CLA 301: Reading For Academic Purpose.

CLA 301
Developmental Reading Skills
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Ibadan Distance Learning Programme Series
CLA 301
Developmental Reading Skills
By
Ayobami Ojebode, PhD.
and
Babatunde Raphael Ojebuyi
Department of Communication and Language Arts
University of Ibadan
Published by
Distance Learning Centre
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© Distance Learning Centre Series
Ibadan.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in retrieval, system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
permission of the copyright owner.
General Editor: Prof. Bayo Okunade

Series Editors: Mrs. Temitope A. Omoloye
Typesetted @ Distance Learning Centre, University of Ibadan
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Table of Contents
Page
Vice Chancellor’s Message … … … … … v
Foreword … … … … … … … vi
Lecture One: Clarification of Concepts… … … 1
Lecture Two: Reading Comprehension… … … 9
Lecture Three: The Word… … … … … 14
Lecture Four: Word Attack Skills … … … 23
Lecture Five: The Sentence I … … … … 30
Lecture Six: The Sentence II … … … … 34
Lecture Seven: Parts of A Sentence … … … 38
Lecture Eight: Studying the Sentence: Foregrounding … 42
Lecture Nine: The Paragraph… … … … 46
Lecture Ten: Structural Components of a Paragraph … 54
Lecture Eleven: Thought-Flow Patterns I… … … 60
Lecture Twelve: Thought-Flow Patterns II… … … 67
Lecture Thirteen: Studying the Text Book … … … 73
Lecture Fourteen: Underlining as a Text-Book Studying
Technique… … … … … 78
Lecture Fifteen: Critical Reading I … … … 82
Lecture Sixteen: Critical Reading II … … … 87
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Vice-Chancellor’s Message
The Distance Learning Centre is building on a solid tradition of over two decades
of service in the provision of External Studies Programme and now Distance
Learning Education in Nigeria and beyond. The Distance Learning mode to
which we are committed is providing access to many deserving Nigerians in
having access to higher education especially those who by the nature of their
engagement do not have the luxury of full time education. Recently, it is
contributing in no small measure to providing places for teeming Nigerian youths
who for one reason or the other could not get admission into the conventional
universities.
These course materials have been written by writers specially trained in
ODL course delivery. The writers have made great efforts to provide up to date
information, knowledge and skills in the different disciplines and ensure that the
materials are user-friendly.
In addition to provision of course materials in print and e-format, a lot of
Information Technology input has also gone into the deployment of course
materials. Most of them can be downloaded from the DLC website and are
available in audio format which you can also download into your mobile phones,
IPod, MP3 among other devices to allow you listen to the audio lectures. Some of
the lecture materials have been scripted and are being broadcast on the
university’s Diamond Radio FM 101.1, while others have been delivered and
captured in audio-visual format in a classroom environment for use by our
students. Detailed information on availability and access is available on the
website. We will continue in our efforts to provide and review course materials
for our courses.
However, for you to take advantage of these formats, you will need to
improve on your I.T. skills and develop requisite distance learning Culture. It is
well known that, for efficient and effective provision of Distance learning
education, availability of appropriate and relevant course materials is a sine qua
non. So also, is the availability of multiple plat form for the convenience of our
students. It is in fulfillment of this, that series of course materials are being
written to enable our students study at their own pace and convenience.
It is our hope that you will put these course materials to the best use.
Prof. Isaac Adewole

Vice-Chancellor
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Foreword
As part of its vision of providing education for “Liberty and Development” for
Nigerians and the International Community, the University of Ibadan, Distance
Learning Centre has recently embarked on a vigorous repositioning agenda
which aimed at embracing a holistic and all encompassing approach to the
delivery of its Open Distance Learning (ODL) programmes. Thus we are
committed to global best practices in distance learning provision. Apart from
providing an efficient administrative and academic support for our students, we
are committed to providing educational resource materials for the use of our
students. We are convinced that, without an up-to-date, learner-friendly and
distance learning compliant course materials, there cannot be any basis to lay
claim to being a provider of distance learning education. Indeed, availability of
appropriate course materials in multiple formats is the hub of any distance
learning provision worldwide.
In view of the above, we are vigorously pursuing as a matter of priority, the
provision of credible, learner-friendly and interactive course materials for all our
courses. We commissioned the authoring of, and review of course materials to
teams of experts and their outputs were subjected to rigorous peer review to
ensure standard. The approach not only emphasizes cognitive knowledge, but
also skills and humane values which are at the core of education, even in an ICT
age.
The development of the materials which is on-going also had input from
experienced editors and illustrators who have ensured that they are accurate,
current and learner-friendly. They are specially written with distance learners in
mind. This is very important because, distance learning involves non-residential
students who can often feel isolated from the community of learners.
It is important to note that, for a distance learner to excel there is the need to
source and read relevant materials apart from this course material. Therefore,
adequate supplementary reading materials as well as other information sources
are suggested in the course materials.
Apart from the responsibility for you to read this course material with
others, you are also advised to seek assistance from your course facilitators
especially academic advisors during your study even before the interactive
session which is by design for revision. Your academic advisors will assist you
using convenient technology including Google Hang Out, You Tube, Talk
Fusion, etc. but you have to take advantage of these. It is also going to be of
immense advantage if you complete assignments as at when due so as to have
necessary feedbacks as a guide.
The implication of the above is that, a distance learner has a responsibility to
develop requisite distance learning culture which includes diligent and
disciplined self-study, seeking available administrative and academic support and
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acquisition of basic information technology skills. This is why you are
encouraged to develop your computer skills by availing yourself the opportunity
of training that the Centre’s provide and put these into use.
In conclusion, it is envisaged that the course materials would also be useful
for the regular students of tertiary institutions in Nigeria who are faced with a
dearth of high quality textbooks. We are therefore, delighted to present these
titles to both our distance learning students and the university’s regular students.
We are confident that the materials will be an invaluable resource to all.
We would like to thank all our authors, reviewers and production staff for
the high quality of work.
Best wishes.
Professor Bayo Okunade

Director
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LECTURE ONE
Clarification of Concepts
Introduction
As our purpose for reading changes, our approach to the reading exercise
changes. Also, as we graduate from a lower stage of formal learning to a
higher stage, reading becomes a more demanding exercise for us as
learners. Our approach to reading when we were at the elementary phase
of learning was quite different from our reading orientation when we got
to the secondary school. And now, at the university level, it is clear to us
that reading is more demanding and complex. We have to read to pass
exams, to solve problems; to do assignments; to criticize; to agree or
disagree with the author’s opinion; and to acquire more knowledge.
However, unless we learn to advance our reading proficiency from the
basic, simple level to a more advanced, complex, and rigorous stage, we
may be lacking in our learning activities. The general objective of this
course, therefore, is to prepare us and make us develop our reading skills
such that we can effectively read and get maximum meaning from any text
or discourse, especially those that have complex structures and contents.
In this lecture, before we move to core contents of this course, our focus is
to clarify some concepts and explain them as they are relevant to reading
at this tertiary level.
Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. Explain the term developmental as it is used by remediation;
experts/diagnosticians and reading experts;
2. Define reading as a receptive and literate skills;
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3. Read a given passage and apply the activities that are involved in
reading as complex process; and
4. Distinguish between a skill and a strategy.
Pre-Test
1. Define reading. Why do you think reading is a communication
process?
2. How is skill different from strategy?
3. Why is reading regarded as a receptive skill?
CONTENT
Meaning of the Term “Developmental”
Diagnosticians and remediation experts use the word developmental in
relation to reading to mean corrective reading i.e. a process of correcting
faulty learning or reading habits and practices, and helping people to learn
or read the right way. There are many faulty reading habits, as we already
learnt in CLA 101. Some of these are head movement, finger pointing,
vocalization, sub-vocalization, listening to music while reading, chewing
candy (gum?), soaking your legs inside water, reading in a sleeping
position, and pulling your hair while reading.
Generally, reading experts believe that these habits are capable of
negatively affecting reading and reducing the rate of comprehension.
However, we must note that it is difficult to convince people that certain
reading habits that work for them are bad. It is difficult to judge
communication actions (remember CLA 319: Ethics of Communication).
It, therefore, becomes necessary that we consider some ethical criteria in
order to justify the ‘goodness’ or ‘badness’ of reading habit. These criteria
are:
Is the habit injurious to the reader's health?
Does the habit disturb others who are studying around the reader?
Does the habit limit the extent to which the reader can achieve his
reading goals?
Does the habit induce procrastination?
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These criteria can assist as we honestly assess our reading habits and
assist others to assess theirs as well. On the other hand, the term
developmental, in this course, is used to mean reading in stages to ensure
increase in knowledge and proficiency; graded reading aimed at achieving
or attaining high level of comprehension and knowledge acquisition.
Developmental reading is regarded as a graded reading because it
graduates the reader from a lower to higher levels of reading contexts. It
involves progressive reading through the following stages:
• Words
• Sentences
• Paragraphs
• Textbooks (Discourse).
Reading
Reading is both a receptive and literacy skill. It is receptive because it is
used to receive or get information. As a literacy skill, it means that it
demands deliberate and conscious efforts to learn to read. Anyone who is
able to read is said to be literate, therefore, to be able to read, one must be
literate. Other communication skills are writing (expressive and literate
skill); listening (receptive and oral skill); and speaking (expressive and
oral skill).
Definitions of Reading
Many scholars have defined reading in different ways. Let us examine
some of these definitions.
a. Sybil James (1984:9) describes reading as “the process of
communication through which most formal learning takes place. It
involves understand written language. Through reading what an
author has written, you (the reader) set out to understand and
respond to the author's message.”
b. Dechant and Smith (1977) say reading is a communication process
that requires identification of the symbols and association of
appropriate meanings with the symbols.
c. According to Oyerokun (1990), reading is a function of
experience. It depends on the reader’s experience. The graphic
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symbols (words) are meaningless to the reader unless he/her is able
to recognize and understand the symbols through his/her
experience.
In summary, reading is a complex process of recognizing and

interpreting graphic symbols that present speech sounds, and arranging
such symbols into meaningful messages as intended by the writer, who is
the initiator (source) of the message. As a communication process the
writer who is the source sends the message in symbolic form with the aim
of effecting a change in behaviour of the reader (receiver) either instantly
or in the future.
Reading as a Process
Reading as a process involves four basic activities that the reader must
perform in a sequence. These activities are:
• Recognition of the written words (graphic symbols) (takes place at
the level of the eye).
• Correlating the symbols with a specific language. This takes place
in the brain. This is what Hruby and Goswami (2011) describe as
decoding process.
• Combination of the graphic symbols (words) to generate
appropriate meaning. This called interpretation or comprehension
(in the mind).
• Responding appropriately to the intended message of the writer.
This is feedback. The only evidence that reading has actually taken
place is recall. It has to do with reproducing what has been
retained. To give a feedback to a reading act, one must be able to
recall. Feedback may be in the form of accepting, rejecting,
modifying or questioning the writer’s message or position.
Reading as a complex activity involves both the visual and non-visual

aspects. The two aspects are related because they contribute to shape the
overall reading process.
a. Visual Aspect
The visual aspect involves the various units of grammar. These units are
hierarchical. One lower unit adds up to produce the next higher unit. The
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visual aspect manifests in the text. The diagram below presents the visual
aspect of reading.
Discourse/text/essay
Paragraphs
Sentences
Clauses
Phrases/.groups
Words
Morphemes
All these are manifest. They can be seen by the reader because they
have physical structure.
b. Non-visual Aspect: This aspect is the aspect of the reader. It includes

• Reader’s experience;
• Reader’s background;
• Reader’s attitude; emotion; and total being.
In summary, reading as a process involves recognition, correlation,

comprehension, retention and recall. These activities are interdependent.
One leads to the other. It is important to note that reading is not a process
by which a reader passively derives meaning from a passage or text.
Reading is an active exercise. A reader is not an empty receptacle waiting
to be filled by the writer’s message. Rather, a reader is an active processor
of information, who deploys his/her cumulative experiences and
background to interrogate the text and the author.
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Skill
A skill is a learned way of performing a task in a manner that time and
energy are conserved and the target objectives/goals are achieved. It
involves ability to perform a given task effectively and efficiently and
achieve maximum results.
Strategy
A strategy is a combination (synergy/synthesis) of a number of skills that
enable one to achieve a broad range of goals/objectives. Strategy is
harmonization of various skills for the purpose of achieving set objectives.
For instance, each of the following acronyms represents a reading
strategy while each letter of the acronym represents a reading skill: SQ3R
(survey, Question, read, Recite and Review); OK4R (Overview, Key
Points, Read, Recite, Recall, Reflect and Review). Strategy helps the
reader to move in the right direction of reading, and at a good pace
towards achieving specific objective(s).
Summary
In this unit, we have been able to explain the core concepts in the
course. These concepts are developmental, reading, skills, and strategy.
The lecture has discussed reading as a complex communication process
through which the reader correlates and interprets the printed symbols to
get the meaning intended by the writer.
Post-Test
Read the following passage and comment on how the author presents
his facts
Comparative mass media scholars have yet to develop a theoretical profile
that accommodates the ethical dilemma that African journalists face. Over
the years, mass media scholars have assessed the competence of African
journalists against Western standards and Western media institutions
(Hachten, 1971; Head, 1985). Indeed, much of the research on African
news has concentrated on comparing African and Western news media or
replicating Western news media research in Africa (Boyd-Barrett, 1979;
Golding & Elliot, 1979). Arguably, part of the reason for this is that the
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predominant models of news media institutions in Africa and the
professional orientations of African journalists are derived from the news
media tradition of the West. Hence, the assumption those African media
institutions are simply replications of Western media tradition.
But the assumption of a universalistic media tradition is misleading
because it ignores the unique impositions of socio-political environments
on media institutions. As Starck (1983) observed, “the social system in
which professional mass communicators function sets standard and values
of performance and determines how they fulfil their responsibilities (and
as a result) the characteristics that identify professional mass
communicators are unique to specific social systems”(p.1). Thus, for all
their similarities in professional orientations, the news media in Africa and
the West are under different influence and have different responsibilities.
In the West, libertarian orientation of the media is constitutionally
protected. This, of course, means that the media have more leeway in
critically overseeing the activities of the government (Johnstone, Slawski,
& Bowman, 1973). But in much of Africa, governments constantly
challenge the libertarian orientation of the media (Fraser, 1984). In fact,
many African governments openly propose the development journalism
philosophy which treats media as agents of the government (Domatob &
Hall, 1983; Edlin, 1987). African governments expect to use the media to
promote developmental programmes, educate the people, and most
importantly, foster national unity (Edeani, 1970; Omu, 1978). So, African
journalists are caught between two conflicting media philosophies. True to
their professional orientation, African journalists want to maintain
professional integrity by being independent from government (Sobowale,
1978), but at the same time, they realize that as members of developing
societies they must work closely with the government to promote national
development (Golding, 1979). They realize that Africa does not yet have
the political maturity and economic stability to support Western-type
libertarian journalism. The struggle to balance these two contradictory
responsibilities creates an ethical dilemma for African journalists.
References
Dechant, E.V. And Smith, H.P (1977) Psychology in Teaching
Reading (Second Edition), New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Inc.
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Ebo, B.L. (1994). “The Ethical Dilemma of African Journalists: A
Nigerian Perspective”. Journal of Media Ethics, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp.84-93
Hruby, G.G. and Goswami U. (2011). “Neuroscience and Reading:
A Review for Reading Education Resources.” Reading Research
Quarterly, Vol.46, No.2, pp. 156-172
James. S. (1984). “Reading for Academic Purposes”. London:
Edward Arnold (Publishers) Limited
Lasisi, M.J. (1997). “The Basic Components of reading” In
Onukaogu, C.E.; Arua, E.A. and Jegede, O.B. (eds) Teaching Reading in
Nigeria: A Guidebook to Theory and Practice Ile-Ife: Reading
Association of Nigeria pp. 36-44
Oyerokun, S.O. (1990). “Developmental Language Arts”. Ibadan:
Adult Education Department, University of Ibadan
Singer, H. And Ruddell, R.B. (1970). “Theoretical Models and
Processes of Reading”. Delaware: International Reading Association
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LECTURE TWO
Reading Comprehension
Introduction
We shall quickly review two levels of reading processes that are relevant
to our focus in this unit before we discuss reading comprehension. The
two levels of reading activities are:
a. Word Recognition Level:
This is the foundation level where the reader uses his experiences to
recognize the graphic symbols (graphology/alphabet) the writer uses to
encode his message. The symbols used by the writer must be those that are
meaningful and mutually understood by the writer and the reader. This
level is crucial because it determines whether reading would move to the
next level. That is, if the reader cannot recognize the symbols, then he
cannot interpret or comprehend the writer’s message.
b. Comprehension Level:
This is the level at which the reader interprets the symbols and infers
meaning to, or impose meaning on what the writer has encoded.
Comprehension is a cognitive process that takes place at the brain level.
The reader’s attitude, emotion (Hruby and Goswani, 2011), experiences or
prior knowledge (Sinatra and Broughton, 2011), exposure, and
background contribute significantly to what meaning he gets from the text
or how he interprets the writer’s message.
Objectives
1. Define reading comprehension;
2. Distinguish among the types of reading comprehension;
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3. Employ your experience and background to get meaning from a
text or passage; and
4. Adjust your reading styles as your purpose for each reading
exercise changes.
Pre-Test
List the types of reading comprehension you know. Which of the reading
comprehension types do you think is most relevant to your level of
reading?
CONTENT
Meaning of Reading Comprehension
This refers to the process of getting meaning from a reading text. That is,
the act of detecting or inferring meaning to the writer’s core message in
the text. It is more than mere retention because there cannot be a
meaningful assimilation unless the reader really understands the writer’s
message.
Types of Comprehension
a. Literal Comprehension
This occurs when the reader adduces an elementary or a surface meaning
to a word, a symbol or groups of symbols. The meaning the reader
adduces here is direct, primary, or literal. It is denotative comprehension.
The reader does not go further to explore the meanings that the author
really implies, but which are not obviously stated in the text. Literal
comprehension involves understanding directly stated facts or messages. It
is the foundational skill we must all have to become successful learners.
b. Interpretative Comprehension
This is a deeper understanding of the text. Here, the reader adduces
deeper meaning, anticipates or predicts meaning; makes generalization,
draws inferences; reasons from cause to effect, compares, contrasts etc. It
is connotative because the reader gives secondary (deeper) meaning to the
message presented by the author.
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c. Creative Comprehension:
This type of comprehension calls for the reader’s ability to evaluate the
reading text in terms of its strength and weakness. The reader should be
able to detect the truth and the fallacy (if there is any) from the text.
Comprehension at this level is more critical and the reader reads with the
aim of enhancing his knowledge or cognitive faculty.
Levels of Reading Comprehension

