete
scholarly study of the Nyoro people was done by John Beattie (1960) in this book
Bunyoro: An African Kingdom. The land of Nyoro is made up of 135 clans. Every
individual in the land belongs to one of the clans. However, the Nyoro king
always come from the Bito clan. The entitlement of the Bito clan to rule is
supported by a number of oral histories and practices. The Nyoro king is called
mukama. When an old mukama dies and a new one is to be selected, a number of
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rituals were observed. It was the rituals, correctly performed, that made a
normal Bito into a mukama. The Nyoro mukama has some non-Bito courtiers
who work in his palace. When he dies, the courtiers have the responsibility of
preparing his body for burial. This preparation normally last for about four
months. The dead mukama’s body will be slowly dried out and smoked with
drippings from the decaying corpse being carefully preserved to be consumed by
the new mukama in the course of his installation, thus, physically transmitting
something of the royal line to each new ruler.
The accession ceremonies of a new king include washing, shaving, and nail-
paring rites, been anointed with a special oil and smearing with white chalk,
ceremonial milk drinking, and animal sacrifice. Furthermore, the new mukama is
handed various objects symbolizing political and military power, such as spears,
a bow and arrows, a dagger, and a stick, and he is formally admonished and
instructed to rule wisely, to kill his enemies, and to protect his people. Another
rite is the ceremonial acting-out of the settlement of a lawsuit in which one man
sues another for debt. It is a symbolic way of impressing on both king and people
the important part he is to play as lawgiver and judge. Finally, there is a
ceremony in which the king shoots arrows with the bow he has been given
toward the four points of the compass, saying as he does so: “Thus, I shoot the
countries to overcome them” (Beattie 1960). Many of these symbolic acts were to
be repeated by the mukama annually or even more often throughout his reign,
for they served as constant signposts of his status as protector and symbol of his
nation (Jordan, n.d).
9.2.3 Rituals of Kingship in Benin

The abridged version of Nevadomsky's (1993) extensive anthropological study of
the rituals of kingship of the Benin people will be used in our discussion on
Benin’s rituals of kingship. According to Nevadomsky (1993), the ceremonial
kingship rituals among the Benin people of Nigeria can be grouped into three
parts namely: the investiture ceremonies which has to do with conferring the
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king-to-be with the position of ‘Edaiken’, or Crown Prince; the burial rites of the
dead king called Emwinekhua and the accession itself. The rituals of succession
for the first son of a dead monarch begins soon after the confirmation of the
death of his father. These rituals, sometimes, takes close to one year to conclude.
Every crown prince lives in a makeshift palace of his own on the outskirts of the
city where he completes his training in the etiquette of kingship.
By custom, anyone about to be made a king is first initiated into one of the three
palace societies charged with the state regalia, the harem and the king's person.
The prince is expected to pay homage at the shrines of Osa (God). Over a two-
week period, the prince distributed enormous quantities of cloth, food and
money. He created chieftaincy titles for his wives and prepared an elaborate feast
for the senior town and palace chiefs. Every morning, royal dance groups
welcomed him as he emerged from the palace. On the seventh day, priests
anoints the prince's head with the blood of sacrificial animals, an act testifying to
the belief that the fate and fortune of an individual are symbolized by the head
and the belief that the blood of an animal is a substitute for the life of a man.
Finally, after some other forms of necessary rituals, the royal butchers sacrificed
a chicken, goat and cow for the king’s coronation. To announce the successful
conclusion of the ceremony, retainers carried the head of the cow to the palace.
After some other forms of compulsory and symbolic ceremonial activities, the
new king officially ascends the throne and establishes his headship.
9.2.4 Rituals Of Kingship In Owambo land, Namibia

Salokoski’s (2006) study on Owambo land gave a lengthy account of kingship and
rituals of kingship in the land. The abridged version of his study will be discussed
in this section. In his study, he identified four ritual processes of kingship in
Owambo land. The first is the “un-making” of a king through ritual regicide and
kingly burial. Regicide is the ritual of killing an old and feeble king. What
commonly happened was that when the king was old or weakened by illness, he
was suffocated by a “soft sheepskin” or by other means through which his
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breathing was made to stop. Kingly inauguration usually begins with this ritual
killing of the old king. This reflects the power transfer from the old king at the
moment of the ritual. Regicide was considered an essential aspect in making the
new king.
The second process, the sacralisation of a king-elect through inaugural rituals,

takes place during the installation of the new Owambo king. It was through these
rituals that the king could legitimately take over power. The third process is the
strengthening of kingship through the appropriation of rituals which is broadly
related to the fertility of the land, and fourthly, is the process of the devolution of
sacred kingship. A major prerequisite for being king in Owambo societies was to
be of the kingly clan in power. Other conditions were those pertaining to political
suitability and to ritual purity. The criterion of physical wholesomeness excluded
a blind or crippled person from becoming king and no man whose wife or mother
had given birth to twins could be considered for kingship. According to custom, a
new ruler took a woman from a particular clan to become his head wife. She
assumed part of the secret power of the king through special rituals and,
according to oral tradition, in the past, she was killed when the king died. The
Head Councillor of the king, and also other officials at the kingly court also had to
die with the king just like his head wife.
9.2. Rituals of Kinship in Asante (or Ashanti), Ghana.

