PHY102

COURSE MANUAL
Mechanics and Properties of

Matter
PHY102
University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

Open and Distance Learning Course Series Development
Copyright © 2016 by Distance Learning Centre, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
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ISBN: 978-021-352-8
General Editor: Prof. Bayo Okunade
University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

University of Ibadan,
Nigeria
Telex: 31128NG
Tel: +234 (80775935727)
E-mail: ssu@dlc.ui.edu.ng
Website: www.dlc.ui.edu.ng
Contents ii
Vice-Chancellor’s Message
The Distance Learning Centre is building on a solid tradition of over two decades of service
in the provision of External Studies Programme and now Distance Learning Education in
Nigeria and beyond. The Distance Learning mode to which we are committed is providing
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It is our hope that you will put these course materials to the best use.
Prof. Abel Idowu Olayinka

Vice-Chancellor
Foreword
As part of its vision of providing education for “Liberty and Development” for Nigerians
and the International Community, the University of Ibadan, Distance Learning Centre has
recently embarked on a vigorous repositioning agenda which aimed at embracing a holistic
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Apart from the responsibility for you to read this course material with others, you are also
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Contents iv
In conclusion, it is envisaged that the course materials would also be useful for the regular
students of tertiary institutions in Nigeria who are faced with a dearth of high quality
textbooks. We are therefore, delighted to present these titles to both our distance learning
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We would like to thank all our authors, reviewers and production staff for the high quality of
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Best wishes.
Professor Bayo Okunade

Director
Course Development Team
Content Authoring James Adeyemo Adegoke
Content Editor Prof. Remi Raji-Oyelade

Production Editor Ogundele Olumuyiwa Caleb
Learning Design/Assessment Authoring Folajimi Olambo Fakoya
Managing Editor Ogunmefun Oladele Abiodun
General Editor Prof. Bayo Okunade
Contents vi
Contents
About this course manual 1
How this course manual is structured .................................................................................................................... 1
CourseOverview 3
Welcome to Mechanics and Properties of MatterPHY105: Is this Course for you ............................... 3
Getting around this course manual 4

Margin icons ....................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Study Session 1 5
Essential Mathematics I ................................................................................................................................................ 5
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 5
Terminology .......................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Essential Mathematics Functions ......................................................................................................... 5
1.1.1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS ............................................................................................. 6
The sine function f(x) = sinx ................................................................................................. 6
The cosine function f(x) = cosx............................................................................................ 6
The tangent function f(x) = tanx ......................................................................................... 6
TRIGONOMETRIC TABLE ...................................................................................................... 7
1.1.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS ................................................................................................... 7
1.1.3 DERIVATIVES FUNCTIONS ..................................................................................................... 8
Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 10
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Study Session 2 11
Essential Mathematics II ............................................................................................................................................ 11
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 11
Terminology ....................................................................................................................................................... 11
2.1 Effects of Forces and their Reactions ......................................................................................... 11
2.1.1 Torque and Angular Momentum ...................................................................................... 11
2.1.2 Conservation of Angular Momentum .............................................................................. 13
Rolling Motion .......................................................................................................................... 13
2.1.3 Kinetic Energy of Rolling Object ....................................................................................... 14
2.1.4 Torque .......................................................................................................................................... 20
2.1.5Angular Momentum................................................................................................................. 21
2.1.6 Angular Momentum of Rotating Rigid Bodies............................................................. 25
2.1.7 Conservation of Angular Momentum .............................................................................. 26
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Study Session 3 30
Scalars and Vectors in Dimension.......................................................................................................................... 30
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 30
Terminology ....................................................................................................................................................... 30
3.1 Mathematical Quantities used in Physics....................................................................................... 30
3.1.1 Scalar Quantity ......................................................................................................................... 31
3.1.2Vector Quantity ......................................................................................................................... 31
3.1.3 Vector Addition ........................................................................................................................ 34
3.1.4Multiplication of Vectors ....................................................................................................... 35
Dot Product ................................................................................................................................ 35
Vector Product ......................................................................................................................... 35
3.1.5 Unit Vector.................................................................................................................................. 36
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Study Session 4 40
Kinematics ....................................................................................................................................................................... 40
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 40
Terminology ....................................................................................................................................................... 40
4.1 Motion in a Straight Line ....................................................................................................................... 40
4.1.1 Displacement ............................................................................................................................. 40
4.1.2 Speed............................................................................................................................................. 41
4.1.3 Velocity ........................................................................................................................................ 41
4.1.4 Acceleration ............................................................................................................................... 42
4.1.5 The Equations of Motion ...................................................................................................... 42
4.2 Projectile ...................................................................................................................................................... 45
4.3 Uniform Circular Motion ....................................................................................................................... 49
4.3.1 Definition of Terms ................................................................................................................. 49
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 51
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 51
Study Session 5 52
Newton’s Law of Motion ............................................................................................................................................ 52
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 52
Terminology ....................................................................................................................................................... 52
5.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion...................................................................................................................... 52
5.1.1 Force and Motion..................................................................................................................... 53
5.1.2 Atwood’s Machine ................................................................................................................... 53
5.2 Force and its Types .................................................................................................................................. 57
5.2.1 Types of Forces ......................................................................................................................... 58
5.2.2 Conical Pendulum.................................................................................................................... 58
Contents viii

Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 60
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 60
Study Session 6 61
Gravitational Force of Attraction ........................................................................................................................... 61
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 61
Terminology ....................................................................................................................................................... 61
6.1 Gravitational Force of Attraction ....................................................................................................... 61
6.1.1 Acceleration Due to Gravity ................................................................................................ 61
6.1.2 Orbit Round the Earth ........................................................................................................... 63
Satellites ...................................................................................................................................... 63
Parking of Orbits ..................................................................................................................... 63
6.1.3 Earth Gravitational Potential.............................................................................................. 64
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 65
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 66
Study Session 7 67
Energy and Work .......................................................................................................................................................... 67
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 67
Terminology ....................................................................................................................................................... 67
7.1 Kinetic Energy and Work ...................................................................................................................... 67
7.2 Potential Energy (P.E.) and Conservation of Energy ................................................................. 70
7.2.1 Conservative Force ................................................................................................................. 73
Properties of Conservative Force: ................................................................................... 73
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 74
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 74
Study Session 8 76
Linear Momentum and Collision ............................................................................................................................ 76
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 76
Terminology ....................................................................................................................................................... 76
8.1 Linear Momentum and Collisions ..................................................................................................... 76
8.1.1 The Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum ............................................... 77
8.1.2 Collisions ..................................................................................................................................... 77
Features of Collision .............................................................................................................. 77
Types of Collisions .................................................................................................................. 79
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 81
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 82
Study Session 9 83
Equilibrium and Elasticity......................................................................................................................................... 83
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 83
Terminology ....................................................................................................................................................... 83
9.1 Equilibrium and Elasticity .................................................................................................................... 83
9.1Requirements for Equilibrium ............................................................................................... 84
9.1.2 Equilibrium and the Force of Gravity ............................................................................. 85
9.1.3 Stacking Blocks ......................................................................................................................... 89
9.1.4 Rigid Body................................................................................................................................... 91
9.1.5 Defining Elasticity ................................................................................................................... 92
9.1.5 Hooke’s Law of Elasticity ..................................................................................................... 93
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 94
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 94
Study Session 10 95
Fluids .................................................................................................................................................................................. 95
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 95
Terminology ....................................................................................................................................................... 95
10.1 What are Fluids? .................................................................................................................................... 95
10.1.1 Properties of Fluids.............................................................................................................. 96
10.1.2 Characteristics of Fluids..................................................................................................... 96
10.1.3 Laminar (Uniform) and Turbulence (Disorder) Flow of Fluids ........................ 97
10.2Defining Viscosity ................................................................................................................................... 97
10.2.1 Factors Affecting the Viscosity of a Fluid.................................................................... 98
Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 99
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... 99
Notes on Self-Assessment Questions 100
References 105
About this course manual
About this course manual