a. Frustration Level:
At this level, the reader cannot read to comprehend the writer’s message.
He may not even be able to recognize or interpret the linguistic signals
used by the writer. To read at the frustration level may not indicate that the
individual is deficient in reading. The nature or complexity of the reading
text in relation to the reader’s experience and background may be the
contributing factors (Cheyney, 1971). For example, a graduate of
Communication and Language Arts, who is given an advanced textbook
on human anatomy or surgery, may read at the frustration level because he
may not possess the required experience and background for such reading
exercise. Even with the assistance of the teacher, this reader cannot make
any meaningful progress.
b. Instructional Level:
At this level of reading comprehension, the reader may find it difficult to
comprehend a reading text. However, with the assistance of his teacher he
is able to achieve some progress or success. When the text or passage is
not completely alien to your experience and background, you may need a
little assistance or guide from an instructor to achieve a high level of
comprehension. This is reading at instructional level of comprehension.
c. Independent Level:
The individual at this level of reading is able to read and comprehend the
text. He does not need any assistance from his teacher or instructor to
read, comprehend and interpret. One major factor that will always make
the reader to comprehend at the independent level is the appropriateness of
the material being read. When the level complexity of the text correlates
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with the cognitive maturity, experience and background of the reader,
comprehension will be significantly achieved, while the converse holds.
Types of Readers
1. The Mature Reader
The mature reader is competent. He can read effectively and understand.
He possesses adequate language competence to read, interpret or
comprehend the text. He has cognitive experience and backgrounds that
aid comprehension.
2. The Flexible Reader
The flexible reader also reads effectively. He adjusts his reading speed and
strategy with the purpose of reading and the complexity of the text he is
reading. It is a sign of reading competence when you are able to adjust
your reading speed to suit the nature of the text you are reading.
3. The Reluctant Reader
This type of reader can read. He has the required skills to read and
comprehend well, but he does not want to read. The major problem of a
reluctant reader is that he/she does not just see any reward for reading,
thus he/she does not develop any urge for reading.
4. The Adult New Reader
This is the reader who wants to learn to read at the later old age, because
he/she could not learn to read at the younger age due to some reasons.
Readers in this category are found mostly in mass literacy classes.
Summary
In this unit, we have discussed the meaning of reading comprehension.
We have also explained the types of reading comprehension; levels of
reading comprehension and types of readers.
Post-Test
Select a passage that discusses Aeronautical Engineering and another
passage on Organisational Communication. Read the two passages and
describe your level of comprehending and the contents of each of the two
passages.
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Reference
Arua, E.A. (2003). “Getting Ready to Teach Reading in Primary
School”. In Onukaogu, C.E., Arua, E.A. and Jegede, O.B. (eds.) Teaching
Reading in Nigeria: A Guide to Theory and Practice. Newark:
International Reading Association, pp.78-96
Cheney, A.B. (1971). Teaching Reading Skills through the
Newspaper. Newark, Delaware: International Reading Association
Hruby, G.G. and Goswami U. (2011). “Neuroscience and Reading:
A Review for Reading Education Resources.” Reading Research
Quarterly, Vol.46, No.2, pp. 156-172
Onukaogu, C.E. and Arua, E.A. (1997). “Towards a Better
understanding of Reading
by the Nigerian Primary School Teacher” In Onukaogu, C.E.;
Arua, E.A. and Jegede, O.B. (eds) Teaching Reading in Nigeria: A
Guidebook to Theory and Practice Ile-Ife: Reading Association of Nigeria
pp. 1-29
Sinatra, G.M. and Broughton, S.H. (2011). “Bridging Reading
Comprehension and Conceptual Change in Science Education: The
Promise of Refutation Text.” Reading Research Quarterly, Vol.46, No.4,
pp. 374-393
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LECTURE THREE
The Word
Introduction
As we already discussed in lecture one, the visual aspect of reading is
made up of some hierarchical units. The meaningful combination of these
units makes a text or a passage. For a reader to ultimately comprehend the
meaning intended by the writer, the reader must be able to recognise the
graphic symbols (letters of the alphabet), how these symbols are combined
to form a higher meaningful unit (morpheme) and how the morphemes
combine to form the words which are the primary ingredients of a
discourse. A reader who has a low vocabulary capacity, or who does not
possess the linguistic competence to interpret words effectively will
definitely find it difficult to comprehend a given text or passage. In other
words, for a reader to derive meaning from written materials, he/she must
first have the ability to interpret words efficiently. Therefore, in this unit,
we shall discuss the meaning of the word; connotative and denotative
meanings of word; as well as factors affecting meaning of words.
Objectives
1. Interpret words efficiently as used and intended by the writer;
2. Distinguish between connotative and denotative meanings of
words; and
3. Identify the factors that affect the meanings that readers can
adduce to words.
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Pre-Test
1. Explain how the communication context may affect the meanings
you give to certain words.
2. What are factors that usually affect the meanings you give to
words when you read?
CONTENT
Definition of Word
What is a word? An online dictionary defines a word as “a sound or
combination of sounds, or its representation in writing or printing that
symbolizes and communicates a meaning, and may consist of a single
morpheme or of a combination of morphemes.” A thesaurus defines a
word as a unit of language that native speakers can identify. In a nutshell,
a word can be described as the intelligible combination of letters of the
alphabet (morphemes), or combination of speech sounds (phonemes),
separated by spaces in a written text, or demarcated by pause in spoken
language, to communicate messages.
Words are the blocks from which sentences are made. Before we can
understand a sentence, we must understand the meaning of words that
constitute such sentence. However, this does not mean that the meaning of
an expression will always be known by adding up the meanings of all the
words that make up the expression. Idiomatic and other figurative
expressions are examples of such expressions whose meanings are not
discernible by simply adding up the meanings of constituent words. It
demands wide exposure and experiences on the part of a reader to access
meanings of idioms and figurative expressions. For example, you cannot
arrive at the meanings of the idioms call on the carpet or let the cat out of
the bag by simply adding the meanings of call, on, the, and carpet; or let,
the, cat, out, of, the, and bag in each case. Most of the idioms and
figurative expressions are fixed expressions with classical origins. This
may make it difficult to get their meanings by a mere combination of the
meanings of the words that constitute the expressions. Therefore, we must
always read wide to overcome the problem associated with understanding
meanings of expressions in this category.
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Types of Word
The criteria of Meaning and Structure can be used to classify words. Let
us briefly look at these criteria:
i. Types of Word Based on Meaning: Based on this criterion, we have
the following types of words: (a) Content/Lexical words (i.e.
nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs). Words in this category
perform lexical or semantic functions; they are limitless because
new ones are generated and added to the lexicon almost every day.
(b) Grammatical/Structure Words (i.e. determiners,
conjunctions, pronouns, and prepositions). Unlike the lexical
words, grammatical words are close-ended. New sets are not added
to the lexicon.
ii. Types of Words Based on Structure: Words in this category are: (a)
Simple Words (i.e. free morphemes such as go, pen, book, house,
success, smile and, dance). (b) Compound Words (i.e.
headmaster, postmaster, rubber-stamp, cup-board, chalkboard,
grassland, Attorney-General, etc.). A compound word combines
two free morphemes (simple words) to form a meaningful unit. (c)
Complex Words: These are words that contain some internal
multiple morphemes. The morphemes are difficult to separate
because the word has gone through some morphological mutation
(i.e. ran, lice, foot, were, went, impossibility, modification,
antidisestablishmentarianism, eclecticism, etc.).
Factors Affecting Meaning of Words

The meaning that a word expresses is influenced by a number of factors.
Some of these factors are
• Context
• Time
• Culture
• User’s experience
1. Context: A word is intended to express meaning, however, in most

cases; a word alone cannot convey a complete meaning. Words are
context-specific because they depend on the context to express meaning.
The setting, environment or situation in which a word is used influence the
16
meaning of such word. The meaning of a word may change dramatically
the very moment the context changes. For instance, the word yes may
convey different messages depending on the setting. When you hear your
friend say “yes” inside his office you can guess what this means (come in).
But if the same friend says “yes” inside a toilet, then the message intended
will be different!! Also, “Order!!!” inside the court room has a different
meaning when the same word is used in a restaurant. Meaning can also be
given to a word based on the context where such word appears or is used
in a discourse. Thus, a word may mean different things when used in
different contexts). For Example, table (noun) depending on the context of
usage may mean a four-legged direct with a flat edge, level or a chart,
whereas table (verb) may mean present. The word execute may mean kill,
carry out or implement.
Read this:
‘Awon ole yii tun wa nibi!’ the driver
cursed as he approached yet another police
checkpoint—the fourth in about a kilometre.
The policeman raised his hand and the car
stopped.
‘Yees’, the policeman bellowed with his
left hand stretched to the driver. The driver
understood. In the cop’s hand he dropped a
roughly folded #20 note (actually, the price
must have gone up to about #100 or more
now). Both knew what ‘yes’ meant.
‘Officer!’ said the driver, with smiles
concealing the strong currents of his disgust.
‘O ya. Carry go’, the policeman responded.
What did ‘Yes’ mean in the context described above?

What would the word mean elsewhere?
2. Time: Meanings of words change from time to time. That is, what a
given word meant years ago may be different from what it means today.
This is because language itself is organic—it is a living thing. It grows,
17
and it may die. It is time-bound. For instance, meat as a word meant ‘food’
some centuries ago. Today, it means ‘meat’! This is an example of words
whose meanings have changed dramatically over time.
Attempt compiling a list of ten such words following the examples in
the table below:
Word Old Meaning Current Meaning
Let Prevent Allow
Gay Happy A homosexual man
Amusing Amazing Funny
Artificial Beautiful/artistic Not real
Awful Awe-inspiring Very bad/Unpleasant
Don Put on Wear
Suffer Allow Go through hardship
3. Culture: Word is culture-specific (culture-bound). Meanings of words

change from culture to culture. There are two dimensions to change a
word meaning across cultures—horizontal and vertical dimensions. By the
horizontal dimension, we mean meanings change when they cross cultural
geographical borders. For instance, the word brother in England means a
male relative born of the same parents, but in Nigeria, every male person
in one’s family or from one’s ethnic group or from one’s country is
brother. The vertical dimension suggests that even within the same
geographical entity, a word assumes different meanings among different
sub-cultures. The word jack, for instance, among students means study
hard and long (especially for examinations). Among mechanics, the same
word has a different meaning. Medical doctors treat patients, whereas civil
servants (administrative officers) treat files or official matters. Complete
this table with examples of words with such changes in meaning across
sub-cultures. Examples are given:
Word Sub-Culture Meaning

Toast Caterers Make sliced bread warm and crisp
(verb) Students/Young Attempt to woo a lady (or a
people man??)
18
Squatter Government An illegal occupant of a piece of
(noun) land/a building.
Students A student who is not officially
offered hostel accommodation on
campus, but who all the same lives
in the hostel.
Word Pastor/clergy
English
teachers/Linguists
Case Lawyers
Medical doctors
Problem People generally
Researchers
Account Bankers
Narrators/Novelists
Defend Lawyers/Human
(verb) right activists
Footballers
Transcribe Journalists
(verb) Phoneticians
Drill (verb) Miners
Language teachers
4. User’s Experience: Meanings of words also change with the user’s

experience and background. For example, the word duty to a
teacher/lecturer means to teach, but the same word, to a soldier, especially
during a war, means to kill/protect. Also, the word crowd to doughnut
seller means business. To policemen, crowd suggest riot, and to
politicians, it is electoral gain, especially during campaign.
19
Connotative and Denotative Meanings of Word
The Denotative Meaning
This is the plain ordinary or literary meaning of the word. It is the
dictionary meaning or referential meaning of word. The meaning here is
arbitrary because the meaning given to word does not show any logical
relationship between the word and the object or concept it refers to. For
example, the word goat means a domestic animal if we interpret it
denotatively.
Connotative Meaning of Word:
The connotative meaning of a word is the deeper meaning. It is the same
thing as the figurative meaning. A word can mean almost anything
depending on the intention, attitude or emotion of the communicator. The
meaning here is beyond the dictionary meaning. Examples of how words
can be used connotatively are contained in the following sentences:
a. Kunle is a man. = This may suggest that: Kunle is strong and
valiant.
b. The orphan always remembers his family. =The word family here
may mean those people the orphan lost.
c. The man loves his family. =Family as used here may mean the
man’s wife and children.
d. The boy is a goat. = This may suggest that the boy is stubborn.
e. Mr Thompson was called to the chair. =Mr Thompson was made a
Professor.
f. The convict was given a chair. =The convict was electrocuted.
Implications for Reading