The symbol of political authority in Ashanti is the Stool. To Ashantis, the Golden
Stool is the source of the nation's vitality and strength. In Asante, the Asantehene
(king) is not a Divine King. It is the Golden Stool that is Divine. The King of
Ashanti is only its sacred agent. Ashantis do not allow any person who cannot
reflect the sacredness and beauty of their national spirit in himself to be king. A
royal cannot be king if it is proved that he is infertile, has committed felony, is
impotent, is a habitual drunkard, is a gambler, is deaf, is leprous or is deformed in
any way. For a royal to become a king, after the death of the old king, the king-
elect will undergo the ritual of ‘enstoolment’ which seeks to change the nature of
93
the person selected for office to fit him for his role as king. A number of people,
such as the Queen-mother; the Akyiaa Ama (the ritual mother); the
Adwumakaasihene (the ritual father) and many others, play significant roles in
the coronation of the new king. Without them performing their own part of the
ritual, the Asantehene-elect cannot become king. For a detailed account of every
ritual to be performed by the Asante king-elect, check the online version of the
work of George Hagan tilted ‘The Golden Stool and the Oaths to the King of
Ashanti.
6.6 Kinship and politics

Kinship has to do with family relations and traditional indigenous government in
most African states are based on kinship ties. While eligibility into leadership
roles and prestigious positions are hereditary in nature, most political offices
have rules of inclusion and exclusion as well as rights and limitation for each
office. Among the Ashanti’s of Ghana, for instance, there are two traditional
female political roles (hemmaa and Obaapanin) that are retained within the
immediate families of the office holders. The political titles of these women give
them the right not only to bear kings but to name a person to kingship.
Succession to these positions is from sister to sister to daughter, and then to a
grand-daughter. In the absence of a male royal to occupy the throne, a female
royal in any of these categories could be crowned as “King”. That is, no individual
outside the families of these two key people can ever occupy that position.
Another good example is the government of the Bafut, in Cameron. The political
structure is a complex web of relations of kinship, loyalty and tribute which
centred around the palace. The Bafut political system centered on the Fon or
Mfor who was the source of political and religious life of the people. The Mfor
controlled external relations and made laws internally. The Fon was assisted and
advised by titled royals. The most prominent among them is the Mamfor, the
mother of the Fon, which could either be is his real mother or his sister. In
addition, he had two assistants, who are his brothers, called Ndimfor (older
94
brother) and Muma (younger brother). However, none of them (his brothers
serving as assistants) can serve as kings in the event of the Fon’s death or
incapacitation. There is a body of elders, known as Kwifor ( meaning holder or
supporter of the Fon), who actually share power with Fon and deputised for him.
It is the Kwifor that plays the role of kingmakers in Bafut and serve as a check on
royal power. The Kwifor also assisted the Fon in judicial matters. When
investigations have to be done on cases and the investigations have been
completed, the Fon delivered judgement while Kwifor undertakes its execution.
Activity 9.1
How are kings referred to in Nyoro, Rwanda and Oyo Kingdoms?
In Nyoro kingdom, a king is called mukama; in Rwanda, a king is referred to as
Umwami while in Oyo kingdom, the king is known as the Aláàfin.

1. Succession into the position of a king or other high profile political offices
in African societies requires some rites or rituals.
2. Politics in Africa are closely tied to kinship affiliations.