Mechanics and Properties of MatterPHY102 has been produced by
University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre. All course manuals
produced by University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centreare structured
in the same way, as outlined below.
How this course manual is

structured
The course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course.
Information contained in the course overview will help you determine:
 If the course is suitable for you.
 What you will already need to know.
 What you can expect from the course.
 How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.
The overview also provides guidance on:
 Study skills.
 Where to get help.
 Course assignments and assessments.
 Margin icons.
We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

starting your study.
The course content

The course is broken down into Study Sessions. Each Study Session
comprises:
 An introduction to the Study Session content.
 Study Sessionoutcomes.
 Core content of the Study Sessionwith a variety of learning activities.
 A Study Session summary.
 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.
 Bibliography
Your comments
1
PHY102 Mechanics and Properties of Matter
After completing Mechanics and Properties of Matter we would

appreciate it if you would take a few moments to give us your feedback
on any aspect of this course. Your feedback might include comments on:
 Course content and structure.
 Course reading materials and resources.
 Course assignments.
 Course assessments.
 Course duration.
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Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this
course.
2
Course Overview
Course Overview
Welcome to Mechanics and

Properties of MatterPHY102:
Is this Course for you
Mathematics is the language of Physics. It is highly important that
learners should revise basic mathematics before going through the course
of this study. Such includes basic calculus, trigonometric functions,
logarithmic functions and derivatives/identities. Many things will be
assumed, but if the learner has updated his/her mathematical skills, most
of the concepts that is to be discussed will be assimilated more properly.
3
Getting around this course manual
Margin icons
While working through this course manual you will notice the frequent
use of margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of
text, a new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you
to find your way around this course manual.
A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize
yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.
Activity Assessment Assignment Case study
Discussion Group Activity Help Outcomes
Note Reflection Reading Study skills
Summary Terminology Time Tip
4
Study Session 1Essential Mathematics I
Study Session 1
Essential Mathematics I
Introduction
In this study session, we will examine trigonometric, logarithm and
derivatives functions. We will also attempt examples to explain each of
them.
Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
1.1 Explain the following functions with an example each:
 Trigonometric functions
Outcomes
 Derivatives functions
 Logarithm function
Terminology
Trigonometry a branch of mathematics that studies relationships
involving lengths and angles of triangles
Logarithm a quantity representing the power to which a fixed number

(the base) must be raised to produce a given number
1.1 Essential Mathematics Functions

The concept of function plays an important role in the study of calculus.
A function classically is also called a mapping from A to B, the function
takes each element x in A into its corresponding element y in B. while,
the modern way defines it as the set of ordered pairs. Functions are used
to represent relationship between measurable, observable, quantities etc.
Also, there are basically two approaches to mathematics functions
namely the classical and modern definitions. We will discuss the
following essential mathematical functions
i. Trigonometric functions
5
ii. Logarithmic functions

iii. Derivatives functions
1.1.1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

The sine, cosine and tangent of an angle are all defined in terms of
trigonometry, but they can also be expressed as functions. In this section,
we shall use information about the trigonometric ratios sine, cosine and
tangent to define functions f(x) = sinx, f(x) = cosx and f(x) = tanx.
The sine function f(x) = sinx

We shall start with the sine function, f(x) = sinx. This function can be
defined for any number x. The function f(x) = sinx has all real numbers in
its domain, but its range is −1 ≤ sinx ≤ 1. The values of the sine function
are different, depending on whether the angle is in degrees or radians.
The function is periodic with periodicity 360 degrees or 2π radians.
The cosine function f(x) = cosx

The function f(x) = cosx has all real numbers in its domain, but its range
is −1 ≤ cosx ≤ 1. The values of the cosine function are different,
depending on whether the angle is in degrees or radians. The function is
periodic with periodicity 360 degrees or 2π radians.
The tangent function f(x) = tanx