Connotative usage of words can make almost anything to mean
something. When a word is used denotatively but interpreted
connotatively, it leads to confusion and aberrant decoding of the writer’s
intended message. The same thing happens when a word is used
connotatively but interpreted denotatively. Therefore in order to prevent
confusion and wrong decoding of meaning, any time we read, we need to
interpret words properly and appropriately as used or intended by the
speaker or writer.
20
Summary
This lecture has discussed the meaning of words, and types of word.
The lecture has also discussed the factors that may affect the meaning of
words as used by the writer. We have also examined the denotative and
connotative usages of words and their implications to the process and
practice of reading
Post-Test
1. Discuss the implications of change in the meanings of words (in
relation to setting, time, culture, and user’s experience) to the
practice of reading.
2. Read the following extract and comment on the writer’s use of
words. How would you describe the writer’s emotion and attitude?
Dzgbese Lisa has treated me thus
It has led me among the sharps of the forest
Returning is not possible
And going forward is great difficulty
The affairs of this world are like the chameleon faeces
Into which I have stepped
When I clean it cannot go.
I am on the world’s extreme corner,

I am not sitting in the row with the eminent
But those who are lucky
Sit in the middle and forget
I am on the world’s extreme corner
I can only go beyond and forget.
My people, I have been somewhere

If I turn there the rain beats me
If I turn there the sun burns me
The firewood of this world
Is for those who can take heart
21
That is why not all can gather it.
The world is not good for anybody
But you are so happy with your fate;
Alas! The travellers are back
All covered with debt.
(Culled from Sons of Sorrow by George Awoonor-Williams)
References
Nwoga, D.I. (1975). West African Verse. Tenerife: Longman
Group Limited.
Ogungbe, O.O. and Bossan, R.T. (2008). “Communication in
English: A Complete Guide for Undergraduates.” Jos: Star Link
Communications
22
LECTURE FOUR
Word Attack Skills
Introduction
The knowledge of how words are used in certain contexts situations would
help the reader to easily decode the meaning intended by the writer. To get
meanings of words and comprehend the grammatical constituents or the
whole discourse where the words occur, the reader requires some skills.
These skills are called word attack skills or vocabulary skills. In other
words, these skills help the reader to study and understand words
effectively. To become efficient readers, we must discourage ourselves
from frequently and indiscriminately turning to the dictionary any time we
encounter a ‘difficult’ word. What we need is to, as much as possible, rely
on the vocabulary skills. The skills are: Context Clues; Structural
Analysis; Phonic Analysis; and The use of Reference Books.
We shall now devote this lecture to discussing the skills.
Objectives
1. Explain the vocabulary skills;
2. Use the context of a word to suggest its meaning; and
3. Divide words into their structural components and use meanings of
the component parts to get the meaning of such words.
Pre-Test:
Read the passage below and suggest another word or group of words
that can replace each of the underlined words as used in the passage.
23
Labour and the Federal Government came close to a truce over the
contentious issue of a new minimum wage recently. The proposed new
national minimum wage of N18, 000 per month secured by the Joint
National Public Service Negotiating Council initially appeared satisfactory
to both parties. The amount almost tripled the current minimum wage of
N7, 500. However, the atmosphere soured when workers rejected the N18,
000, compelling President Goodluck Jonathan (then Acting) to plead for
the suspension of a planned five-day warning strike.
Negotiations are expected to resume immediately as the President
insists on a three-month “time-limit, which must give birth to a positive
result.” Workers are pushing for a N52, 000 minimum wages per month,
an amount they believe most approximates to what the 1999 Constitution
has stipulated in Chapter II as “reasonable national minimum living
wage.” The government, by its posture so far, is willing to grant a higher
figure than N18, 000. That is commendable; but there are pertinent,
fundamental issues that need to be considered as both parties proceed in
the negotiations.
CONTENT
a. Context Clues. This is a vocabulary skill that involves using the
context where a word appears to access the meaning of such word. When a
word appears in isolation, it may suggest a meaning entirely different from
the meaning it has when it is used in a context. Also, a word may have as
many meanings as the contexts in which it appears. Therefore, as
proficient readers, we must always consider the situations or contexts
where specific words are used, in our attempt to understand the meanings
of such words. Word’s environment suggests its meaning. That is, other
words that co-occur with a word may affect the meaning of that word. In
the context clues, the following can help the reader:
i. The comparison and contrast clues: This is when the writer
compares or contrasts some words or concepts. The knowledge of
one of the concepts may help us get to the meaning of the others.
Examples:
• The man is humble whereas his wife is vain (arrogant).
• Paul and James are my friends but very different people.
Whereas Paul is kind and placid, James is vicious and wild.
24
• The old man found the bustle and excitement of city life hard
to adjust to after living for almost a decade in a relatively quiet
village.
ii. Definition: When a word is defined, it is better understood.

Therefore, we can get the meaning of a word or concept when such
word is defined or explained further in the context. The definition
may be formal or informal, direct or indirect. Examples:
• Phonetics, a branch of linguistics that studies how speech
sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived, is dreaded by
many students. (This is a direct definition of phonetics).
• We must all soon learn how to compute in the metric system,
which is used in large number of countries. It is a decimal
system of weights and measures universally used in science. (A
follow-up statement is used to explain metric system).
iii. Illustration: We can understand a word better in a context if such
word is illustrated by the use of graphic aids such as graph, chart,
picture or diagram. We can also get meaning of word if the author
gives examples to illustrate such word.
• Animals in the cat family (e.g. lion, tiger, and cat) are
carnivorous.
• Reptiles (e.g. lizards, crocodiles, and snakes) are cold-
blooded animals.
b. Structural Analysis
To get the meaning of a word, we can examine the structure of such word
by dividing it into its smallest units (morphemes), each unit is, therefore,
considered in relation to other units. This skill is most relevant in
analysing polysyllabic words, that is, words that have many (more than
two) syllables. Most words in this category are naturally long because they
are formed from another words by combining prefixes and suffixes, which
of course always have their origins from classical languages such as Latin,
Greek, of French. Therefore, ability to divide words into their appropriate
morphemes (smallest components), and ability to understand that
morphemes transcend the English Language are the prerequisites for
using structural analysis as a vocabulary skill. Examples:
Intrapersonal = intra (within) personal (self)
25
Interpersonal = Inter (between above/beyond).
Personal (self)
Antenatal = before birth: Ante (before); natal (birth)
Post natal = after birth: post (after); natal (birth)
Photosynthesis = combination of substances through light: photo (relating
to light);
Synthesis (combination of many elements/substances into a system).
Genocide= killing of a tribe of race: geno (relating to race, generation, and
tribe); cide (kill).
Some examples of morphemes with foreign origins are listed below:
Latin Prefixes and Roots
Prefix Meaning Derivatives
inter between, among interdisciplinary, intercontinental
intra within intravenous, intradepartmental
mal bad malfunction, maltreat, malady, malapropism
Aud, audit Hear, listen to Auditorium, audience, audition
cap Take, hold Captive, captivate
fac Make, do Factory, manufacture, factotum
fid Faith, trust Fidelity, infidel
Ven, vent Come, coming Ventilation, convention, intervene
per through perforate, permeate, perceive
trans across transport, transmit, transfer
Greek Prefixes and Roots

Prefix Meaning Derivatives
anti against Anti-riot, antibiotic, antioxidants, antibody
graph writing Autograph, telegraph, graphology
micro small Microscope, microphone
tele far Telepathy, telephone, telecast, television
scope sight Telescope, microscope
phone sound Telephone, microphone, dictaphone
mono one Monologue, monopoly
26
auto self Automobile, autobiography, automatic
bio life Biology, bio data, biochemistry
c. Phonic Analysis
It is a process of helping students to pronounce words with good accuracy.
This skill, however, does not place much emphasis on meaning. It is a
method that is often used at the elementary level.
Method:
i. The word is divided into syllables.
ii. The accented (stressed) syllable is identified.
iii. The syllables are first pronounced separately.
iv. Then the syllables are pronounced together as a word.
d. Reference Books
These are books that provide relevant information on certain subjects,
concepts or words. They help students to have better understanding of
words. However, it is advisable that students do not always rely on
reference books for meanings of words in reading exercises. Meaning of
word is best deduced from the context where such word is used. Reference
books should be used as last resort. Examples of such reference books are:
1. Dictionaries
The dictionary is a book that contains words and provides their meanings
and sub-meanings. Apart from this, the dictionary also indicates parts of
speech to which a word belongs; illustrates words to simplify their
meanings; indicates regional varieties and origins of words; provides
synonyms and antonyms; provides clues to structural composition of
words in terms of prefixes and suffixes; shows correct spelling options and
structural conjugations; and gives correct pronunciations of words. There
are specialised and general dictionaries.
• Specialised Dictionaries: In category are Dictionaries of Law,
Medicine, Journalism, Grammar, Chemistry, and so on.
• General Dictionary: These are dictionary dealing with general
meanings of words. For example, the Oxford Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary is a general dictionary where readers can get meaning,
origin, pronunciation, grammar class and spelling of a word.
27
2. The Thesaurus: It is Treasure of words: The thesaurus is a book that
provides synonyms and antonyms of words. It provides the reader and the
writer the opportunity to select synonyms or antonyms from variations of
numerous words.
3. Others – Encyclopaedias, Guinness Book of Record; Who – Is –

Who, Records of national and international statistic. They are all
available in every standard library, and they help readers to get
information regarding meanings and usages of words.
Summary
A reader that has adequate vocabulary, or has good vocabulary skills
will read efficiently and achieve a high level of comprehension. He will
read fast and assimilate well. In this lecture, we have discussed the
vocabulary skills that students need to become efficient readers. We
have discussed how context of word can be used to get meaning of the
word; how a word can be divided into its structural components (prefix,
suffix, root) to deduce the meaning of the word, and how we can use the
reference books such as the dictionary, the thesaurus and other reference
books to get more general information about certain words. Acquisition
of these skills will, no doubt, enhance our reading efficiency.
Post-Test
1. Attempt a structural analysis of each of the following words
i. Antidisestablishmentarianism;
ii. Microminiaturization;
iii. Interdenominational
iv. Pericardium
v. Reincarnation
vi. Nonpartisan
2. Read the short passage below and suggest meanings of the
underlined words as used in the context by the writer:
Since modern democracy is a form of government that encourages mass
participation, the establishment of community radio broadcasting would
serve as a catalyst for the masses to actively and meaningfully participate
28
in the nation’s political business and ultimately contribute to national
development. But the phenomenon in Nigeria, where the government is
apparently averse to issuing licences for community radio broadcasting,
sketches a contradictory and counter-productive scenario – especially with
the country’s return to democracy in 1999. When a nation that claims to
practice democracy denies the rural majority the opportunity of legitimate,
free expression and participation, the authenticity of such a brand of
democracy becomes explicitly questionable.
References
Oyerokun, S.O. (1990). “Developmental Language Arts”. Ibadan:
Adult Education Department, University of Ibadan
29
LECTURE FIVE
The Sentence I
Introduction
To become efficient readers, you must graduate from the level of word
recognition to a higher level of comprehension. In other words, you must
be able to understand how writers combine words to form meaningful
units of complete thoughts or ideas that ultimately combine to form a
discourse. In this lecture, we will discuss meaning of the sentence and
types of sentence according to structure. We will give relevant examples
to illustrate each of the sentence types. Ultimately, the core objective in
this lecture is to guide you to understand the meaning of, and identify, the
sentence as the most important unit of language that conveys the writer’s
message.
Objectives
1. Define the sentence;
2. Differentiate a complete thought from a fragment in a text or
discourse;
3. Use the sentence to detect the writer’s message;
4. Distinguish among the various types of sentence based on
structural composition.
Pre-Test
Define the sentence. What is the major difference between the sentence
and the phrase?
30
CONTENT
Definition of Sentence
We shall examine some definitions of sentence by scholars.
1. The sentence could be scientifically defined as any stretch of
utterance between breath intakes (Whitehall, 1958).
2. A sentence is a group of words that express a complete meaning,
thought or idea.
3. A sentence is a unit of language that expresses a complete idea.
4. It is a group of words that can be divided into subject and
predicate and at the same time express a complete meaning.
5. A sentence is a stretch of a complete expression that begins with a
capital letter and ends with a full stop (period).
6. It is the basic unit of composition (Trimmer and McCrimmon,
1988).
Examples are:
Nigeria is my fatherland.
Most African leaders are greedy.
Many students fail because they are poor readers.
As we can see from the definitions and examples above, a sentence

must express a complete thought and it must have at least verbal element,
unlike a phrase which does express a complete idea, because it does not
contain verb. For instance, the following groups of words are not
sentences because they do not contain verbal elements: the black
American actress, beside the iron rod, the glass cup, and the former
military head of state from the Northern Nigeria. If we add verbs to the
phrases, they will have subject-predicate structures and become sentences:
The black American actress will visit Nigeria next month; James placed
the glass cup beside the iron rod; the former military head of state from
the Northern Nigeria has a strong ambition to rule Nigeria again.
Classification of Sentences
Sentences can be classified according to:
a. Form/structure
b. Function
31
A. Types of Sentence According to Form/Structure
• Simple Sentence: A simple has only one predicate but the subject
may be more than one. It has only one verbal element and any
object, adjunct or complement to complete the verb or further
describe the nominal entities. It is also called a basic sentence.
Examples of simple sentence are;
Nigeria is 51 this October.
You and I are friends.
I am proud of my students.
The technician examined the engine regularly.
• Compound Sentence
A compound sentence combines at least two simple sentences or
independent clauses that contain independent but related ideas. The
clauses may be joined by a comma (,), a semi-colon (:), a colon (:)
or a co-ordinating conjunction (such as but, and, yet).
Examples:
Go and call the boy for me.
John is industrious but his brother is indolent.
We went, we saw, we conquered.
• Complex Sentence
This is the sentence type that has at least two ideas expressed; one
of such ideas is the main while the other(s) is/are complementary.
This means that a complex sentence has one main (independent)
clause and one or more dependent clauses. The clauses are joined
by subordinating conjunctions or through the process of
embedding.
Examples:
If I were the Nigerian President, I would make education free
at all levels.
Nigeria is poor because the leaders are grossly corrupt.
The man, who divorced his wife because she was unfaithful to
their marriage, has reconciled with her.
32
• Compound-Complex Sentence
It is both compound and complex sentences fused into one. That is,
it has at least two main clauses and at least one dependent clause.
Examples:
The thief entered the room and stole the money while everyone
was busy playing games.
If you attend lectures regularly and read your notes well, you
will find the questions simple and perform brilliantly in the
exam.
Summary
In this lecture, we have discussed the meaning of sentence. We have
also discussed the types of sentence according to structure. Our
understanding of the sentence as a unit of language expressing a
complete thought will help us as readers to achieve reading
comprehension by decoding the meaning intended by the writer.
Post-Test
1. Give two examples each of the following types of sentence:
a. Simple sentence;
b. Compound sentence; and
c. Complex sentence.
References
Langan, J. (2003). College Writing Skills, Media Edition (Fifth
Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education
Maimon, E.P. and Peritz, J.H. (2003). A Writer’s Resource: A
Handbook for Writing and Research. New York: McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.
Soles, D. (2010). The Essentials of Academic Writing (Second
edition). Boston: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Trimmer, J.F. and McCrimmon, J.M. (1988). Writing with a
Purpose (Ninth Edition). New Jersey: Houghton Mifflin Company
Warriner, J.E. (1982). English Grammar and Composition:
Complete Course. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers
33
LECTURE SIX
The Sentence II
Introduction
Apart from classification according to structure, another way of
classifying the sentence is to look at their functions. Sentences perform
four basic functions:
a. They are used to state
b. They are used to command
c. They are used to ask.
d. They are used to express feelings.
Therefore, based on the functions listed above, sentences are

categorized into four: declarative, imperative, interrogative, and
exclamatory sentences. In this lecture, we shall discuss the types of
sentence based on functions.
Objectives
1. Use the function that a sentence performs to classify the sentence;
2. Distinguish between sentence types based on structure and
sentence types based on functions;
3. Combine meanings of individual sentences in a discourse to
deduce central message intended by the writer.
Pre-Test
Read the passage below.
34
i. How many sentences does the passage contain?
ii. According to function, state the type of each of the underlined
sentences.
iii. What message is the writer communicating in the passage?
Whatever we communicate, verbally or non-verbally, must be clear.