What is ritual of Kinship?
There are rules that govern succession, describe the rules of succession to high
political offices in Africa
SAQ 9.3 (tests learning outcome 9.)
Explain at least 2 different rituals of kinship.
Briefly discuss the connection between kinship and politics?
95
SAQ 9.1:
African societies had a known system of succession. There was a system by
which a successor was chosen when a leader, be it a chief, king or spokesman
dies. This process by which a successor take the place of his predecessor is
known an ritual of kinship. In some societies, the succession was hereditary. In
some others, a successor could be one designated by the chief or king according
to the criteria determined by the culture of that society or tribe. Some societies
had no hereditary leaders and the choice of a successor depended on special
qualities such as the ability to arbitrate.
SAQ 9.2:
There are rules for selecting individuals into positions of authority in any society.
In Africa, the recruitment or succession of an individual into high office can be
based on any of the following:
1. Lineage
2. Matrilineal affiliations.
3. Fathers’ lineage.
4. members of a particular family
5. rotational succession
6. honorary in nature
SAQ 9.3:
Rituals of Kingship in Benin
According to Nevadomsky (1993), the ceremonial kingship rituals among the
Benin people of Nigeria can be grouped into three parts namely: the investiture
ceremonies which has to do with conferring the king-to-be with the position of
‘Edaiken’, or Crown Prince; the burial rites of the dead king called Emwinekhua
and the accession itself. The rituals of succession for the first son of a dead
monarch begins soon after the confirmation of the death of his father. These
rituals, sometimes, takes close to one year to conclude. Every crown prince lives
in a makeshift palace of his own on the outskirts of the city where he completes
his training in the etiquette of kingship.
96
By custom, anyone about to be made a king is first initiated into one of the three
palace societies charged with the state regalia, the harem and the king's person.
The prince is expected to pay homage at the shrines of Osa (God). Over a two-
week period, the prince distributed enormous quantities of cloth, food and
money. He created chieftaincy titles for his wives and prepared an elaborate feast
for the senior town and palace chiefs. Every morning, royal dance groups
welcomed him as he emerged from the palace. On the seventh day, priests
anoints the prince's head with the blood of sacrificial animals, an act testifying to
the belief that the fate and fortune of an individual are symbolized by the head
and the belief that the blood of an animal is a substitute for the life of a man.
Finally, after some other forms of necessary rituals, the royal butchers sacrificed
a chicken, goat and cow for the king’s coronation. To announce the successful
conclusion of the ceremony, retainers carried the head of the cow to the palace.
After some other forms of compulsory and symbolic ceremonial activities, the
new king officially ascends the throne and establishes his headship.
Rituals of Kinship in Asante (or Ashanti), Ghana.
The symbol of political authority in Ashanti is the Stool. To Ashantis, the Golden
Stool is the source of the nation's vitality and strength. In Asante, the Asantehene
(king) is not a Divine King. It is the Golden Stool that is Divine. The King of
Ashanti is only its sacred agent. Ashantis do not allow any person who cannot
reflect the sacredness and beauty of their national spirit in himself to be king. A
royal cannot be king if it is proved that he is infertile, has committed felony, is
impotent, is a habitual drunkard, is a gambler, is deaf, is leprous or is deformed in
any way. For a royal to become a king, after the death of the old king, the king-
elect will undergo the ritual of ‘enstoolment’ which seeks to change the nature of
the person selected for office to fit him for his role as king. A number of people,
such as the Queen-mother; the Akyiaa Ama (the ritual mother); the
Adwumakaasihene (the ritual father) and many others, play significant roles in
the coronation of the new king. Without them performing their own part of the
ritual, the Asantehene-elect cannot become king. For a detailed account of every
97
ritual to be performed by the Asante king-elect, check the online version of the
work of George Hagan tilted ‘The Golden Stool and the Oaths to the King of
Ashanti.
SAQ 9.4: The connection between politics and kingship is that the two are closely
knitted. No member of a society can occupy a political position not historically
connected to his/her clan or family. Also, most African political office holders are
related to one another in one way or the other.
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Study session 10 The legal institutions
Introduction
Disagreements occur every now and then. Sometimes, disagreements can be
among individuals in the society in relation to family matters, property
ownerships and deviant acts. In such cases, there are mechanisms and
institutions put in place to resolve such disputes. These mechanisms and
institutions are known as the legal institution. This institution is our focus in this
study session.

10.1 Define and use correctly all of the key words printed in bold. (SAQs 10.1, SAQ
10.2)
10.2 List and explain at least 2 major methods of social control (SAQ 10.2)
10.3 Describe the nature of customary and religious laws (SAQ 10.3, SAQs
10.1)
10.4 Explain dispute and conflict resolution in Africa (SAQ 10.4, SAQs 10.1)
10.5 Discuss the problem of ethnic pluralism in Africa (SAQ 10.5)
10.1 The meaning of the legal institutions

The legal institution or system is the process by which laws are administered and
enforced. Legal institutions are structures put in place by members of society for
conflict resolutions. Legal institutions create laws, enforce laws and mediate
conflicts among the members of the society. They are set up as an instrument of
social control to place restraint upon the behaviour of members of the society.
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The legal systems in Africa are commonly based or civil/customary law, common
law, religious law or a combination of these. Indigenous African legal institutions
are basically founded on customary and religious laws.
10.1.1 Customary Laws

Customary law refers to the uncodified law or legal system developed and
practised by indigenous communities. Usually this type of legal system evolved
from the ways of life- that is, the values, customs and norms of a people. It is the
traditional rule or practice that has become an integral part of the accepted and
expected behaviour in a community and is treated as a legal obligation. To
illustrate this point, among the Vais of Sierra Leone, there are unwritten laws
against murder, treason, rape, abduction, seduction, adultery and theft. Offences
such as murder and witchcraft are known by all members of that society to be
punishable by death while offences such as rape, adultery, theft and the likes are
known to be punishable by fines and/or imprisonment.
10.1.2 Religious Laws

Religious laws are moral codes embedded in the religious beliefs of a people.
African traditional religions specify conducts that are regarded as good manners
and those that are treated as abominable acts. Most times, the line between good
and abominable conducts are spelt out through a number of dos and don’ts in a
society or through what can be referred to as taboos. Religious laws mete out
sanctions to offenders. However, these sanctions are based on religious dictates.
10.2 Law, Social Order and social control