The function f(x) = tanx has all real numbers except odd multiples of 90
degree in its domain (in the case where x is expressed in degrees), or all
real numbers except odd multiples of π/2 (in the case where x is
expressed in radians. The range of the tangent function contains all real
numbers. The function is periodic with periodicity 180 degrees or π
radians.
6
TRIGONOMETRIC TABLE
Figure 1.1
Sinx 0 0.71 1 0.71 0 -0.71 -1 -0.71 0
Cosx 1 0.71 0 -0.71 -1 -0.71 0 0.71 1
Tanx 0 1 * -1 0 1 * -1 0
1.1.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Every exponential function has an inverse function. The inverse of the
exponential function with base b, f ( x) = b x , is called the logarithmic
function base b and is denoted log b x. The logarithmic function base e
is called the natural logarithm function and is denoted ln( x). The
logarithmic function base 10 is called the common logarithm function
and is denoted log(x). These logarithmic functions can be evaluated
directly by using a scientific calculator.
Example
Let f ( x) = ln( x). Find f (2.349)
f (2.349) = In(2.349) = 0.85399 (rounded)
The logarithmic functions satisfy the identities
AB = A+ B (the Product Identity),
(the Quotient Identity) and
=P (the Power Identity)
Where A and B may be positive numbers or variables, algebraic

expressions or functions that take on positive values. These identities are
used to write expressions involving logarithmic functions in different
forms to suit different purposes.
Example 1:
7
Solve the equation log = 4.
Solution:
Rewrite the logarithmic equation as the exponential equation = 81.

Apply the fourth root function to both sides of the equation to find x =
=3
Example 2:
Solve (x - 2) + (x + 1) = 2.
Solution:
Use the Product Identity for Logarithms to write the equation as
(x - 2)(x + 1) = 2. Rewrite this equation as the exponential equation
(x - 2)(x + 1) = ,
or - x - 6 = 0.
The solutions to this quadratic equation are x = 3 and x = -2. On

checking by substitution in the original equation, we find that x = 3 is a
solution and x = -2 is not a solution.
ITQ
Question
What are logarithmic functions bases ‘e’ and base ‘10’ called and how
can they be represented?
Feedback
Logarithmic function base ‘e’ is called the natural logarithm function
and is denoted by ln( x).
Logarithmic function base 10 is called the common logarithm function
and is denoted as well by log(x)
1.1.3 DERIVATIVES FUNCTIONS

The derivative of a function of a real variable measures the sensitivity to
change a quantity (a function value or dependent variable), which is
8
determined by another quantity (the independent variable). Derivatives

are a functional tool of calculus. For example, the derivative of a position
of a moving object with respect to time is the object’s velocity: this
measures how quickly the position of the object changes when time is
advanced.
The process of finding a derivative is called differentiation. The

derivative of a function f at a number x, denoted by f′(x), is
If y = f(x) the derivative is defined to be (x) =
Other notations are:
(x) = = =ẏ
Some common derivatives
(x) = 1
(Sin x) = Cos x
(Cos x) = - Sin x
(Tan x) = x
(Sec x) = Sec x Tan x
( )=
In(x) =
ITQ
Question
What were the two essential mathematical functions discussed in this
section?
9
Feedback
The two essential mathematics functions discussed are:
i. Trigonometric functions
ii. Logarithmic functions
Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, we explained trigonometric functions, logarithmic
functions and derivatives. We gave some solved examples and analysed
the solutions.
Summary
Assessment
SAQ 1.1 (tests Learning Outcome 1.1)
Fill the table below with their correct values
Assessment X
Sinx 0 0.71 0.71 0 -0.71 -1 0
Cosx 1 0 -0.71 -0.71 0 0.71
tanx 0 * -1 0 1 -1 0
Bibliography
http://teacher.pas.rochester.edu/phy121/lecturenotes/chapter13/chapter1
3.
2.
Reading
10
Study Session 2Essential Mathematics II
Study Session 2
Essential Mathematics II
Introduction
There are many examples in practice where two forces, acting together,
exert a moment or turning-effect on some object. In this study session, we
will explain cases like two strings be tied to a wheel and two equal
opposite forces applying tangentially to the wheel, we will observe what
will happen if the wheel is pivoted at its centre.
Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to
2.1 explain the following terms:
 torque and angular momentum
Outcomes  conservation of angular momentum
 kinetic energy of a rolling object
 angular momentum of rotating rigid bodies
Terminology
Angular the quantity of rotation of a body, which is the product of
momentum its moment of inertia and its angular velocity
Kinetic energy energy that a body possesses by virtue of being in motion
2.1 Effects of Forces and their Reactions