Lack of clarity can create problems. Pa James and his son Dennis were
trying to repair the fence of their garden. They wanted to force a post into
a hole. Pa James bent down to set the post while Dennis held the hammer
to hit the top of the post into hole. Pa James said, “When I nod my head,
then you hit it with the hammer”. And Dennis did just that—bashed in the
father’s head with the hammer. We need to explain and clarify what we
mean at all times. This may at times call for repetition.
CONTENT
Classification of Sentences Based on Functions
Now let us discuss the different types of sentence according to functions.
We use examples to illustrate such functions.
• Declarative Sentences: They are used to make a statement or deny
it. They state the facts. Examples are:
I am a Nigerian.
Every citizen has the right to freedom of expression.
People hide under the guise of religion to perpetrate their evil
intents.
• Imperative Sentences: Imperative sentences are used to give

directive. Such directives may be or come in the following ways:
Command: Come here. Everybody stand up.
Warning: Mind the sharp bend ahead!
Pleading: Please, Save our land from the scourge of hunger.
God, give us our daily bread.
Permission: You can come anytime you like.
Invitation: Have a seat here.
Request: I need some honest students, please.
35
Suggestion: Let us meet once more next week.
• Interrogative Sentence: Interrogative sentences are used to ask
questions. Such questions may be:
A. WH-questions: These are questions that begin with wh-
words. Examples: Why did you arrive late for the lecture?
When do we meet again?
B. Polar questions: These are questions that demand Yes/No
answers Examples: Are we ready for the class test now?
Have we discussed vocabulary skills?
Do you like this course?
• Exclamatory Sentences: They are used to express feelings or
strong emotion which may be that of pain, shock, excitement
surprise, or happiness. Sentences in this category always have or
end with the exclamation mark (!) Examples:
What a classical goal! (Excitement/surprise).
What a great leader he was! (Delight).
Behold the Messiah! (Surprise).
Oh! I made it at last! (Excitement).
Summary
Sentences perform a number of functions. They are used to state, to
command, to ask, and to express feeling. The purpose(s) of a given
discourse determine the sentence types that the writer will adopt. As we
read through a discourse, our ability to detect the predominant sentence
types employed by writer will help us to detect the writer’s mission, and
enhance our comprehension level. Our discussion in this lecture has
prepared us to be able to recognise sentence types that will signal the
writer’s purpose.
Post-Test
Read the passage below. What type of sentence predominantly runs
through the passage? Why do you think the writer chose the sentence
type?
36
Community radio advocacy in the Nigerian context had started long
before the current phase of capacity building. Earlier in 1977, at the
colloquium of the FESTAC, Alfred Opubor had advocated Africanisation
of the mass media in Nigeria—a prelude to community radio. In the
1980s, scholars—Opubor, Moemeka, Soola among others—pioneered
advocacy-tilted research for community radio. Findings and positions of
these scholars created the platform for the new phase of direct advocacy
that emerged in the late 1990s. In the early 2000s, direct community radio
advocacy experienced an upbeat with the involvement of stakeholders
such as Nigeria Community Radio Coalition through the Institute for
Media and Society (IMS), which has remained the arrowhead of
community radio advocacy in Nigeria. For example, a listerv was created
in 2004 to provide an on-line platform for interactions among community
radio advocates. This was followed by awareness seminars in Ibadan,
Enugu, Kaduna and Bauchi. In 2005, IMS also organized a national
seminar on community radio and community radio advocacy. Before then,
a group tagged “Steering Committee” had been constituted in 2003, with
the mandate to evolve and assist in managing a policy that would herald
the establishment of a viable community radio sub-sector in Nigeria. All
this has snowballed into a phenomenon of aggressive advocacy and
increase in the number of dedicated advocates of community radio.
Majority of the grassroots people are now conscious of the relevance of
community radio as a catalyst for developing their communities, and are
eagerly anticipating establishment of radio stations that would be owned
and controlled by the local people.
References
Companies, Inc.
37
LECTURE SEVEN
Parts of A Sentence
Introduction
It is not just enough for us to be able to identify the types of sentence used
by the writer in a discourse, it also imperative that we are able to
understand how some syntactical constituents combine to form the
sentence. The reader’s understanding of the sentence structure would be
expected to enhance his ability to narrow alternate word meanings and
thus contribute to reading comprehension (Singer and Ruddell, 1970). In
this lecture, we shall discuss the various parts of the sentence and how
these parts function together to form a meaningful structure.
Objectives
1 Identify the various parts that constitute a sentence;
2 Divide a sentences into their various parts; and
3 Combine the various parts to form sentences.
Pre-Test
1. List the various parts that may be found in a typical sentence.
2. What is the difference between the subject and the predicate?
CONTENT
Components of a Sentence
A sentence may be a single word or a combination of words out of which
the verb is fundamental. The two cardinal parts of a sentence are the
38
Subject and the Predicate. A typical English sentence has one, some or all
of the following components.
Subject (S): It is the doer of the action expressed in the verb.
Example: The plane took off at 4 O’ clock yesterday. (the plane is
the subject).
Sometimes, especially when the verb expresses a state of being rather

than an action, the subject is the entity that is talked about in the sentence.
All other things, apart from the subject, in a sentence constitute the
predicate. In the predicate are the verb, the object, the complement, and the
adjunct. For instance, in the sentence, in the sentence: the plane took off at
4 O’ clock yesterday, the plane is the subject, while all other constituents
(took off at 4 O’ clock yesterday) constitute the predicate.
Predicator/Verb (P/V): It is the part of sentence that expresses
action or state of being.
Complement (C): The complement (note the spelling, not
compliment) gives more information on the subject, object, or
preposition.
Object (O): The object is the entity that receives action from the
subject. It is only when the verb expresses and transfers an action
that we can have an object in a sentence.
Adjunct (A): The adjunct serves as adverb by indicating the place, time,
manner, frequency, purpose, or time of the action or state of being
expressed in the verb.
NB: Out of the above elements of the sentence, Verb/Predicator is the
most important. Without it, there cannot be a sentence. Sometimes, the
verb can stand alone as a one-word sentence, especially in a command.
Combination of the Parts:

When these parts are combined in different ways, we can have different
sentence patterns that convey different meanings. Now let us combine the
various parts and see how they can generate different sentence patterns:
Stop. = V
V
39
Come. = V
V
Jesus wept. = SV
S V
You lied. = SV
S V
Stand up. = VA
V A
Come here. = VA
V A
Close the door = VO

V O
VO: Drop the gun =VO
V O
Submit the assignment. = VO
V O
The man died last week. = SVA
S V A
I will meet your request soon. = SVOA
S V O A
Lagos is a mega city. = SVC
S V C
The boy has become a super star = SVC

S V C
The National Assembly declared Jonathan Acting President. =SVOC

S V O (obj) Complement
Here lives the man. =AVS
A V S
40
The politician bought his concubines a brand new car each last year. =SVOiOiiA
S V Oi Oii A
Summary
In this lecture, we have been able to discuss the various components that
we may find in a typical English sentence. These components are:
subject; verb; object; adjunct; and complement. We also demonstrated
how these components can be combined to generate grammatically
correct and meaningful expressions.
Post-Test
Study the following sentences and identify the components in each of
them:
1 His defeat at the general elections exacerbated his problem.
2 What the lecturer asked us to do is a herculean task.
3 The late dictator was cruel to his subjects.
4 The panel has declared the young keeper the most valuable player.
References
Companies, Inc.
41
LECTURE EIGHT
Studying The Sentence: Understanding

Foregrounding
Introduction
In this lecture, we will go further on our discussion on the sentence as
fundamental linguistic unit. However, our focus shall specifically be
directed to foregrounding—a stylistic way, giving prominence to some
constituent(s) of a sentence. It is imperative for us as readers to have an
understanding of foregrounding. This will enable us to deduce the
meanings intended by the writer. Therefore, in this lecture, we shall
discuss the meaning and ways through which writers achieve
foregrounding in discourse writing.
Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to;
1. Define foregrounding;
2. Explain how foregrounding can be achieved in discourse;
3. Identify the use of foregrounding in a reading text
Pre-Test
1. What is foregrounding?
2. In what ways can foregrounding be achieved? List and briefly
explain them.
42
CONTENT
What is Foregrounding?
Foregrounding is a linguistic device used by the writer (or speaker) to
attract reader’s attention to specific element(s) of the sentence or the text.
Foregrounding is seen as uncommon; as non-automatic (not frequently
used) and as de-automates (i.e. it assumes prominence by attracting
attention to itself). For these reasons, foregrounding is considered as
deviation from the linguistic norms. While reading, therefore, a good and
critical reader should always be sensitive to the writer’s attempt to
emphasise certain aspect of the sentence or text, and must respond
appropriately. Foregrounding can be motivated (intended) or unmotivated
(unintended).
Motivated Foregrounding: occurs when the writer intentionally employs
certain elements to achieve certain effect or create emphasis.
Unmotivated Foregrounding: on the other hand is an accidental
occurrence. In other words, the author, in the case of unmotivated
foregrounding, does not need to call attention to any aspect of the text.
Therefore, such foregrounding should be disregarded as errors.
Ways of Achieving Foregrounding

Foregrounding as a result of deviation from the linguistic norms or normal
principles can be achieved in three (3) different ways.
1. Grammatical Deviation: This occurs when the writer employs certain
uncommon or unconventional sentence patterns purposely to call attention
to certain aspects of the text. Declarative statements often manifest a
stunning consistency between language, on the one hand, and time/space,
on the other hand. Examples: “He shot a dog.” “The King lived here.” “I
dedicate my life to God.” The pattern in the examples presents a consistent
adherence to the subject-verb-[object] (S-V-[O]) progression in typical
declarative expressions. However, for the purpose of foregrounding, a
writer may scuttle this consistency thus shifting the emphasis from certain
element to another in the text. When this happens, we may have structures
like these: A dog I shot. Here the King lived. My life I dedicate to God.
The implication here is that the attention has been shifted from “he”, “the
King’, and “I” to a dog, here, and my life respectively.
Grammatical foregrounding can occasionally appear like disregard for
the rules of grammar. That is, it may appear like the use of fragments
43
instead of sentences. Grammatical foregrounding, therefore, is not
permitted in scholarly and formal writing, but these patterns are often
found in poems, novels, novellas, and other forms of creative writing.
2. Lexical Foregrounding: This has to do with using words in some
special styles to achieve prominence. Techniques employed by writers to
achieve lexical foregrounding include the following:
• Borrowing: Borrowed materials eventually become part of, or
look like, the borrower’s language, and most of them come as
adverbs, adjectives, abbreviations or affixes. Examples are Vice
versa; et cetera (etc.); inter alia; ex-officio; nota bene (NB);
exempli gratia (e.g.); id est (i.e.); bona fide; ante, pre; post; anti;
ad lib.
• Loaning: Loaned words retain their foreign properties. Unlike
borrowed materials, loaned words are not frequently used in day-
to-day expressions. Rather, they are used in special fields such as
Law, Philosophy, Psychology and Medicine. They are also used in
creative works that permit informal and flamboyant expressions.
Examples are Deo Volente (God willing); prima facie (based on
first impression); pro rata (in proportion); sub rosa (in
confidence); laborare est orare (to work is to pray); onus probandi
(burden of proof); opere citato (in the work quoted already).
• Coinage: This is a creative way of finding equivalents for the
concepts or words which do not really exist in the host language.
Examples are bride price; chewing stick; Awoists, Zikites, Ex-Iles
3. Foregrounding without deviation: This can be achieved through the
use of parallelism. Parallelism is a recurrence or repetition of certain
syntactic patterns that are related or similar in their meanings. It is a
process describing a concept repeatedly using series of related words or
concepts. Examples:
a. Our leaders are selfish: they are callous, ego-centric,
inconsiderate, and insensitive. They think only about themselves.
b. The boy is lazy and tardy; he is extremely indolent, idle and
weak. He is not ready to work.
44
Summary
In this unit, we have discussed foregrounding as a linguistic technique
through which the author places emphasis on some elements or parts of
a sentence. We have also explored the various ways (grammatical
deviation; borrowing; loaning; coinage; and parallelism) through which
foregrounding can be achieved.
Post-Test
1. State two reasons why the knowledge of foregrounding is required
for a successful reading exercise.
2. List and discuss the techniques of achieving foregrounding.
Assignment:
Provide ten examples each of borrowed and loaned materials and use each
of them to illustrate lexical foregrounding.
References:
45
LECTURE NINE
The Paragraph
Introduction
In this lecture, we shall discuss the meaning and types of paragraph. A
paragraph can be explained from the perspective of functions either to
organise or to expand the writer’s thoughts. The lecture, therefore, shall
help us to understand the peculiar attributes of the different types of
paragraph, and how each paragraph type functions in the development of
discourse as the highest linguistic unit.
Objectives
1. Define paragraph;
2. Differentiate among the different types of paragraph;
3. Identify the different types of paragraph as they are used in reading
materials.
Pre-Test
1. How would you describe a paragraph?
2. What fundamental qualities a good paragraph must possess?
CONTENT
Definition of Paragraph
A paragraph is a collection of related sentences which discuss one main
idea. It is the major division of thoughts in a given text or discourse. A
paragraph starts on a fresh line with a capital letter (upper case)
46
demarcated either by indentation or space. A good paragraph focuses on
one major idea, whereas a bad paragraph discusses two or more main
ideas. A good paragraph must have a topic sentence which contains the
theme of the paragraph. In a good paragraph, all other sentences, apart
from the topic sentence, are used to give details.
Qualities of a Good Paragraph