In a general sense, law may be regarded as the explicit and implicit rules for
conduct of members of society that are generally recognised or accepted and for
which positive or negative sanctions can exist. Radcliff-Brown (1952) defines
law as “those rules of conduct which have been officially announced as essential
in a particular society and which are officially enforced.” It has to do with the use
of force to regulate individual and group conduct and to prevent, redress or
100
punish deviations from prescribed social norms. Law provides a means of dealing
peacefully with whatever conflicts that may develop in society.
Social order and social control are closely related and are sometimes used
interchangeably. Social order refers to a set of social structures and social
practices which conserve, maintain and enforce "normal" ways of relating and
behaving in the society. Similarly, social control includes social mechanisms that
regulate individual and group behaviour leading to compliance to rules of a given
society.
Box 10.1: Ways of ensuring conformity with societal rules

There are two major ways of ensuring that individual members of the society
conform to laid down rules. These are through informal modes of social
control – which are mainly embedded in the customary laws of a society, and
formal modes of social control which are mainly based on sanctions. The
informal social control methods rely on the socialisation process of members
of society to establish social order while the formal one is expressed through
statutes or regulations against deviant acts. Under the formal mode of social
control, an offender may be required to pay fines or even be imprisoned.
10.3 Dispute and Conflict Resolution

Every society has institutions that adjudicate disputes and address any form of
threat against peaceful co-existence in the society. These are mainly done
through sanctions. When violence occurs in the society or a member of the
society violates the rules of the society, there will be a need to resolve this
violation. Disputes are usually settled between aggrieved parties either peaceful
or violently, depending on the severity of the dispute. Besides, the methods of
conflict resolution also serve as a system of social control in the society. Conflict
resolution not only serves as a means of restoring peace an resolving issues but it
also serves as a precedence and an ideal for others to follow in future.
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10.3.1 Traditional African Dispute and Conflict Resolution
In traditional African societies, great emphasis is put on peaceful resolution of
conflict and the promotion of social harmony through the principles of custom
and tradition of justice. For example, among the Tallensi of Ghana, violent
resolutions of conflicts are generally avoided. In order to promote peaceful
resolution of conflict, they celebrate a festival called Golib in which all disputes
and feuds between clans were forbidden.
Peacekeeping in most African communities follow four general principles. The
first was the settlement of disputes by deliberation and discussion, rather than
by force. The second was by correction of wrongdoing by compensation except
for serious crimes such as murder. The third was trial or adjudication by the
elders who were considered to be impartial and the fourth was the use of
fairness in any dispute situations. For disputes arising within the family - for
instance, a father and his son or between a man and his wife- such cases are
resolved, in some African societies, by the family head. If the aggrieved person is
not satisfied with the resolution, the case is referred to the head of the lineage for
further deliberation and settlement of the conflict. When disputes involve
persons from different lineages, the procedure for conflict resolution is slightly
different. The issue causing grievances to any respected member of the
community, say the head of his lineage who would call upon the head of the
offender's lineage or other elders to help ensure impartial arbitration. The elders
will be the ones to decide who was in the wrong and settled how the aggrieved
person will be appeased.
Among the Igbo people in Nigeria, dispute resolution are done in five indigenous
ways. It could be through the family head, the Umuadas (married daughters), the
village tribunal, the age grade and/or the religious priest. The family head
mediates in certain marital disputes such as cases of delinquency, boundary
disputes, and other cases between family members. If a member of the family
defies a family head, his married daughters, Umuada, may be invited to resolve
102
the dispute or enforce compliance with the decision. Matters involving persons
outside the family or issues that threaten the stability of the entire family were
referred to the village tribunal, composed of 10 to 15 lineage study sessions. The
tribunal study sessions handle matters relating to traditional ceremonies,
festivals, contract disputes with strangers and the likes. For disputes among the
youth, these are handled by the age-grades while disputes of mysterious nature,
such as a curse or strange illness, are usually referred to the priest or "medicine
man." Such mysterious issues are often resolved through divination.
Peaceful resolution of conflicts

African societies have various means of settling disagreement among individuals,
groups or parties in a peaceful manner. In societies without written or codified
laws, one way the legal institution in society resolve conflict in a peaceful way is
through community action. This could be in form of expelling the culprit from the
society or even executing the individual. Another way of peaceful resolution of
conflict is through oath taking and ordeal. Oath taking and ordeal both involve
appeals to supernatural powers. Oath taking is an act that involves calling upon a
deity to bear witness to what is being said while ordeal has to do subjecting an
accused person to a dangerous and painful test in a bid to determine guilt or
innocence. For example, in some societies, an accused person is forced to take
some form of poison. If he or she survives, it serves as a proof of his or her
innocence. In some societies, where laws are written or codified, conflicts are
settled peacefully in traditional law courts. For instance, the Ashantis of Ghana
have an elaborate legal arrangements. In Ashanti court procedures, elders
examined and cross-examined witnesses as well as parties to the dispute. There
were no advocates. Appeal against a verdict could be made directly to the chief
heading the court. In indigenous Africa, proverbs also serve as means of peaceful
conflict resolution.
103
Fig. 10.1 A picture showing a scene of an ethnic and religious clash (picture from google).
Violent Resolution of Conflicts