2.1.1 Torque and Angular Momentum
Torque is the effect of a force about an axis. The torque is equal to the
moments of the force F about the axis of rotation.
Torque has a unit of Nm and this unit is not equivalent to Joule, the unit
of Energy since, since Torque is not an energy
Note
11
Torque in rotational motion is analogous to force in linear motion. Since

moments of inertia I is analogous to mass m. The relationship between
torque Γ and moments of inertia is given by
where
The work done by a constant torque Γ when the body is turned through an
angular displacement θ is given by;
Angular momentum in rotational motion is analogous to linear

momentum in rotational motion.
where m is the mass of the particle, r is the radial distance and w is the
angular velocity.
For a rigid body containing many particles;
where I is the moment of inertia of the body about the axis of rotation.
The unit for angular momentum is kgm2s-1.
Recall that:
So,
But,
Therefore,
ITQ
Question
If Torque in rotational motion is analogous to force in linear motion and
moments of inertia I, is analogous to mass m. How can you represent the
relationship between torque Γ and moments of inertia?
Feedback
12
This can be represented thus:
2.1.2 Conservation of Angular Momentum

The principle of Conservation of Angular Momentum states that the
angular momentum about an axis of rotation for a system is constant if no
unbalanced external Torque acts on it.
For detailed understanding of torque and angular momentum, let us

consider rolling motion.
Rolling Motion
Figure 2.: Rotational Motion of Wheel
A wheel rolling over a surface has both a linear and a rotational velocity.
Suppose the angular velocity of the wheel is [omega]. The corresponding
linear velocity of any point on the rim of the wheel is given by
Where R is the radius of the wheel (see Figure 2.1). When the wheel is in
contact with the ground, its bottom part is at rest with respect to the
ground. This implies that besides a rotational motion the wheel
experiences a linear motion with a velocity equal to + vcm (see Figure
2.2). We conclude that the top of the wheel moves twice as fast as the
centre and the bottom of the wheel does not move at all.
13
Figure 2.2: Motion of Wheel is Sum of Rotational and Translational

Motion
An alternative way of looking at the motion of a wheel is by regarding it

as a pure rotation (with the same angular velocity [omega]) about an
instantaneous stationary axis through the bottom of the wheel (point P,
Figure 2.3).
Figure 2.3: Motion of Wheel around Axis through P
ITQ
Question
State the principle of Conservation of Angular Momentum
Feedback
The principle of Conservation of Angular Momentum states that the
angular momentum about an axis of rotation for a system is constant if
no unbalanced external Torque acts on it
2.1.3 Kinetic Energy of Rolling Object

The kinetic energy of the wheel shown in Figure 2.3 can be calculated
easily using the following formulas;
14
where IP is the rotational inertia around the axis through P, and [omega] is
the rotational velocity of the wheel. The rotational inertia around an axis
through P, IP, is related to the rotational inertia around an axis through the
centre of mass, Icm
The kinetic energy of the wheel can now be rewritten as
where the first term is the kinetic energy associated with the rotation of
the wheel about an axis through its center of mass and the second term is
associated with the translational motion of the wheel.
Problem
Figure 2.4 shows a disk with mass M and rotational inertia I on an