A good paragraph must have some basic qualities. These qualities are
discussed as follows:
a. Unity: Unity demands that a paragraph should discuss only one
main idea. Therefore, all the sentences that make up the paragraph
must co-ordinate towards discussing the main idea. This means
that when a paragraph has more than one main idea, such
paragraph lacks unity, and it is a bad paragraph.
b. Coherence: The ordering of the sentences in a paragraph should be
logical enough to clearly tell the reader what the writer intends to
do. Coherence simply means that the writer must arrange his
sentences within a paragraph in a logical manner that would not
confuse the reader. The sentence that should come first should not
come in the middle or come last. This provides logicality and
guides the reader to follow the writer’s flow of thought.
c. Completeness: All the sentences within the paragraph must be
closely linked. This is also known as cohesion. None of the
sentences should take the idea contained in a paragraph to another
paragraph. A paragraph should be devoted to a main idea which
must be exhausted in that paragraph. However, this does not mean
that paragraphs within a given discourse are independent. Of
course, all paragraphs in a composition should discuss one central
theme that the topic of such composition suggests. To show
relationship among the various sentences in a paragraph and
among the individual paragraphs of a composition, the writer
makes use of transitional/signal words. As we read, therefore, we
must take note of these discourse markers so that we understand
the writer’s message.
47
Types of Paragraph
Sentences can be classified based on the functions they perform to
organise and develop the writer’s thoughts. Based on these functions, there
are two groups of paragraphs. These are:
a. The Paragraphs that Organise: Paragraphs in this category are used
by writers to present his points in a logical pattern that gives meaning to
the whole discourse. The paragraphs that organise include:
• The introductory paragraph: It stimulates the reader. It is the
paragraph that says say what is about to be said. It usually comes at
the beginning of the essay, and it may be a question, a definition, a
controversial statement, or an anecdote to stimulate the reader’s
interest. Conventionally, the introductory paragraph is one concise
paragraph that gives a hint of what the reader should expect in the
subsequent paragraphs
• The transitional paragraph: It is the paragraph that says it. The
transitional paragraph moves the composition forward by
discussing the points or ideas already previewed in the
introductory paragraph. It reviews and previews. The transitional
paragraph uses transitional words to connect the preceding points
with those points to follow. However, the transitional paragraphs
may be two, three or more depending on the scope of the
discourse.
• The concluding paragraph: This is the paragraph that says or
recaps the points that have been discussed in the transitional
paragraphs. It is traditionally one, concise paragraph.
b. The Paragraphs that Develop or Expand: These are paragraphs the

author uses to present his thought according to the thought-flow patterns
that are appropriate for the purpose of the discourse. Paragraphs in this
category are:
• Defining paragraph: This paragraph defines a word or concept
directly. This can be done through direct definition, naming, and
description or attribution. The following is an example of a
defining paragraph:
Reading is the process of communication
through which most formal learning takes
48
place. It involves understanding written
language. Through reading what an author
has written, you (the reader) set out to
understand and respond to the author’s
message. Reading involves the processing of
the written material before you against the
background of your earlier experience and
concepts. This means that when you are
reading you should be thinking, predicting,
questioning, evaluating, defining, and
redefining.
Edward Arnold (Publishers) Limited p. 9.
• Explanatory/Expository Paragraph: It is a paragraph that informs,

explains or educates. Its aim is to increase the reader’s knowledge
about a person, a concept or an issue. It is informative because it
presents facts that increase the reader’s knowledge on the issue
being discussed. It gives an exposition on a certain thing or
concept, what such thing/concept is, what it is not; why it is, why it
is not; what it does; what it does not. The following paragraph
gives an exposition on drama as a tool for development of
imaginative and critical thinking:
Drama for second language learners can
provide an opportunity to develop the
imagination of the students. The students
can go beyond the here and now and even
'walk in the shoes' of another. It provides an
opportunity for independent thinking
(McCaslin 1996). Students are encouraged
to express their own ideas and contribute to
the whole. Creative drama will offer
exercises in critical thinking and the chance
for the students to be creative. A good
example of this is role-plays in small groups
The ESL/EFL group will have many
situations where they can develop their own
ideas as well as skills of cooperation when
49
interacting with classmates. The group
work builds social awareness and
understanding as we walk in the 'shoes of
another'. Drama gives an excellent method
for studying human nature and working in
harmony. The play acting provides the
opportunity for a healthy release of emotion
in a safe setting which can work to relieve
the tension of learning in a second
language.
Source: Boudreault, C. (2010). “The Benefits of Using

Drama in the ESL/EF LClassroom”. The Internet TESL
Journal, Vol. 16, No. 1, Retrieved December 2, 2011 from
http://iteslj.org/Articles/Boudreault-Drama.html
• Narrative paragraph: This type of paragraph is employed in

creative writing such as fiction (stories) or in reports of an event, a
project, or an occasion. It presents ideas and facts in a sequence or
chronology. It is basically written in the past tense because it gives
an account of what happened at a time in the past. It must have
characters, action, location (scene) situation (event) and time
showing the sequence of events. The language is vivid and
descriptive because, while narrating, there are some elements of
description in relation to characters, place or actions. The example
below is a narrative paragraph:
The Assembly was merely a forum for
formalizing decisions already taken behind
the scenes. Accordingly, various
communities sent representatives to consult
with Ojukwu and his advisers privately and
to bargain for concessions. I was among
those chosen to represent the Rivers people
in a private interview with Ojukwu at the
State House in Enugu on 2 September 1986.
Some of the others in the group were N.
Nwanodi, Wenike Briggs, Richard Woyike
50
and Chief Harold Dappa-Birriye. We
meandered through the heavily-guarded
gates into the spacious and well-appointed
lounge. It was not long before Lt-Col.
Ojukwu appeared flanked by his
bodyguards. Clasping his hands behind him
in the at-ease position, he walked down from
one end of the long room with slow
measured strides. His chief secretary, N. U.
Akpan, was with him. We soon settled down
to business.
Adapted from Amadi, E. (1978). Sunset in
Biafra: A Civil War Diary. London: Heinemann
Educational Books, p. 17
• Descriptive paragraph: It gives a vivid picture of a person, an
action, object, a process, location, or structure. It uses language
that appeals to the reader’s senses of taste, sight and smell, in order
to conjure a mental picture in the reader’s mind. It is like painting
or drawing a clear picture with words. It is found in creative works,
narration, court or police records, news account and reports.
Unoka , for that was his father’s name, had
died ten years ago. In his day he was lazy
and improvident and was quite incapable of
thinking about tomorrow. If any money
came his way, and it seldom did, he
immediately bought gourds of palm-wine,
called round his neighbours and made
merry. He always said that whenever he saw
a dead man’s mouth, he saw the folly of not
eating what one had in one’s lifetime. Unoka
was, of course, a debtor, and he owed every
neighbour some money, from a few cowries
to quite substantial amounts.
He was tall but very thin and had a slight
stoop. He wore a haggard and mournful
look except when he was drinking or playing
on his flute. He was very good on his flute,
and his happiest moments were the two or
51
three moons after the harvest when the
village musicians brought down their
instruments, hung above the fireplace.
Unoka would play them, his face beaming
with blessedness and peace....
Adapted from Achebe, C. (1973). Things
Fall Apart .London: Heinemann, pp.3-4
The paragraphs above give a description of a character in Chinua

Achebe’s Things Fall Apart: Reading through the paragraphs, we can
conjure in our minds the image of the character.
Summary:
This lecture has explored the meaning and types of paragraph we are
likely to come across as we read for different purposes. Apart from
discussing types of paragraphs from the perspective of functions they
perform, we also provided examples of paragraphs the writers use to
expand or develop their thoughts. Having had this discussion, we are
now able to identify these paragraph types and recognise how they are
used in compositions.
Post-Test
1. Define paragraph. What are the qualities of a good paragraph?
2. State and briefly explain the basic types of paragraph from the
perspective of the functions paragraph perform in compositions.
3. Why do you think narrative and descriptive paragraphs are related?
Assignment:
Read any material(s) of your choice. Identify and copy one example each
of expository, narrative, defining and descriptive paragraphs.
References
Achebe, C. (1973). Things Fall Apart. London: Heinemann.
Amadi, E. (1978). Sunset in Biafra: A Civil War Diary. London:
Heinemann Educational Books
52
Boudreault, C. (2010). “The Benefits of Using Drama in the
ESL/EF LClassroom”. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. 16, No. 1,
Retrieved December 2, 2011 from http://iteslj.org/Articles/Boudreault-
Drama.html
Companies, Inc.
53
LECTURE TEN
Structural Components of A Paragraph
Introduction
In this lecture, we shall discuss the components that are always found in a
good paragraph. Such components are Main Ideas; Details; and Signal
Words. To contribute to the unity completeness and coherence of a
paragraph, a writer makes use of these structural components.
Objectives
1. Identify the basic components that are found in a typical
paragraph;
2. Locate the main point in a paragraph;
3. Distinguish the main point from details that author uses to
substantiate the central idea; and
4. Use signal words to understand the thought-flow pattern the author
employs to develop the paragraph.
Pre-Test
1. What are the main components of a good paragraph?
2. For what purpose does the author use the signal words in
paragraph development?
3. Distinguish between main point and details as components of a
good paragraph.
54
CONTENT
The Structural Components
A discourse is a collection of related paragraphs that the author uses to
project his thought (thesis). In each paragraph, a segment of the central
thesis of the discourse is discussed. Each of these segments of the central
thesis constitutes the central idea of a paragraph in the composition.
Therefore, the coherent synthesis of the paragraphs that contain the
segments (main ideas) of the central theme produces a meaningful
discourse. However, the extent to which the author is able to develop his
thoughts and link the paragraphs would determine the effectiveness of the
entire discourse while success of each paragraph of the discourse depends
on how the author is able to structure the paragraph. The structure of a
paragraph is made of three basic elements or components. These
components, as discussed below, are interdependent because they work
towards achieving a purpose—communicating the author’s ideas to the
reader.
Main Idea
The main idea is the key or major point of the paragraph. It is the point
that dominates the paragraph if such paragraph is well constructed. It is
the theme of the paragraph; or put in another way, it is a segment of the
central thesis of the discourse. The main idea is usually contained in the
topic sentence of a good paragraph (that is, the sentence that summarizes
what the paragraph discusses), or may be implied in more than one
sentence across the paragraph. The topic sentence is mostly the first
sentence of the paragraph. However, as a matter of style, some writers
conceal the topic sentence in the middle or delay to the end of the
paragraph. There is a strong relationship between the main idea and other
sentences that give details. As efficient readers, we should possess the
ability to distinguish the main idea from details; ability to detect the
writer’s main idea and how he uses details to expand the main idea in the
paragraph. This skill is what Panes (1972) calls “Reader’s Plan.”
Details
Details are contained in other sentences, apart from the topic sentence of a
good paragraph. They give facts, examples and illustrations to underscore,
develop, expand, elaborate or highlight the main point/idea that a
55
paragraph presents. They form the links between the main idea and the
whole body of the paragraph. They are presented in such a way that unity,
coherence (logical arrangement of facts), and completeness in the
paragraph are achieved.
Signal words
These are words that the writer uses to alert the reader to the pattern of
thought used in the paragraph. They are also called clues guide words or
directional words. They help you to anticipate what to follow; recognize
the structure being used, lead you to follow the writer’s development of
ideas, and identify the relationship between or among the ideas being
discussed in the composition. They serve to continue, to illustrate, to
reverse, or to conclude the writer’s flow of thought. The classes and
examples of these signal words are presented as follows:
Table 1: Classes of Signal Words and their Examples

Classes of Signal Examples
Words
Signal words that Namely, as follows, moreover, first, second,
authors use to continue, several, and, then, following, also, to, for example,
enumerate or list that is, not only, as, furthermore, again, finally, as
(Whole-Part). well, in addition, etc..
Signal words that Hence, actually, although, thus, if...then, as a result
authors use to illustrate of, because, in addition to, finally, for example,
or show causality clearly, under these circumstances, due to,
(Cause-effect). therefore, for example, subsequently, such as, etc.
Signal words that Equally, even then, in the same vein, conversely, in
authors use to reverse opposition, on the one hand, despite the fact that,
the thought or show on the other hand, in contrast, the same, equally,
similarities and also, but, on the contrary, regardless, in contrast,
differences instead, nevertheless, still, though, otherwise,
(Comparison-contrast). notwithstanding, likewise, but at the same time,
too, also, as well, yet, in spite of, however, etc.
Signal words that Explore, describe, analyse, examine, then, clearly,
authors use to present a mix, trace, outline, develop, itemise, juxtapose,
problem or solutions to demonstrate, evaluate, list, then, shake, clear,
a problem (Problem- remove, replace, etc.
solution).
56
Signal words that Now, before first, next, then, later, moments later,
authors use to show a after that, after a while, as long as, in the mean
progression, a process, time, at last, at length, meanwhile, shortly, lately,
or a procedure presently, thereafter, in addition, second,
(sequence), or to simultaneously, after, further, earlier, etc.
conclude.
Signal words that Because, subsequently, thus, finally, in conclusion,
authors use to conclude, consequently, under these circumstances, when,
or to present a therefore, hence, as a result, hence, etc.
proposition/hypothesis,
prove or disprove it
(Generalisation).
Summary
In this lecture, we have discussed the three basic components that
authors use to develop the paragraphs in their compositions. These
components are main ideas, details, and signal words. We have also
examined the different classes of signal words and their examples. The
knowledge of these paragraph components and how authors combine
them to develop the theses of their compositions would help us as
readers to understand the writers’ messages as we engage in reading
either for academic or non-academic purposes.
Post-Test
1. List and explain the components of a good paragraph.
2. Identify and give five examples each of the classes of signal words.
3. What is the relationship between main idea and details?
4. In the following paragraph, identify (a) the signal words, and (b)
how the signal words suggest the development of the main idea of
the paragraph.
In the final analysis, the choice is not: yield, or fight a nuclear war. It
is: win, or fight a nuclear war. For a nuclear war we shall certainly have to
fight, from whatever beleaguered outpost we are reduced to occupying, if
we continue to yield, Piece by piece, all over the world. And finally, in
desperation, we would see the horrible alternatives clearly in view—a
violent act of nuclear aggression or surrender.
57
Assignment
Study the following passage closely and
a. State the central message of the passage.
b. Show how the author expands the main idea.
William Shakespeare claimed that

All the world's a stage,
And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances,
And one man in his time plays many parts,
His acts being seven ages.
As You Like It Act 2, scene 7, 139–143
If so, then maybe we need to use drama more in the schools. Using drama
in the ESL classroom is not a new concept. Drama provides an excellent
platform for exploring theoretical and practical aspects of the English
language (Whiteson, 1996). The improvisation aspect of drama gives
students opportunities for developing their communicative skills in
authentic and dynamic situations. By using drama in the English
classroom, we can use English with our students in intriguing and useful
ways. The language can be used in context and makes it come to life.
Drama has the potential of making the learning experience fun for the
students and even memorable because it is interactive and visual.
There are many studies about using drama to learn English. Wan Yee Sam
talks about the communicative approach; drama techniques; value of
drama in education; advantages; and disadvantages (Sam, 1990). Alan
Maley and Alan Duff are classic sources for the benefits of using drama
techniques; how it helps to learn new vocabulary, builds confidence,
motivates the students and helps shift the focus from the teacher to the
students (Maley, 1982). Drama is a special communication situation which
makes considerable demands on the flexibility and skills of the teacher
(Kao, 1998). We have Morrow (1981) who gives some guiding principles
behind the use of the communicative activities. Susan Holden (1981) adds
some definitions as to what drama is and how it provides opportunities for
a person to express them. The personal nature of improvisation provides
58
many outlets for self-expression. We even hear that children need to play
as an important developmental process.
References
Boudreault, C. (2010). “The Benefits of Using Drama in the
ESL/EFL Classroom” The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. XVI, No. 1
James. S. (1984). Reading for Academic Purposes.
London: Edward Arnold (Publishers) Limited
Companies, Inc.
Panes, P. B. (1972). Reading the Textbook: Practice for
Improvement in the Subject Matter Areas. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell
Company, Inc.
59
LECTURE ELEVEN
Thought-Flow Patterns I
Introduction
Your ability to comprehend how the author connects various ideas in the
paragraphs to develop the theme of his composition is vital to ultimate
understanding of the overall message of the discourse. As Panes (1972:10)
asserts: “if you are able to discern the separate elements of meaning within
a paragraph or selection and relate them into a meaningful whole, you will
be a more effective reader.” Therefore, this lecture shall be devoted to
discussing the various the patterns that authors may employ to arrange
their ideas. These patterns are of six types, but we shall discuss three of
them in this lecture and examine the remaining three in lecture eleven.
Objectives
1. Identify and explain the various thought-flow patterns; and
2. Use the knowledge of thought-flow patterns to comprehend
author’s central message in a reading text.
Pre-Test
Study the following paragraph and state the cause and its effect as
presented by the author.
Naturally if the company has to pay for too many stolen cars, it will
have to raise the amount of money that it charges you for the protection.
We become painfully aware of this fact that every time automobile
insurance rates go up. If the companies have to pay out an unusually high
60
number of claims for accidents, etc., they must raise the rate they charge
on their policies in order to be able to continue to make a profit.
CONTENT
Factors that Determine Author’s Patterns of Organising Ideas
These are ways (patterns) through which authors organise their ideas or
thoughts in the text or in the paragraph. These are called Thought-flow
Patterns or Paragraph Patterns. The commonest of these patterns are:
i. Whole-Part (listing or enumeration);
ii. Cause-effect;
iii. Problem-Solution;
iv. Comparison-Contrast;
v. Sequence and; and
vi. Generalization.
A single paragraph may have more than one pattern. What matters,
however, is that the reader should be able to recognize the dominant
patterns and the complementary one(s) in the paragraph. Readers need to
understand the fact that a number of factors guide the author in choosing a
particular pattern to develop his ideas. One, the function or purpose of a
paragraph or a text usually determines, to a large extent, the type of
thought-flow pattern the writer would employ. Two, the subject of the
discourse is another factor that determines the pattern to be adopted in
organizing the thoughts of the author. Some of the thought-flow patterns
that authors usually employ are discussed briefly below:
Whole-Part
This is also called listing or enumeration. It shows how various parts fit,
together to form the total whole. It is often found in explanatory or
defining paragraph. It involves presentation of a major topic, a general
statement or a whole and moving ahead to expatiate on the its component
parts or a number of supporting points. The reader must identify the topic
sentence or the generalization and its sub-topics or sentences that give
details. James (1984:28) identifies some clues that can assist reader to
identify whole-part or enumeration pattern in a given paragraph. These
clues are:
61
a. The opening sentence often announces the topic and prepares you
(reader/listener) for the sub-topic.
b. The opening sentence may take the form of a definite statement of
fact after which points in support are listed.
c. A series of points or details are given and a definitive statement
(i.e. a generalization) is presented at the end.
d. The sub-topics, points, or details are usually independent elements
of the total picture (i.e. they are related to, but are meaningful on
their own without the whole).
Transition words such as first, second, third, several, another, also,