Although Africans generally avoid violent means of conflict resolution, they do
occur sometimes. Individuals may resort to violence when there are no effective
ways of resolving disputes. For instance, when there are unresolved conflicts
among communities, districts or political entities, it may be difficult to prevent
warfare among these set of people. Apart from using wars to resolve disputes,
aggrieved parties may decide to raid their opponents by using force to acquire
goods, animals or other forms of wealth belonging their opponents.
10.4 Ethnic Pluralism in Africa - Burundi And Rwanda

Most Africa societies are pluralistic in nature. African countries are laden with
ethnic, religious and cultural diversities which are common sources of tension. In
the past few decades or nearly half of a century, African societies have been
undergoing difficult times in terms of ethnic and religious, sometimes, cultural
conflicts. Ethnic, religious and religious conflicts have taken different shapes and
dimensions in African. While these conflicts may not be preconceived at the time
of occurrence, they normally cause untold damages and losses. To illustrate this,
let us take major ethnic crises in Burundi and Rwanda. There are various
104
accounts on the genocide that occurred in Burundi and Rwanda concerning the
ethnic strive between the Hutus, who are in the majority, and the Tutsis, who are
in the minority. A version of the 19102 and 1993 conflict in Burundi reports that
the vast majority of those killed were of Hutu origins, representing
approximately 80 per cent of a total population; the perpetrators were drawn
overwhelmingly from the Tutsi minority, accounting for some 15 per cent of the
population, its representatives holding full control over the armed forces and the
government.The Tutsi army killed the Hutu people in 1972 and the Tutsi people
were killed in the 1993 Genocide of Burundi.
Fig. 10.2 A picture showing indigenous Africans in the Congo region during Belgian rule,
where violent amputations were the preferred method used by Europeans as a way of
inflicting wounds that would not disappear (Picture by Ismail Lagardien).
105
In 1994, the Hutu majority in Rwanda organised and implemented the mass
slaughter of the Tutsi minority. In just 100 days, 800,000 Tutsi were slaughtered.
The Hutus and Tutsis are two ethnic groups in Rwanda who share a common
past. It was not until the Europeans came to colonise the area that the terms
"Tutsi" and "Hutu" took on a racial role. the colonialists empowered the Tutsi
aristocracy, and cemented the second class status of Hutus, in what had
previously been a fairly fluid social system. Upon leaving Rwanda, the colonialists
reversed their favoritism and handed over power to the Hutus. This did not
favour the Tutsis. However, in 1993, the then president of the country, Juvénal
Habyarimana, made some amendments in the country’s governing codes which
favoured the Tutsis but the Hutu extremists were displeased by this. On April 6,
1994, when President Habyarimana was returning from a summit in Tanzania, a
missile was shot at his plane and all on board died. Within 24 hours after the
crash, Hutu extremists had taken over the government, blamed the Tutsis for the
assassination, and begun the slaughter of the Tutsis which lasted 100 days.
In Nigeria, there have been a number of ethnic and religious conflicts as well.
There have been religious clashes between Muslims in the core north and
Christians living among them. Presently, the country is battling with the menace
of Boko Haram which is threatening the peaceful co-existence of the Nigerian
populace.
Box 7.2
African communities suffer from ethnic, racial, and religious tensions periodically
punctuated by outbreaks of brutality and carnage.
Activity 10.1
Take a moment to reflect on what you have read so far. Based on what you have
learnt about the legal institutions, mention two major laws on which the African
indigenous legal system was founded upon.
106
African traditional legal institutions were founded on customary and religious
laws.

1. The legal institution or system is the process by which law are
administered and enforced.
2. Laws are rules of conduct which have been officially announced as
essential in a particular society and which are officially enforced.
3. Customary laws usually evolve from the ways of life- that is, the values,
customs, norms and so on, of a people while religious laws are moral codes
embedded in the religious beliefs of a people
4. Dispute and conflict resolution could either be peaceful or violent.
5. Most Africa societies have numerous distinct ethnic, religious, or cultural
groups within a particular society and these groups are prone towards
conflicts.
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 10

of this Module.