inclined plane. The mass is released from a height h. What is its final
velocity at the bottom of the plane? The disk is released from rest. Its
total mechanical energy at that point is equal to its potential energy
When the disk reaches the bottom of the plane, all of its potential energy
is converted into kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of the disk will
consist out of rotational and translational kinetic energy:
The moment of inertia of the disk is given by
15
where R is the radius of the disk. The kinetic energy of the disk can now
be rewritten as
Figure 2.4: Mass on an Inclined Plane
Conservation of mechanical energy implies that Ei = Ef, or
This shows that the velocity of the disk is given by
Consider now two different disks with identical mass M but different
moments of inertia. In this case, the final kinetic energy can be written as
Conservation of energy now requires that
16
or
We conclude that in this case, the disk with the smallest moment of
inertia has the largest final velocity.
Figure 2.5: Problem
Problem
A small solid marble of mass m and radius r rolls without slipping along
a loop-the-loop track shown in Figure 2.5, having been released from rest
somewhere along the straight section of the track. From what minimum
height above the bottom of the track must the marble be released in order
not to leave the track at the top of the loop?
The marble will not leave the track at the top of the loop if the centripetal
force exceeds the gravitational force at that point:
or
17
The kinetic energy of the marble at the top consists out of rotational and
translational energy
where we assumed that the marble is rolling over the track (no slipping).
The moment of inertia of the marble is given by
Using this expression, we obtain for the kinetic energy
The marble will reach the top if
The total mechanical energy of the marble at the top of the loop-the-loop
is equal to
The initial energy of the marble is just its potential energy at a height h
Conservation of energy now implies that
or
18
Problem: the yo-yo
Figure 2.6: The yo-yo.
Figure 2.6 shows a schematic drawing of a yo-yo. What is its linear

acceleration? There are two forces acting on the yo-yo: an upward force
equal to the tension in the cord, and the gravitational force. The
acceleration of the system depends on these two forces:
The rotational motion of the yo-yo is determined by the torque exerted by

the tension T (the torque due to the gravitational force is zero)
The rotational acceleration a is related to the linear acceleration a:
We can now write down the following equations for the tension T
19
The linear acceleration a can now be calculated
Thus, the yo-yo rolls down the string with a constant acceleration. The
acceleration can be made smaller by increasing the rotational inertia and
by decreasing the radius of the axle.
2.1.4 Torque
Figure 2.7: Motion of a particle P in the x-y plane.
A particle with mass m moves in the x-y plane (see Figure 2.7). A single
force F acts on the particle and the angle between the force and the
position vector is [phi]. Per definition, the torque exerted by this force on
the mass, with respect to the origin of our coordinate system, is given by
and
where r[invtee] is called the arm of the force F with respect to the origin.
According to the definition of the vector product, the vector [tau] lies
parallel to the z-axis, and its direction (either up or down) can be
20
determined using the right-hand rule. Torque defined in this way has
meaning only with respect to a specified origin. The direction of the
torque is always at right angles to the plane formed by the vectors r and
F. The torque is zero if r = 0 m, F = 0 N or r is parallel or anti-parallel to
F.
2.1.5Angular Momentum
The angular momentum L of particle P in Figure 6.7, with respect to the
origin, is defined as
This definition implies that if the particle is moving directly away from
the origin, or directly towards it, the angular momentum associated with
this motion is zero. A particle will have a different angular momentum if
the origin is chosen at a different location. A particle moving in a circle
will have an angular momentum (with respect to the centre of the circle)
equal to
Again we notice the similarity between the definition of linear

momentum and the definition of angular momentum.
A particle can have angular momentum even if it does not move in a

circle. For example, Figure 2.8 shows the location and the direction of the
momentum of particle P. The angular momentum of particle P, with
respect to the origin, is given by
21
Figure 2.8: Angular Momentum of Particle P.
The change in the angular momentum of the particle can be obtained by

differentiating the equation for l with respect to time
We conclude that
This equation shows that if the net torque acting on the particle is zero
and its angular momentum will be constant
Note
Problem
Figure 2.9 shows object P in free fall. The object starts from rest at the
position indicated in Figure 2.9. What is its angular momentum, with
respect to the origin, as function of time?
The velocity of object P, as function of time, is given by