furthermore then, following, also, finally, for example, include that is, as
well, in addition, etc., are found in paragraphs that predominantly use
whole-part pattern. The following paragraph is an illustration of a
paragraph that uses whole-part pattern:
Writing could be classified into several
forms based on the goal behind each form. A
writer might simply want to tell a story or
give a description of a scene, an object, a
place etc. he might also want to enlighten
his readers on an issue or postulate an
argument with a view to taking a position on
a controversial subject. A piece of writing
might also be addressed to an individual on
the basis of his position in an office or on
the basis of his personal relationship with
the writer. Our concern here for the moment
is with the four major essay types, i.e.
narrative, descriptive, expository and
argumentative.
Source: Adeyanju, D. (2008). “Developing Effective
Writing Skills”. In Alo, M. And Ogunsiji, A. (Eds.).
English Language Communication Skill for Academic
Purposes. Ibadan: General Studies Programme (GSP)
Unit, University of Ibadan, pp. 259.
62
Cause-Effect
This is a paragraph pattern that attempts to establish causality. That is, it
establishes how one thing causes another or how one thing is caused by
another (How A leads to B; how B is caused by A; or effect of A on B). It
presents “what”, “why” and “how”. Some of the clues to identify a cause-
effect pattern are because, in order to, in order that, if for the purpose of,
thereafter as a result of thus, if….then, eventually, subsequently, and
consequently. It presents action or event and its consequence (for example:
what were the causes of Aba Women Riot of the Eastern Nigeria? What
effect did the riot have on tax payment in Nigerian? What causes
headache? How does headache affect proper performance of the affected
person? Etc.). Cause-effect pattern is mostly used in
expository/explanatory paragraphs, argumentative compositions, and
scientific and discourse. It attempts to chronicle the effects of some
occurrence in society or nature. To recognise cause-effect pattern in a
written text, the reader should (1) look for a direct statement that the writer
may use to set off the premise or introduce the cause(s), (2) look for the
cause(s) by asking the questions ‘why’, ‘under what conditions’, and
‘why’, and (3) locate the effect(s). Also, the reader should take note of the
two basic factors the writer always considers while using the cause-effect
pattern: (1) the writer may explore causes or effects or both, and (2) he
may examine the order of the causes or effects. The following paragraph
illustrates cause-effect pattern:
Naturally, if the company has to pay for too
many stolen cars, it will have to raise the
amount of money that it charges you for the
protection. We become painfully aware of
this fact every time automobile insurance
rates go up. If the companies have to pay out
an unusually high number of claims for
accidents, etc., they must raise the rate they
charge on their policies in order to be able
to continue to make a profit.
Problem-Solution
This pattern is mostly used in scientific discourse, in laboratory
experiment and instructional manual. It may take any of the following
forms:
63
a. A clear presentation of the problem followed by a solution or the
solutions;
b. The problem may take the form of a question and the solution(s)
form the answer to the question (problem);
c. The problem may be stated without proffering any solutions;
d. The problem may be clearly stated followed by hypothetical (not
empirically proved yet) solutions;
e. Both the problem and solution(s) may not be clearly stated, thus it
is the duty of a sensitive reader to detect and infer the pattern
adopted by the writer (Robinson cited by James, 1984:31).
Electricity can be dangerous and needs to
be treated with a great deal of respect. Why
can electrocution so often prove fatal? When
a person touches a high voltage wire,
current will start to flow through the person
to earth. The amount of current depends on
the resistance offered by the person between
the wire and earth. Wearing rubber boots
will decrease the current but having wet skin
will increase the current (this is why extra
care has to be taken with bathroom
electrical fittings, which should be operated
by pull-cords so that the actual electrical
switch is nowhere near your wet hand).
Adapted from Nelkon and Parker (1995).
Advanced Level Physics (7th Edition).New Delhi:
CBS Publishers & Distributors, pp. 289.
In the paragraph above, the problem is introduced in the first

paragraph and it is re-emphasized in question form in the second sentence.
The writers go ahead to give more explanation on why electricity is
dangerous and electrocution is always fatal. They eventually suggest
solution to the problem raised in the opening of the paragraph.
64
Summary
We have examined some of the patterns that authors use to develop their
thoughts. To be specific, we have discussed whole-Part, Cause-Effect,
and Problem-Solution thought-flow patterns. We presented examples of
paragraphs that illustrate the patterns. Our knowledge of these
paragraph development patterns is essential for our reading efficiency as
this would always enable us to follow author’s trend of thought and
comprehend the message being communicated in the text.
Post-Test
1. List any five signal words each that illustrate whole-part, cause-
effect, and problem-solution thought-flow patterns.
2. Read the following paragraph and (a) identify the major thought-
flow pattern(s) the author has used to develop his message, and (b)
list all the signal words that indicate the paragraph development
pattern(s) used in the passage:
For the purpose of analysis, we can treat economic system under two
broad categories just as we did governmental systems. One category
includes those systems in which, basically, property is owned by
individuals and groups of individuals; the other includes those systems in
which property is owned primarily by the state. Of course, as with
governments, such broad categories will include a rich diversity of kinds
within them. For example, a category composed of systems which permit
large-scale private ownership of property will range from the capitalism of
the United States to the state capitalism of Nazi Germany and fascist Italy.
Those systems which embrace the principle of government ownership of
property will range in kind from the socialism of England and Sweden to
the communism of Russia and Yugoslavia.
References
James. S. (1984). Reading for Academic Purposes. London:
65
Companies, Inc.
Company, Inc.
66
LECTURE TWELVE
Thought-Flow Patterns (II)
Introduction
In this chapter, we shall continue our discussion on thought-flow patterns.
In chapter ten, we discussed whole-part, cause-effect, and problem-
solution patterns. In this chapter, we shall discuss other thought-flow
patterns. They are comparison-contrast, sequence, and generalisation
patterns. We shall provide examples of paragraphs that adopt each of these
thought-flow patterns.
Objectives
1. Identify the thought-flow patterns when you come across any of
them in your reading activities;
2. Use the directional words to identify authors’ patterns of paragraph
development as you engage in reading; and
3. Understand author’s overall message or purpose in a given reading
text.
CONTENT
Comparison-Contrast, Sequence and Generalisation Paragraph
Patterns
Apart from whole-part, cause-effect and problem-solution patterns, other
thought-flow patterns that authors frequently employ to present their ideas
are comparison-contrast, sequence, and generalisation. We shall now
discuss these paragraph patterns and provide examples of paragraphs that
adopt the patterns.
67
Comparison-Contrast
This pattern presents the similarities (comparison) and differences
(contrast) between a set of concepts or entities either in a single paragraph
or across the stretch of the whole discourse. Sometimes, a paragraph may
concentrate o the similarities alone or on the differences alone. A
paragraph may do both comparison and contrast together. It is widely used
in all kinds of study-type reading. The clues are similarly, likewise, in
addition to, like, as, in the same way, in contrast, however, of course, on
the other hand, on the one hand, conversely, while, on the contrary,
unlike, even though, etc. Summerset (2010) suggests the following
alternatives a writer that wants to use compare-comparison thought pattern
may adopt: (a) compare, and then contrast; (b) describe one idea, and then
describe the other; (c) take specific elements and describe them one at a
time; (d) only compare or only contrast. A paragraph may use any one, or
combine two or three of the methods. For instance the paragraphs below
combine alternatives b and d, as explained above (that is, describe one
idea, then describe the other: and only compare, or only contrast):
There are two major types of
morpheme: free and bound morphemes. A
free morpheme is one that can stand its own.
A free morpheme qualifies as a word. It is
the base to which affixes are attached.
Conversely, a bound morpheme is a
morpheme that cannot stand on its own. It is
attached to another morpheme. This does
not mean that a bound morpheme is
meaningless. Bound morpheme bifurcates
into derivational and inflectional
morphemes. While derivational morpheme
brings about a change in word class (e.g.
noun to adjective), inflectional morpheme
does not bring about any change in the word
class. In other words, the addition of an
inflectional morpheme does not change the
part of speech to which the free morpheme
belongs. Bound morphemes are essentially
fixes. If the morpheme comes before the
base, it is called a prefix. If it comes after
68
the base, it is called a suffix or postfix. If it
comes in-between the base, it is called infix.
This is non-existent in English.
Unlike derivational morphemes,
inflectional morphemes do not bring about
change in the part of speech to which the
base belongs. However, some derivational
morphemes are also class-preserving. While
they cause change in meaning, they do not
change the word class.
Ogunsiji, A. and Sunday, A. (2008).
“Grammatical Units”. In Alo, M. And Ogunsiji,
A. (Eds.). English Language Communication Skill
for Academic Purposes. Ibadan: General Studies
Programme (GSP) Unit, University of Ibadan,
pp.131-133
Sequence
This method is also called Time-Ordered Method. It is often used in
literary (narrative) and historical discourse where or a body of idea in
sequence of time order. It narrates or presents events or incidents
chronologically in order to establish the interrelationship among the
events. It follows a logical time and space order. It is also used to present a
sequence of steps, guide and processes involved in scientific experiments,
technical procedures, reports, or instructional manuals. Directional words
that are likely to be found in paragraphs that use this pattern include first,
next, then, later, thereafter, after, that, subsequently, moments later. The
following paragraph as used by Coulterer, cited by James (1984: 29), is an
example of a paragraph that presents a sequence. It presents the steps to
follow if you intend to make a good compost heap:
No well-regulated garden is complete without its
compost heap provides an excellent and
inexpensive source of humus and soil
regeneration; it is built up on the following
manner: Select a site in a shaded place and dig
a pit five of six feet wide, a foot or more deep,
and as long as seems necessary. The soil dug out
will be used to cover the heap. First, throw a
69
layer of old corn stalks, or similar heavy trash—
but not wood or branches—smashing them up as
well as possible. On this, spread manure about
two or three inches deep if it is available, if not,
use good top soil and humus instead. Dust this
liberally with a complete commercial fertiliser,
then add a layer of six to twelve inches of leaves,
lawn clippings, vegetable refuse from the
kitchen, weeds provided they do not carry
seed—in fact, almost anything that will decay,
except plants infested disease or insect pest,
which should be burned. As the material is
gradually added, a little limestone may be
shaken among it. When this layer is thick
enough, dust it also with fertiliser, and spread
over it three or four of inches of top soil with
some old compost or manure if there as any.
Generalization
It is often used in discussing scientific theory, specifically. It is adopted
mostly in defining and explanatory paragraphs where mathematical and
scientific principles are explained.
A generalization is a general statement putting forth a principle, a
theory, a law or a hypothesis. It is different from the whole-part pattern
because the generalization made here is often the product of well-proven,
accepted scientific, theories and principles. An author/writer starts with a
hypotheses (general statement) and goes ahead to prove the hypothesis,
law or theory in the rest of the paragraph. The paragraph below is an
example:
The first law of thermodynamics states that
energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can
only be transformed from one form into another.
All living organisms store energy as chemical
energy in their bodies. They use it to do ‘work’.
‘Work’ refers to their metabolic activities. This
work is done through the conversion of chemical
energy into other useful forms of energy. Thus
all living organism are energy converters. This
is in accordance with the first law of
thermodynamics.
70
Ramlingam, S.T. (2003). Modern Biology for Senior
Secondary Schools. Onitsha: African First
Publishers Limited, p.38
The paragraph above opens with a general statement that is a product

of scientific principle. The author goes ahead to prove the general
statement. The proof is contained in the details that are provided by the
subsequent sentences after the topic sentence. The major directional word
that signals the summation statement of the proof is thus. If you pay
attention to such signal words as you read, you are likely to detect the
author’s pattern of thought presentation and the overall message of the
text.
Summary
In this lecture, we concluded our discussion on the remaining parts of
thought-flow patterns. We discussed comparison-contrast, sequence,
and generalisation. We also provided a paragraph each to illustrate the
thought-flow patterns. By now we should be able to identify the patterns
as we come across them in our reading exercises. Of course, our
understanding of these paragraph patterns will always help us to detect
the central ideas of any composition we read, either for relaxation, for
knowledge acquisition, or for examination purpose.
Post-Test
1. What really distinguishes whole-part paragraph pattern from
generalisation pattern?
2. List any five signal words each that can be found in paragraphs
that use:
a. comparison-contrast,
b. sequence, and
c. generalisation thought-flow patterns.
References
Ogunsiji, A. and Sunday, A. (2008). “Grammatical Units”. In Alo,
M. and Ogunsiji, A. (Eds.). English Language Communication Skill for
71
Academic Purposes. Ibadan: General Studies Programme (GSP) Unit,
University of Ibadan, pp.131-133
Oyerokun, S.O. (1990) Developmental Language Arts. Ibadan:
Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan
Ramlingam, S.T. (2003). Modern Biology for Senior Secondary
Schools. Onitsha: African First Publishers Limited
Sumerset, J. (2010). “Four Ways to Present a Comparison Essay”.
http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Jane_Sumerset Accessed on 21/08/2010
72
LECTURE THIRTEEN
Studying The Text Book
Introduction
As our level moves higher in our university education, our academic tasks
and the reading skills we need to cope with these tasks also increase. This
lecture will take us further to another level of reading. Specifically, in this
lecture, we shall discuss the basic strategies we should acquire to read the
text book effectively and efficiently.
Objectives
1. Employ the text-book reading strategies to solve given reading
tasks; and
2. Change the text-book reading strategies as the reading tasks
change.
Pre-Test
1. Describe how you would use Basic Rehearsal and Complex
elaboration strategies to read a given textbook.
2. State how Basic Organisational Strategies is different from
Complex Organisational Strategies.
CONTENT
The Text-Book Studying Strategies
Textbook studying is a strategic approach to reading whereby you adjust
your comprehension behaviour before, during and after reading to meet
73
the specific goal of understanding and recall (Flippo and Caverly, 1991).
Textbook studying also helps you to enhance your ability to make a good
critique (critical analysis) of the text being read. Weinstein and Mayer
cited by Flippo and Caverly, (1991) outline eight categories of textbook
study strategies. We shall now discuss these strategies.
Basic Rehearsal Strategies

These are the techniques for repeating items to aid comprehension and
recall. An example is the common memorisation. That is, when you read
an item several times and memorise the item so that you can easily recall it
in the future. However, these strategies are relevant when the items to
memorise are simple and few.
Complex Rehearsal Strategies

These are the techniques for giving prominence to certain items in the
course of reading so that it becomes easy to recall them. They have to do
with highlighting materials to be learnt in order to aid recall. An example
is underlining or underscoring. In the next lecture, we shall further discuss
underlining as a text-book reading strategy.
Basic Elaboration Strategies