How can you correctly explain the following terms?
1. Law
2. Social order and
3. social control
Mention and explain briefly two methods of social control
107
Describe the nature of customary and religious laws
SAQ 10.4. (tests learning outcome 10.5)
Why do you think people resort into violent means of dispute resolution?
Box 1.2: The scope and structure of social

Discuss the problem of ethnic pluralism in Africa using Rwanda as an example
Define legal institutions

SAQ 10.1:
Law may be regarded as the explicit and implicit rules for conduct of members of
society that are generally recognised or accepted and for which positive or
negative sanctions can exist. It has to do with the use of force to regulate
individual and group conduct and to prevent, redress or punish deviations from
prescribed social norms. Law provides a means of dealing peacefully with
whatever conflicts that may develop in society.
Social order and social control are closely related and are sometimes used
interchangeably. Social order refers to a set of social structures and social
practices which conserve maintain and enforce "normal" ways of relating and
behaving in the society. Similarly, social control includes social mechanisms that
regulate individual and group behaviour leading to compliance to rules of a given
society.
SAQ 10.2:
Two methods of social control are i) informal method of social control ii) formal
method of social control
108
SAQ 10.3:
Customary law refers to the unmodified law or legal system developed and
practised by indigenous communities. Usually this type of legal system evolved
from the ways of life- that is, the values, customs and norms of a people. It is the
traditional rule or practice that has become an integral part of the accepted and
expected behaviour in a community and is treated as a legal obligation
Religious laws are moral codes embedded in the religious beliefs of a people.
African traditional religions specify conducts that are regarded as good manners
and those that are treated as abominable acts. Most times, the line between good
and abominable conducts are spelt out through a number of dos and don’ts in a
society or through what can be referred to as taboos. Religious laws mete out
sanctions to offenders.
SAQ 10.4
People resort into violent means of dispute resolution where there are no
effective means of getting justice.
SAQ 10.5
Ethnic pluralism is the co-existence of various ethnic, religious and/or cultural
groups within the same society.
SAQ 10.6
The legal institution or system is the process by which laws are administered and
enforced
109
Study Session 11 Cultural Changes in African Social
Institutions
Introduction
There is a popular saying that says the only constant in life is “change” Changes
happen every now and then and these changes affect social institutions as well.
In this last study session, you will be intimated with the cultural changes that
have taken place in the various social institutions you have learnt about in the
preceding chapters.
Learning outcomes for study session 11

At the end of the study session, the learner should be able to:
11.1 Define and use correctly all of the key words printed in bold. (SAQs 11.1)
11.2 Identify the various changes that have occurred in at least 2 of the social
institutions (SAQ 11.1)
11.1 Cultural Changes in African Social Institutions

11.1.1 Cultural Changes within the Family Institution
The practice of polygamous marriages, in which a man may have more than one
wife, is declining in contemporary Africa. Although monogamy is widely
accepted above polygamous unions, these unions are plagued with a high rate of
divorce which was uncommon in the past. Recurrent remarriages among
divorced individuals are referred to as serial monogamies. Furthermore, unlike
in the past when sexual behaviours were strictly regulated, such restrictions no
longer exist. In the past, in Nigeria for example, it was a taboo for a lady to get
pregnant before getting married but now are days, some elders and clergies
advice intending couples to make sure the bride-to-be is pregnant before
110
performing the marriage rites. In addition, in the past, marriages are been
arranged by parents for their children. They help their male and female children
to find suitable partners. There was nothing like marrying a person because of
love. However, this has changed drastically from what it used to be. Although
parental consent is still much needed in the eventual choice of a life partner,
parents no longer search for spouses for their children, especially in western,
eastern and southern Nigeria. Marriage today is based on the love intending
couples have for each other. They only involve their parents when it comes to
seeking their approval to get married to the chosen person.
Fig. 11.1 Modern African wedding ceremony (Picture from Izismile).
11.1.2 Modifications in the Economic Institution

The economy of Africa was predominantly peasant and pastoral in early times.
While some members of the societies own large farm plots, others own
numerous livestock. Apart from these, individuals also trained as artisans in
professions like gold smiting, iron smelting and so on. The workforce for each
trade normally comes from the immediate families of each member of the
society. Women or wives are expected to assist their husbands in their trade and
111
children are trained in the line of their parents’ trade from their youth. Hence,
everyone had a means of earning a living. There were no problems of
unemployment. In fact, individuals had jobs beyond what they could
conveniently do. However, as a result of contact with the Europeans and also due
to the widespread of industrialisation that took place in Europe, African
economic institution took a new form. People migrated from the rural areas to
the urban centres, and even outside the country, to look for paid employment,
thereby, abandoning their trades. The change in the economic systems resulted
in some social problems which are still present in contemporary Africa.
Fig. 11.2 Modern means of production.
11.1.3 Changes in Educational Institutions