22
The angular momentum of object P is given by
Therefore
which is equal to the torque of the gravitational force with respect to the
origin.
Figure 2.9: Free Fall and Angular Momentum
Figure 2.10: Action - Reaction Pair.
23
If we look at a system of particles, the total angular momentum L of the

system is the vector sum of the angular momenta of each of the individual
particles:
The change in the total angular momentum L is related to the change in

the angular momentum of the individual particles
Some of the torques are internal, some are external. The internal torques
come in pairs, and the vector sum of these is zero. This is illustrated in
Figure 2.10. Figure 2.10 shows the particles A and B which interact via a
central force. Newton's third law states that forces come in pairs: if B
exerts a force FAB on A, than A will exert a force FBA on B. FAB and FBA
are related as follows
The torque exerted by each of these forces, with respect to the origin, can
be easily calculated
and
Clearly, these two torques add up to zero
24
The net torque for each action-reaction pair, with respect to the origin, is
equal to zero.
We conclude that
This equation is another way of expressing Newton's second law in

angular quantities.
2.1.6 Angular Momentum of Rotating Rigid

Bodies
Suppose we are dealing with a rigid body rotating around the z-axis. The
linear momentum of each mass element is parallel to the x-y plane, and
perpendicular to the position vector. The magnitude of the angular
momentum of this mass element is
The z-component of this angular momentum is given by
The z-component of the total angular momentum L of the rigid body can
be obtained by summing over all mass elements in the body
From the definition of the rotational inertia of the rigid body we can
conclude that
25
This is the projection of the total angular momentum onto the rotation
axis. The rotational inertia I in this equation must also be calculated with
respect to the same rotation axis.
Only if the rotation axis is a symmetry axis of the rigid body will the
total angular momentum vector coincide with the rotation axis
Note
2.1.7 Conservation of Angular Momentum

If no external forces act on a system of particles or if the external torque
is equal to zero, the total angular momentum of the system is conserved.
The angular momentum remains constant, no matter what changes take
place within the system.
Problem
The rotational inertia of a collapsing spinning star changes to one-third of

its initial value. What is the ratio of the new rotational kinetic energy to
the initial rotational kinetic energy?
The final rotational inertia If is related to the initial rotational inertia Ii as

follows
No external forces act on the system, and the total angular momentum is
conserved
The initial rotational kinetic energy is given by
26
The final rotational kinetic energy is given by
Figure 2.11: Problem
A cockroach with mass m runs counter clockwise around the rim of a

lazy Susan (a circular dish mounted on a vertical axle) of radius R and
rotational inertia I with frictionless bearings. The cockroach's speed (with
respect to the earth) is v, whereas the lazy Susan turns clockwise with
angular speed [omega]0. The cockroach finds a bread crumb on the rim
and, of course, stops. (a) What is the angular speed of the lazy Susan after
the cockroach stops? (b) Is mechanical energy conserved?
Assume that the lazy Susan is located in the x-y plane (see Figure 2.11).
The linear momentum of the cockroach is m . v. The angular momentum
of the cockroach, with respect to the origin, is given by
The direction of the angular momentum can be found using the right-
hand rule. The direction of the z-axis is chosen such that the angular
momentum of the cockroach coincides with the positive z-axis. The lazy
27
Susan is moving clockwise (see Figure 2.11) and its angular momentum
is pointing along the negative z-axis. Its angular momentum is given by
where I is the rotational inertia of the dish. Note that since the rotation is
clockwise, is less than zero. The total angular momentum of the
system is given by
The rotational inertia of the dish plus cockroach is given by
Since the external torque acting on the system is zero, the total angular
momentum is conserved. The rotational velocity of the system after the
cockroach stops is given by
The initial kinetic energy of the system is equal to
The final kinetic energy of the system is equal to
The change in kinetic energy of the system is
28
Essential Mathematics II
The change in the kinetic energy of the system is negative, and we

conclude that mechanical energy is not conserved. The loss of mechanical
energy is due to the work done by the friction force between the surface
of the lazy Susan and the legs of the cockroach.