Basic Elaboration Strategies are the technique for generating mental
images. With these strategies, the reader uses his experiences to generate
mental picture from the reading material in order to aid comprehension
and recall. When you ignite your experiences relevant to the content of the
reading text and you are able to visualise the author’s message,
comprehension and recall become easy.
Complex Elaboration Strategies

These are the techniques for describing how new items fit into old
knowledge of the reader whereby the reader is able to generate new
content from the reading material in such a way that he is able to
comprehend and recall the author’s message. The strategies enable readers
to monitor their level of comprehension during and after the reading
exercise. The most commonly used complex elaboration strategy is
generative note-taking whereby the reader write relevant or main points
74
while reading. The jotting can be done in the margin of the text being read,
or in a separate jotter. The reader can annotate, paraphrase or write some
of the contents verbatim. After the reading, the reader can fall back on his
jottings. This actually helps him to comprehend and recall what has been
read.
Basic Organizational Strategies

These are the techniques for grouping items for easy recall. Through these
techniques, the reader re-organises the major points in the reading text in a
manner that makes it easy for him to comprehend and recall the points.
The most popular example of these techniques is mnemonics (also called
mnemotechnics) — the process of organizing main points into structures
such as acronyms or short sentences with each main point forming the
letters or words. A good example is the technique for recalling the nine
planets of the Solar System where the first letter of each of the nine
planets is used to generate a sentence—My Very Easy Mother Just Serve
Us New Plate. This is exemplified as follows:
My Mercury
Very Venus
Easy Earth
Mother Mars
Just Jupiter Mnemonics
Serve Saturn
Us Uranus
New Neptune
Plate Pluto
Another example of mnemonic is Mr Niger-D. This method is used in

elementary science teach to teach attributes of living things. Each letter of
the word (MR NIGER-D) resents each of the attributes of living things as
shown here: M = Movement; R = Respiration; N = Nutrition; I =
Irritability; G = Growth; E = Excretion; R = Reproduction; D = Death.
75
Complex organizational strategies
These techniques are used for recognizing and summarizing structures of
information in a pattern that aids encoding and recall of the major facts. A
good example is outlining whereby the reader assembles the facts
contained in a reading text according to the relationship among the facts or
concepts so that comprehension and recall are facilitated.
Comprehension monitoring strategies

These are techniques that readers can employ for establishing learning
goal and monitoring their progress towards the goal. They are more
complex and elaborate than other text-book studying strategies because
they involve some fundamental linear steps that the reader is expected to
follow in order to monitor and achieve the learning objective. Two popular
examples of these strategies are the SQ3R and OK4R techniques. The
SQ3R means S = Survey; Q = Question; R = Read; R = Recite/Recall; R =
Review /Revision) while the OK 4R means O = Overview; K = Key
points; R = Read; R = Recite/ Recalls; R = Reflect and R = Review. Please
refer to the course material on CLA 101: Introduction to the Study of
Reading. These techniques are comprehensively discussed in the material.
Affective and Motivational Strategies

These are the techniques for controlling volition, that is, attention,
concentration, anxiety and time management. Naturally, every reader is
likely to be distracted by the variables identified above. It is, therefore,
prudent that we control these variables as we read. The best place to read
is where we are not prone to physical distractions; and the best time to
read is when we are in a good psychological comportment and thus we are
not likely to be distracted. Besides, we should always have the motivation
for reading. This can be achieved when we see reading as a rewarding
exercise that can help us to achieve some positive leaning goals.
76
Summary
Reading is an exercise that demands both physical and emotional
concentration. Besides, it requires that the reader is fully equipped with
the necessary strategies in order to achieve maximum success especially
at the level of text-book reading. In this lecture, we have discussed the
text-book studying strategies that a reader needs to acquire to read
effectively and efficiently.
Post-Test
1. Explain complex elaboration strategies and complex organisational
strategies.
2. Cite examples of respective reading occasions where you will use
complex rehearsal strategies, complex elaboration strategies and
basic organisational strategies.
3. State the basic steps involved when you employ comprehension
monitoring strategies to study a text book.
References
Flippo, R.F. and Caverly, D.C. (1991). “Teaching Reading and
Study Strategies at the College Level”. IRA.
Oyerokun, S.O. (1990) Developmental Language Arts. Ibadan:
Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan
Company, Inc.
77
LECTURE FOURTEEN
Underlining As A Text-Book Studying

Technique
Introduction
Perhaps one of the mostly used reading techniques by university
undergraduates is underlining. Unfortunately, this technique is often
abused or misused by students especially when they engage in study-type
reading. In this lecture, we shall examine the factors that determine the
success of underlining as a text-book reading technique. We shall also
discuss the fundamental steps that you must follow when you use
underling to aid comprehension and recall in your reading exercise.
Objectives
At the end of the lecture, you should be able to:
1. Explain the meaning of underlining as a text-book reading strategy;
2. Follow the steps involved in using underlining to aid
comprehension and recall; and
3. Use underlining effectively while reading for exam or solving a
given reading task.
Pre-Test
1. What is underling? How is it different from page mutilation?
2. Identify and explain the factors that facilitate the use of underlining
as a text-book studying technique.
3. If you intend to use underling in your reading exercise, state the
steps you would follow.
78
CONTENT
What is Underlining?
Underlining is a textbook studying technique that is used for underscoring
or highlighting materials to be learnt or read. It is a complex rehearsal
strategy used to give emphasis to certain parts of the reading material to
aid understanding and recall. It takes place when a reader underlines or
highlights segments of the material being read in order to facilitate
comprehension and recall. For instance, as you read a text book, perhaps
when you are preparing for an examination or trying to turn in an
assignment, you note that some parts of the text you are reading are
important and contain information that are worth remembering or that can
help you solve a task. Then you take your pen to underline the parts or use
your highlighter to underscore the parts so that you can easily assimilate
and recall them. What you have done is underling. Underlining is the
technique of calling attention to some parts of a reading text. Underlining
is different from mutilation. It is mutilation when you underline a reading
text indiscriminately in such a manner that almost every line on every
page is underlined or highlighted. Underlining on the other hand is
selective; only the sections that are considered more important than other
parts are underlined or highlighted for the purpose of easy revision and
recall.
Factors that Determine the Success of Underlining

The success of underlining as text-book reading technique depends on a
number of variables (factors). Some of these factors are enumerated
below:
1. The user’s Competence: A competent/experienced reader
underlines not everything but the main facts, points or main ideas
of the text. The converse holds for an inexperienced reader.
2. The Difficulty Level of the Text: The difficulty level of a reading
text also determines how successful underlining can be. A reading
material with a simple and familiar structure makes underlining
more successful.
3. The Structure of the Materials to Be Read: A material that
provides visual clues to high structural concept (e.g. the use of
italics; bold font or subtitles to emphasise the hierarchical structure
of the text) may promote easy and successful underlining.
79
Therefore, it is very important that the reader understands the
hierarchical structure or pattern contained in the passage before he
can underline successfully.
Steps to Follow while Using Underlining

In underlining, the following steps must be followed. However, these are
not exhaustive.
a. The reader must first recognize the type of thought-flow pattern the
author adopts to organize his ideas.
b. Comprehension first; the reader must also understand the concepts
in the material before he proceeds to underlining.
c. You must underline only the most important concepts. Locate the
key concepts which are always found in the topic sentence of every
good paragraph. This will guide you to discover and underline the
relevant sections of the text.
d. The reader, on a regular basis must review what he has underlined.
This will reinforce understanding and recall. In fact, mere
underlining is not a proof that memory (understanding and recall)
has occurred. It is just a way of facilitating comprehension and
recall.
Summary
This lecture has focused on discussing underlining as a text-book
studying technique. Underlining is a complex rehearsal strategy that you
can use to give prominence to some segments that are considered
important and worth remembering in a reading text. You may do this by
using your pen to underline or your highlighter to highlight the parts
that contain the facts or the central message of the text. We also
examine some of the factors that determine the success of underlining as
well as the fundamental steps the reader needs to take while employing
the technique.
Post-Test
1. Describe how you will use underlining to facilitate comprehension
and recall in your reading exercise.
80
2. Mere underlining is not a proof that memory has occurred.
Explain.
3. Identify and explain the factors that determine the success of
underlining as a study-type reading technique.
References
Flippo, R.F. and Caverly, D.C. (1991). “Teaching Reading and
Study Strategies at the College Level”. IRA.
Dechant, E.V. And Smith, H.P (1977) Psychology in Teaching
Reading (Second Edition), New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Inc.
81
LECTURE FIFTEEN
Critical Reading I
Introduction
It is not enough that you are able to read quickly and comprehend; it is
imperative that you read with the ability to evaluate and judge the context
you read in terms of the veracity of author’s facts and claims. When you
read and you are able to discover both the explicit and the implicit facts in
the text, this shows that you are a mature reader; a critical reader, who is
able to get the author’s message and draw appropriate inferences from the
text. Therefore, in this lecture, we shall discuss critical reading, and
examine what makes an individual a critical reader. We shall also examine
the criteria that distinguish a critical reader from an uncritical reader.
Objectives
1. Define critical reading;
2. Identify the characteristics of a critical reader;
3. Distinguish a critical reader from an uncritical reader; and
4. Draw inferences after reading a given text.
Pre-Test
1. What is critical reading?
2. State the attributes of a critical reader.
3. Read the following passage and state the writer’s primary purpose.
How logical and objective is author’s presentation of thoughts?
82
Not a few people in Kano State would want the ongoing Ramadan
fasting to end because of the succour it is giving them. The month of
Ramadan is a time for spiritual uplift when Muslims across the world
seek God’s favour and atone for their sins by denying themselves of
certain comfort through fasting.
But going by media reports, some residents in Kano are having a
swell time in the holy month. The Kano State government has
extended its hand of benevolence to them and is feeding them so they
could perform the spiritual task of fasting. The government was
reported to have claimed that it was feeding about 50,000 people
every day.
In a country of over 140 million people, whose army of poor and
deprived people is swelling on a daily basis, providing food for
50,000 people may not mean much to some people. But it is certainly
a life-saving intervention for these hapless and helpless individuals
who may not have seen the colour of kunu and Funkaso, the meal
served them, before.
It is immaterial to say that there would be Christians among the
50,000 people being fed daily as there would be many people who
would see the gesture as an opportunity to get rid of hunger, at least
momentarily.
Nigerians have been fasting for a long time and some of them in Kano
would use the Ramadan offering by the government to break their
perennial fast. Nigerians know the colour of poverty and hunger is
their consistent companion in a country where government’s
inconsistent policies have failed to provide them with a life support.
They know that the Kano State government gesture is temporary. But
what hope does a drowning man in the river of hunger have? He will
grab anything, even straw. For whatever it is worth, Governor Ibrahim
Shekarau could have saved some lives with his Ramadan gesture.
Culled from Nigerian Tribune, Tuesday 15th Sept, 2009. P.15
CONTENT
What is Critical Reading?
The word critical is defined by Cheyney (1971:16) as “a process
characterized by careful and exact evaluation and judgement” or “to judge
a matter severely.” Critical reading, therefore, is reading to understand the
83
main concepts, draw inferences and make a good critique (critical
analyses) of the material read. Critical reading calls for a probing mind
and discerning eyes. As Panes (1972:14) puts it:
Critical reading is another aspect of
reading. It is a refined skill and presupposes
that adequate reading comprehension exists.
Essentially, it involves your ability to
differentiate between fact and opinion. It
demands that you carefully analyze the
source of your information: Who is the
author? What is he saying? How logical and
fair is his reasoning? Further, it is
imperative that you be aware of various
propaganda techniques.
Critical reading is more than the simple requirement of general

comprehension skill; it makes “fuller use of analytical thinking process”
(Cheyney, 1971). The author goes further to provide a list of important
critical reading skills. These skills are anticipating outcomes; classifying
ideas; comparing and contrasting; distinguishing facts and opinion;
drawing conclusions; establishing cause and effect; establishing sequence;
generalizing; identifying and evaluating character traits; identifying and
interpreting facts; interpreting figurative and idiomatic language;
interpreting ideas implied but not stated; making inferences; making
judgments; perceiving relationships; perceiving the real problem; reacting
to the mood or tone of a selection; and weighing validity of facts,
particularly in a controversy.
A critical reader is the one who not only understands what he reads,
but also demonstrates ability to distinguish between facts and opinion;
logical reasoning and emotional outpouring; truth and fallacy. A critical
reader is a reader who refuses to be carried away or swayed in his belief
by the writer’s style or manner of approach to the subject matter.
Naturally, some authors attempt to drift your belief, deceive or
deliberately misinform you. They use tricky and discreet styles of thought
control to achieve their objectives. It is your duty as a critical reader to be
thoughtful and sensitive as you read.
84
Differences between a Critical Reader and an Uncritical Reader
A critical reader possesses some characteristics that stand him out. The
table below presents the attributes that distinguish a critical reader from an
uncritical reader.
Critical Reader Uncritical Reader

He knows what he does not know. He thinks he knows everything.
He is open-minded and takes time He jumps to a hasty and an
to reflect on author’s ideas. unwarranted conclusion.
He pays attention to writers with He pays attention to only the
whom he agrees or disagrees. writers with whom he agrees.
He looks for good reasons to He disregards evidence as to
accept or reject expert’s opinion. whom the writer is.
He is concerned with unstated He is concerned only with what is
assumptions and what is not clearly stated (surface reading).
clearly said or written (inferential
reading).
He insists on getting the least He ignores sources of evidence.
evidence.
Opinions and propaganda are frequently found in newspapers adverts,