Education, in pre-colonial African context, can generally be thought of as a
medium for the transmission of the values of the society. Every member of the
community had a hand in contributing to the educational upbringing of a child.
Education, in the past, was essentially a societal instrument for the expansion of
human culture. In traditional Africa, the educational institutions mainly prepare
young persons in the areas of artistic performances, games, festivals, dancing,
singing, drawing and the likes as well as teaching and socialising the young ones
into societal expectations. Furthermore, young persons are trained in the
economic professions of their parents so that they could be self-supporting as
adults. In most African societies, the high point of the educational experience
112
always comes in form of the rites of passage ceremony which marks the
movement from childhood to adulthood. However, when colonialism took place,
many indigenous African educational systems began to change. With the advent
of western form of education, the focus shifted. Both young persons and adult
now strive to go to formal schools in order to get certificates for employment
outside the home as well as to compete favourably with others for limited
available opportunities.
Fig. 11.3 Children now have to start school early to prepare them for the future (Picture
from Baysider) .
11.1.4 Changes in Religious Institutions

Indigenous religious beliefs and practices have undergone some cultural and
social changes. In communal societies, religion permeated all aspects of society
but in contemporary industrial society, the institution of religion has become
separated from many social and economic activities. How did this occur? Most
African religious beliefs and practices require blood sacrifices to placate the gods
and involve other acts western countries will refer to as barbaric. Food sacrifices,
animal sacrifices and, in serious cases, human sacrifices were regular practices in
the indigenous African religions. These sacrifices are done either to placate the
gods or win one favour or the other from the gods. In the name of religion,
among the Calabar people in Nigeria, twins, as soon as they were born, were
buried with their mothers because this was seen as a bad omen. Among other
tribes in Nigeria, and elsewhere in Africa, female virgins were sacrificed annually
to one of the indigenous gods of the people. Apart from these, in the early periods
113
in eastern and western regions of Nigeria, part of the religious and burial rites for
kings involved killings many slaves or even free ones to “accompany the king to
heaven”. However, after contact with European Christian missionaries, things
began to change. The missionaries taught people how to read and write. As a
result of being able to read, people were able to read the bibles given to them by
the missionaries and they began to have new perspectives on some of their
religious beliefs and practices. As a result, adherence to these religious beliefs
and practices began to wane. In the past, members of the society connects with
their gods through their shamans or priests and receive directions on what to do
in all circumstances, however, in Africa today, many people have embraced
Christianity and Islam. These religions, although have their own priests that
oversee religious affairs, promote individual relationship with God and abhors all
sorts of blood sacrifices.
11.1.5 Changes in Political Institutions

In traditional political institution, succession to leadership positions is mostly
hereditary. The heir to the position, be it kingship or positions of chiefs, is always
very obvious - even before the death of an incumbent. However, current day
Africa has changed drastically. The influence of kings and chiefs have declined.
Due to colonial influence, most African countries indigenous political systems
have been eroded. African leaders have imbibed the political systems of their
colonial masters or borrowed other forms of government from the western
world. For example, most African countries have embraced the democratic type
of government. African countries that are not yet in democracies are clamouring
for such. This is because democracy is said to be the government of the people,
by the people and for the people. Members of societies now want to be directly
involved in controlling their affairs. In democracy, a number of eligible
individuals contest for leadership positions on the platform of political parties.
To eventually occupy the contested positions, they have to vote and be voted for
by their supporters. Most times, there may be speculations that the eventual
winner may not always be obvious. Additionally, some African countries are
114
ridden with political unrest due to military insurgencies in a bid to take over
power from incumbent governments. To become national leaders, military men
sometimes seize power by force through coup de tat. Sometimes, these coups are
peaceful, however, most times, they could be very bloody.
11.1.6 Changes in Legal Institutions

While Africa has been able to retain some contents of its legal institutions, it has
been affected or modified as a result of contacts with the colonialists. Before,
legal institutions were rooted in indigenous traditions, customs, religious beliefs
and native laws, however, now, there has been a mix with foreign types which
bears the hallmarks of European culture. Over the years, English and French
forms of legal systems and social control mechanisms in African countries have
taken on some local variations. In present day Africa, society depends on the
military, police and the general justice system in society to enforce compliance to
laws, rules and regulations, whereas in the past, it used to be the duties of family
heads, lineage heads, community tribunals and so on to enforce compliance to
societal rules and regulations. While these forms of indigenous legal systems are
still operative, they have been overshadowed by western forms of dispute and
conflict resolutions mechanisms.
115
Fig. 11.4 Session of the East African Court of Justice (EAC photo)
Activity 11.1
Take a moment to reflect on what you have read so far. Based on what you have
learnt, what major changes have taken place with the marriage and family
institutions?