editorials letters to the editors, and columns. Conversely, news stories
traditionally present facts as they are, however not exclusively every time.
Some news stories, announcements or notices sometimes contain
falsification or misrepresentation of facts and truth. Therefore, as a critical
reader, you must always be alert and sensitive so that you are not swayed
by the writer’s opinions.
Summary
We have examined the meaning of critical reading. We have also looked
at who a critical reader is as well as the differences between a critical
reader and an uncritical reader. We reiterated it that to be a complete
and an efficient reader, you must learn how to read not only to
comprehend but also to make an unbiased assessment of the author’s
message. To do this, you should always read with an open mind that
asks questions and passes judgement.
85
Post-Test
1. Read again the passage given as pre-test and state the writer’s
primary purpose. How logical and objective is author’s
presentation of thoughts?
2. Who is a critical reader?
3. Identify the attributes of an uncritical reader.
Assignment
Read a newspaper editorial and a journal article of your choice. Comment
on the author’s use of language in each of the materials you read.
References
James. S. (1984). Reading for Academic Purposes. London:
Nigerian Tribune (2009). Shekarau and the Poor of Kano
(Editorial). Tuesday 15th Sept, 2009. P.17
Company, Inc.
86
LECTURE SIXTEEN
CRITICAL READING (I1)
Introduction
In lecture fourteen, we started discussion on critical reading where we
examined the meaning of critical reading as well as the basic differences
between a critical and uncritical reading. Lecture fifteen is a continuation
of our discussion on critical reading. Here, we shall examine the some
issues that a critical reader must always consider while reading. We shall
also discuss propaganda and some of its traces that writers may use to
project their subjective opinions and deceive readers to accept such views.
Objectives
At the end of the lecture, you should be able to:
1. Identify the devices that authors always use to present subjective
views;
2. Detect traces of propaganda that may be contained in a reading
text;
3. Read without being deceived by author’s rhetoric; and
4. Evaluate and draw inferences after every reading exercise.
Pre-Test
1. As a critical reader, identify the issues you must always consider
when you read.
2. What is propaganda? Identify any six traces of propaganda you
know.
3. Why do authors use propaganda?
CONTENT
Issues to Consider in Critical Reading
As a critical who reads not only to comprehend but also to evaluate, draw
inference and judge the text, there are some issues you must always
consider while you read. Paying a close attention to these elements will
help you to assess the text in terms of its strengths and weaknesses, and
87
author’s level of objectivity and credulity in presenting his message. Some
of these issues as identified by Panes (1972) are discussed as follows:
1. The Author: Being a critical reader, you must ask if the author is an
expert in the subject he is dealing with. An expert is somebody who has
both the relevant training and a track record of successful practice in his
filed. This, however, does not suggest that an expert is always truthful. At
times, experts deliberately lie, make honest mistakes, twist facts or just
have contrary or contradictory findings. I t is necessary that you examine
the motive of the author. Is the author presenting his ideas in a manner
intended to directly or indirectly sway your beliefs? Is the author
interested in promoting a cause or a product directly or indirectly by his
background or position? Is the author competent to have made certain
claims? Are his attitude to, and beliefs about, the issue neutral or biased?
2. What the Author Says: As much as possible, you must check the
facts. An author may present facts in a way that supports his prejudice or
subjectivity. It is difficult to check everything you read but before you
reject or accept an idea and incorporate it into your own belief or view, it
is imperative to check critically. As a critical reader, you also need to
study the author’s development of idea especially the assumption upon
which he draws his conclusion. You should be wary of logical conclusion
and over-generalisation. You should watch for bi-polar assumptions where
a classification should have been preferable.
Of course, you need to ask some questions: Has the author presented
bare facts and plain truth? Has he not destroyed the sacredness of facts to
present his personal opinion? Has the writer presented his fact logically
substantiated with good reasons and evidences? Has he not made an
illogical conclusion? Has he not over-generalised? Also, you should
compare experts opinions and see whether or not, a submission (how
sincere and scholarly it may appear) represents a dominant point of view
of experts in the field. Are the facts or information the author presents still
as true today as they were then? You should know that things are dynamic
they keep changing frequently.
3. Traces of Emotionally Tinged (Coloured) Language: Language is
very powerful and sensitive. A mischievous writer may cunningly use
language to away the reader’s belief and arouse in the reader, a wild wave
of emotion and sentiment. A critical reader must be watchful of this so that
he is not unwittingly manipulated or influenced by the author. A fact laden
with emotionally tinged expression easily becomes swaying storm. See
88
these examples below. How does each of the sentences influence your
emotion or attitude to the fact presented?
a. Ten people died in the riot.
b. Ten people were killed in the riot.
c. Ten innocent people were killed in the riot.
d. Ten innocent children were killed in the riot.
e. Ten innocent children were gruesomely killed in the riot.
f. Ten innocent children were mercilessly hacked to death in the
riot.
g. Ten innocent children, in their prime of life, were mercilessly
slaughtered by blood-thirsty rioters.
NB: Apart from sentence ‘a’ which is plain, others contain relative levels
of sentiment and emotionally-coloured elements purposely to arouse the
reader’s sentiment.
4. Traces of Propaganda: Propaganda is an attempt well planned and
organised to spread a particular topic or information, while suppressing
some other. Initially, propaganda had a positive connotation but with its
gross abuse during the World War II, it has become a thing to be wary of.
Propaganda has some unique traces. As critical readers, we should always
beware of these traces of propaganda. Some of the traces include the
following:
a. Name Calling: This is a deliberate act of labelling a person with
some tags or names purposely to achieve a purpose. Examples are
NADECO, Southwest Press, OPC, the Arewa Press, the Ngbati
Press, the Ezen Digbo, the Niger Delta Boys, the South-West
political rascals, the khaki boys, hoodlums, political gladiators,
political distracters, religious extremists, social miscreants, and so
forth.
b. Identification/Dissociation: This is identifying with heroes of the
pest or dissociating from them. This is peculiar to political culture
where, during electioneering campaigns, politicians attempt to win
the sympathy of the electorate by identifying with some political
idols. For example in Nigeria, politicians are fond of associating
with political heroes such as Chief Obafemi Awolowo (of the
West), Dr Nnamdi Azikwe (of the East), and Sir Ahmadu Bello or
Tafawa Balewa (of the North).
89
c. Glittering Generalities: This is the use of words that sound true
but may not be true. These are often found in political campaigns
or statements.
d. Testimonial: This is an. endorsement by a famous person who says
an idea or a product is good. However this may be a false claim as
endorser may not have any knowledge of such idea or product.
This is a common practice in advertisement and advocacy
campaigns
e. Band-Wagon: This always an appeal to crowd a psychology. That
is, goading a person or a group of people into doing things by
making them believe that everybody is already doing it. This is
also called “herd effect”.
f. Repetition: This is repeating certain statement or fact often and
often probably to give it credibility: An often repeated statement
has the capacity to disguise as the truth.
g. Distortion: Distortion is throwing facts out of their proper
perspective deliberately to achieve a purpose. Distortion may come
in the following ways:
• Giving the facts undue prominence;
• Burying or treating the important facts lightly;
• Using misleading attention-getters;
• Mixing opinion with fact; and
• Omitting vital facts.
Apart from the foregoing issues we just discussed, there are some
fundamental factors that usually influence the extent to which a reader is
able to comprehend the writer’s message and judge the material being
read. Cheney (1971) sums these factors thus:
Before a person can become a critical reader...,
he must understand the general message of the
material he is reading. A number of factors
influence comprehension and critical reading,
the most important of which is general
intelligence. Other factors are the limits of a
meaningful vocabulary, the ability to organize
material after reading, the rate of reading
(reading so slowly as to forget or reading so fast
90
as not to remember), the interest value to the
reader, the background of the reader’s
experience for the particular material read, and
the readability of the material (complexity of
sentences or amount of white space between the
lines).
As a matter of fact, critical reading is a more demanding exercise than

the basic reading for comprehension. It is a function of many factors; the
reader is expected to be intellectually mature, have relevant experiences,
and possess good vocabulary skills.
Summary
Critical reading is a more rigorous reading that demands the reader to be
alert to, and be wary of, some issues. These issues, as we have discussed
in this lecture, are the author, what the author says, traces of
emotionally-tinged language and, of course, propaganda. When we read
without ignoring these variables, we would be able to distinguish
between facts and mere opinions; and between truth and sheer fallacy,
and then make informed assessment and judgement as to whether the
author is objective or biased, competent or not, in his presentation.
Post-Test
1. Identify and discuss the issues that a critical reader must always
consider.
2. What are the traces of propaganda? Why is it necessary that you
should be wary of these traces when you read?
3. Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow.
It was not expected that Osama bin Laden would be captured alive; for he
had always said he would go down fighting. Yet, having nurtured an
enormous desire to stay alive, while his fiery and unorthodox
interpretation of political Islam paradoxically sent many starry-eyed
adherents of al-Qaeda to their eager death, the world would not have been
surprised to hear he was reluctant to embrace the suicidal death he
romanticised for more than a decade. That story was not to come, as
91
United States Navy Seals Special Forces that attacked his compound at
Abbottabad, near Islamabad, Pakistan, were simply not interested in
capturing him alive. Maybe they learnt from the headache capturing
Saddam Hussein gave them. And so, in the wee hours of the fateful day,
the founder of al-Qaeda met his chief enemy for the first time face to face,
and his death in the Waziristan Mansion near Pakistan’s elite military
academy may become an important component in changing the course of
regional and world politics.
In the 10 years or so he strutted on the world stage, he affected the

conventions of war so deeply in ways not seen since the Napoleonic Wars,
and far outpacing the combination of aerial, motorised and infantry
warfare of Hitler’s blitzkrieg. Perhaps unintentionally, bin Laden proved
that you can fight a war without winning it, but still winning it in clear
paradox of the concept of winnable wars. In order words, bin Laden
defined the objectives of his war against the West, particularly the United
States, not in terms of territorial gains, but in terms of making life a living
hell for Americans. The US had inflicted pain on Islam, he claimed,
and he would in turn inflict pain on them. For about 10 years since the
Twin Towers were brought down by al-Qaeda militants in September
2001 killing about 3,000 people, Americans had been on edge. And for
those 10 years, al-Qaeda could be said to have achieved its objective of
making Americans nervous.
Importantly too, bin Laden turned military doctrine upside down by

proving that the gargantuan aim of frustrating or paralysing a superpower
did not require the deployment of an army. Throughout his lifetime, the al-
Qaeda leader proved he needed only a few men, sometimes fewer than a
platoon, to wreak enormous damage and incalculable pain on his victims.
Al-Qaeda’s few men, fragmented into cells in many parts of the Western
world, cost the US hundreds of thousands of soldiers deployed into battle
and hundreds of billions of dollars spent in prosecuting the anti-terror war,
from Iraq to Afghanistan, and from Yemen to Somalia, Sudan and other
far flung militant redoubts.
But perhaps the most important damage done to conventional war

doctrines is Bin Laden’s introduction of borderless war. Because of
92
international restrictions on borders and territories, most countries require
enormous military ordnance to fight wars across huge distances. Al-Qaeda
fought its own wars across huge distances first by converting the victim’s
equipment into ordnance before deploying it, and then by ignoring and
easily breaching border restrictions or by using agents not restricted by
legal or diplomatic conventions.
In fact, the US woke up rather late to the concept of borderless war, an

aspect of which it exploited, at the risk of undermining international law,
in pursuing bin Laden to Abbottabad and fighting him deep inside
Pakistan. It is not certain why the concept of borderless war, which US
military academies and the US intelligence community had studied and
deployed on small scale in assassinations in many parts of the world, was
not deployed as a perfect and cost-effective response to al-Qaeda
operations. Had this been done, the invasion of Afghanistan would have
been dropped in favour of far more effective surgical and calibrated
operations to neutralise al-Qaeda operatives and key Taliban officials.
There would have been no need for regime change, with all the
consequences of administering, securing and rebuilding the country, not to
talk of the cost in men and material.
The surgical operation in Pakistan to liquidate bin Laden is a tacit

admission that limited wars are possible and may even be desirable in
certain circumstances. Proof that the concept is not strange to Americans
is that the neutron bomb was originally designed for limited wars. From
now on, it is possible that many powerful countries, East or West, may
embrace limited or borderless wars. Of course, this option will come with
its own consequences. It may open up an era of impunity, aggravate
international conflicts, and possibly end up redrawing the world map in
quite unintended ways.
The elimination of bin Laden will of course not lead to the immediate
liquidation of al-Qaeda as an extremist organisation. Alienated and
adventurous young people have experienced the almost infinite
possibilities and delight of troublemaking. They will periodically indulge
their bizarre taste for the gory and unusual. But like all groups and
organisations driven by suspect rationalisations, such as al-Qaeda was
93
obsessed with destroying America, bin Laden’s war was doomed from the
very beginning. After all, countries, especially powerful ones, have a
staying power no individual, no matter how bellicose, can summon.
In addition, Al-Qaeda was not a fundamentally rational or cohesive

ideology; it derived sustenance from such abstractions as hatred for
Western way of life, a way of life which many of its militants ironically
enjoyed or benefited from at one time or the other. In fact, given these
weaknesses in al-Qaeda, the US and its allies could indeed be said to have
panicked into a disproportionate response to a violent expression destined
to expire sooner rather than later.
Bin Laden played the ultimate joke on the world by relocating into a
residence where his enemies were least likely to look for him. He was not
known to be a humorous man; but his sense of morbid humour was
apparent in his choice of living close to Pakistan’s elite military academy.
It is inconceivable that Pakistani Intelligence had no idea he was their
guest. It was thought that America’s most wanted man had been living in
that specially designed residence, which is about 60 kilometres from
Islamabad for at least six or even nine years, far removed from the din and
turmoil he had unleashed on the world. His fiery end may, however, not
deter one of the more than a dozen key al-Qaeda leaders still active from
aspiring to succeed him.
But whoever that new leader may be will no doubt realise his end would
not be too different from that of bin laden, an end that may perhaps come
even quicker. To worsen the setback for al-Qaeda leaders and bring the
bin Laden paradox to the fore, even the revolutionary changes bin Laden
tried to engineer in the Islamic world, as a corollary of his fight against the
West, is being achieved through entirely peaceful popular protests, except
in Libya, and in a direction neither al-Qaeda nor anyone else thought
possible a few years ago.
Source: The Nation [Nigeria] Tuesday May 3, 2011, p.3.
94
a. As argued in the passage, describe, in two logical sentences at
most, Osama bin Laden’s “philosophy of war”.
b. In three INTELLIGIBLE sentences, one for each, identify the
paradoxical personality traits in the character of the central figure
described in the passage.
c. The US had inflicted pain on Islam, he claimed, and he would in
turn inflict pain on them. How would you describe the writer’s
attitude towards the veracity of the message contained in this
statement? Quote a word or a group of words from the sentence to
support your stand.
d. Cite TWO examples of name-calling from the passage. Indicate the
paragraphs and lines where your answers can be located in the
passage (please, don’t cite al-Qaeda).
e. What is the writer’s message in the final paragraph of the passage?
f. As a critical reader, how would you describe the writer’s degree of
objectivity or neutrality towards the subject-matter discussed in the
passage? Quote a sentence from the passage to substantiate your
position.
g. For each of the following words/phrases, suggest another
word/phrase that can replace it AS USED IN THE PASSAGE:
i. cells
ii. redoubts
iii. conventional
iv. borderless
v. in fact
vi. corollary.
h. What is the PREDOMINANT thought-flow pattern that runs
through the passage?
j. Cite from the passage, one example each of (1) simple sentence (2)
compound sentence (3) imperative sentence and (4) declarative
sentence.
i. Suggest a suitable title for the passage.
95
References
Company, Inc.
Fagbemi, K. “The Bin Laden Paradox”. The Nation [Nigeria], May
3, 2011. p. 3.
96

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CLA 301

Developmental Reading Skills

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General Editor: Prof. Bayo Okunade

Typesetted @ Distance Learning Centre, University of Ibadan

Prof. Isaac Adewole

Professor Bayo Okunade

In summary, reading is a complex process of recognizing and

Reading as a complex activity involves both the visual and non-visual

b. Non-visual Aspect: This aspect is the aspect of the reader. It includes

In summary, reading as a process involves recognition, correlation,

Levels of Reading Comprehension

Factors Affecting Meaning of Words

1. Context: A word is intended to express meaning, however, in most

What did ‘Yes’ mean in the context described above?

3. Culture: Word is culture-specific (culture-bound). Meanings of words

Word Sub-Culture Meaning

4. User’s Experience: Meanings of words also change with the user’s

Implications for Reading

I am on the world’s extreme corner,

My people, I have been somewhere

(Culled from Sons of Sorrow by George Awoonor-Williams)

Word Attack Skills

ii. Definition: When a word is defined, it is better understood.

Greek Prefixes and Roots

3. Others – Encyclopaedias, Guinness Book of Record; Who – Is –

As we can see from the definitions and examples above, a sentence

Therefore, based on the functions listed above, sentences are

Whatever we communicate, verbally or non-verbally, must be clear.

• Imperative Sentences: Imperative sentences are used to give

Sometimes, especially when the verb expresses a state of being rather

Combination of the Parts:

Close the door = VO

The boy has become a super star = SVC

The National Assembly declared Jonathan Acting President. =SVOC

Studying The Sentence: Understanding

Ways of Achieving Foregrounding

Qualities of a Good Paragraph

b. The Paragraphs that Develop or Expand: These are paragraphs the

• Explanatory/Expository Paragraph: It is a paragraph that informs,

Source: Boudreault, C. (2010). “The Benefits of Using

• Narrative paragraph: This type of paragraph is employed in

The paragraphs above give a description of a character in Chinua

Structural Components of A Paragraph

Table 1: Classes of Signal Words and their Examples

William Shakespeare claimed that

Transition words such as first, second, third, several, another, also,

In the paragraph above, the problem is introduced in the first

Thought-Flow Patterns (II)

The paragraph above opens with a general statement that is a product

Studying The Text Book

Basic Rehearsal Strategies

Complex Rehearsal Strategies

Basic Elaboration Strategies

Complex Elaboration Strategies

Basic Organizational Strategies

Another example of mnemonic is Mr Niger-D. This method is used in

Comprehension monitoring strategies