One major change which has taken place within the family and marriage
institutions is that parents no longer arrange spouses for their children to marry.
Box 11.1
Since contact with Europeans and colonialists, African indigenous social
institutions has witnessed a tremendous change.
116
All indigenous social institutions in Africa have undergone tremendous
transformations, due mainly to colonialization and European contacts.
There is a wide difference between the social institutions in pre-colonial and
contemporary Africa.
have achieved its Learning Outcomes by answering these questions.
SAQ 11.1 (tests learning outcome 11.1, 11.2 )
Identify the various changes that have occurred in at least 2 of the social
institutions

SAQ 11.1
In contemporary Africa, education now involves going to formal schools to be
trained in order to fit well into life outside the home, however, in the past,
individuals, especially young boys and girls, were socialised and trained to fit
into adult, family and economic roles.
One major change in the African economic institutions is the movement from
peasant and pastoral societies to industrialised societies.
117
References List
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Aikara, J. 2004. Education: Sociological perspective. Rawat Publications.
An introduction to anthropology. 1971. The Macmillan Company.
Anderson, M.L and Taylor, H.F. Sociology: The Essentials. Belmont. CA. Thompson
Wadsworth.
Banton, M. 1966. Anthropological approaches to the study of religion. Redwood Burn
Limited. Trowbridge & Esher.
Beattie, J. 1960. Bunyoro: An African Kingdom . New York. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Cited in Jordan, D.K. n.d Organization and Mystification in an African
Kingdom(Bunyoro).
By Ferraro, G and Andreatta, S. 2011. Cultural Anthropology: An Applied Perspective
An Applied Perspective.
Eitzen D. S and Baca-Zinn, Maxine. 2001. Social Institutions. In Conflict and Order. 9th
Edition., Boston: Allyn and Bacon. pp. 47-49.
Ember, C.R and Ember, M. 1973. Cultural Anthropology. Appleton-Century-Crofts. New
York.
Giddens, A. 1984. The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration,
Cambridge: Polity Press.
Giddens, A. 1991. Introduction to Sociology. New York. W.W. Norton And
Company.
Guisepi, R. A. Africa and the Africans in the Age of the Atlantic Slave Trade.
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Kendall, Diana. Sociology in our time. 6th edition. Study sessioned States: Thomson
Wadsworth, 2006. Pp.348-376.
Nevadomsky, J. 1993. The Benin Kingdom: Rituals Of Kingship And Their Social
Meanings (l). African Study Monographs. Vol.14:2. Pp. 65 -77.
Oke, E.A. 2006. An introduction to social anthropology. Agbo Areo Publishers. Ibadan.
2nd edition.
Otite, O and Ogionwu, W. 2006. An introduction to sociological studies.
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Pastoral Societies. http://www.des.ucdavis.edu/faculty/Richerson/BooksOnline/He5-
95.pdf accessed on 10/7/2012.
Peter and Kopsieker. 2006. Political Succession in East Africa - In Search for a Limited
Leadership
Peter and Kopsieker: Political Succession in East Africa - In Search for a Limited
Leadership. Friedrich Ebert Sti�ung. Kenya.
Salokoski , M. 2006. How kings are made – how kingship changes. a study of rituals and
ritual change in pre-colonial and colonial Owamboland, Namibia. Academic
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Surhone, L. M., Timpledon, M. T and Marseken, S. F. 2010. Pastoralism. Review copy by
Mueller, E.K.
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COURSE MANUAL

African Social Institutions

University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

General Editor: Prof. Bayo Okunade

University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

In addition to provision of course materials in print and e-format, a lot of Information

Prof. Abel Idowu Olayinka

Professor Bayo Okunade

Expected duration: 1 week or 2 contact hours

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 1

1.1 Meaning, types and Function of Social Institutions

Box 1.1: Feature of societies

1.1.3 Different Forms Of Social Institutions In Africa

1.1.4 Function Of Social Institutions

The educational institution is dedicated to teaching skills and knowledge to

Religion as a social institution performs the function of providing solutions to

Activity 1.1 Feedback

Summary of Study Session 1

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1

Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1

The functions of social institutions are:

Expected duration: 1 week or 2 contact hours

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 2

2.1 The Concept of Marriage

In most societies in Africa, parental consent to a marriage partner is very

Box 2.1: What is marriage?

Box 2.2: Solemnisation of a marriage

Fig. 2.2 A traditional marriage in Africa (Picture from Google)

2.2 Different Kinds of Marriage

There is another form of polygamy called ‘group marriage. This is a combination

o Your response here is dependent on what is obtainable in your culture

2.2.3 Levirate And Sororate

Box 2.3 Duration Of Marriage

Summary of Study Session 2

SAQ 2.1 (tests learning outcome 2.1)

Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study session 2

Expected duration: 1 week or 2 contact hours

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 3

3.1.2 The Nuclear Family

Fig. 3.1 A typical Nuclear Family.

3. 1.3 Extended Family

The polygamous extended family could either be polygynous or polyandrous.

3.1.4 Clans or Sibs

Box 3.1: Illustration for Clans and Sibs

Activity 3.1 Feedback

Summary of Study Session 3

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study session 3

Expected duration: 1 week or 2 contact hours

Learning Outcomes for Study session 4

4.1 The Meaning of Economic Institution and division of labour

4.1.2 Division of Labour by Sex

4.1.3 Division of Labour by Age

Fig. 4.3 Young Farmers

4.1.4 Specialisation of Labour

4.1.5 Forced Labour

Box 4.1: Rearing of Livestock

4.2 African indigenous economies

4.2.2 Pastoral Technology