In this Study Session, we treated torque and angular momentum.
Numerous problems were also solved on each sub-topics to further drive
home the concepts of torque and angular momentum forces.
Summary
Assessment
moments of the force F about the axis of rotation. How can this
Assessment expression be represented mathematically?
Bibliography
http://teacher.pas.rochester.edu/phy121/lecturenotes/chapter13/chapter13.
http://teacher.pas.rochester.edu/phy121/lecturenotes/chapter12/chapter12.
Reading
29
Study Session 3
Scalars and Vectors in Dimension

Introduction
In this study session, we will discuss physical quantity with respect to
scalar and vector quantities. We will also examine vector addition and
multiplication with valid examples to be solved
Learning Outcomes
3.1 define and give three (3) examples each of scalar and vector
quantities
Outcomes
Terminology
Scalar Quantity a quantity that can be completely described by a
magnitude, that is, by a number and a unit
Vector Quantity a measurement that refers to both the magnitude of the

medium as well as the direction of the movement the
medium has taken
3.1 Mathematical Quantities used in Physics

Physics is a mathematical science. The underlying concepts and
principles have a mathematical basis. Throughout the course of our study
of physics, we will encounter a variety of concepts that have a
mathematical basis associated with them. While our emphasis will often
be upon the conceptual nature of physics, we will give considerable and
persistent attention to its mathematical aspect.
The motion of objects can be described by words. Even a person without

a background in physics has a collection of words that can be used to
describe moving objects. Words and phrases such as going fast, stopped,
slowing down, speeding up, and turning provide a sufficient vocabulary
30
Study Session 3Scalars and Vectors in Dimension
for describing the motion of objects. In physics, we use these words and
many more. We will be expanding upon this vocabulary list with words
such as distance, displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration and we
will soon see that these words are associated with mathematical quantities
that have strict definitions. The mathematical quantities that are used to
describe the motion of objects can be divided into two categories. The
quantity is either a vector or a scalar. These two categories can be
distinguished from one another by their distinct definitions
3.1.1 Scalar Quantity

A scalar quantity is a quantity that can be completely described by a
magnitude, that is, by a number and a unit. Some examples of scalar
quantities are mass, length, time, density, and temperature. The
characteristic of scalar quantities is that they add up like ordinary
numbers. That is, if we have a mass m1 = 3 kg and another mass m2 = 4
kg then the sum of the two masses is
m = m1 + m2 = 3 kg + 4 kg = 7 kg
3.1.2Vector Quantity
A vector quantity, on the other hand, is a quantity that is described by
both magnitude and direction. Some examples of vector quantities are
force, displacement, velocity, and acceleration. The velocity of a car
moving at 50 km per hour (km/hr) due east can be represented by a
vector. Velocity is a vector because it has a magnitude, 50 km/hr, and a
direction, due east. A vector quantity can be represented by an arrow
drawn to scale.
31
yA
Fig. 3.1: Representation of a Vector
The length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude vector quantity.

The direction of the arrow represents the direction of the vector as shown
in the figure 3.1 above. That is, the length of the arrow represents the
magnitude of the vector, while the direction of the arrow represents the
direction of the vector. The direction is specified by the angle θ that the
vector makes with an axis, usually the x-axis, and is shown in figure 1.1.
The magnitude of vector A is written as the absolute value of A called
|A|, or simply by the letter A.In mechanics, we often find the component
of a vector in a certain direction. The component of a vector is the
effective part of the vector in that direction. We can illustrate it by
considering figure 3.2 as follow:
A vector A on the x – y plane can be specified by its two components,

which are mutually perpendicular to each other and directed along the X
– and Y – axes form the origin of i.e.
32
Fig. 3.2: Resolution of vectors
The magnitudes of the resolved components along X-and Y- axes are

written as Ax and Ay. These can be determined in terms of the angle A
makes with the positive X- axis as shown in fig 3.2.
Ax = A cos
Ay = A Sin
Where A is the magnitude of vector A in symbol, A = /A/
Therefore, we can write A in terms of the components as;
A = Axî + Ayĵ
Where î and ĵ are unit vectors in the x- and y- directions respectively;
By applying Pythagoras theorem, we obtain the magnitude of A from fig

1.2.
A= …………………….. 3.1
And its direction as
θ = (Ay/Ax) ……………………… 3.2
Vector A can also be resolved in a 3-dimensional space i.e.
A = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az ……………………… 3.3
33
Where k is a unit vector in the z – direction. It should be noted that only

vectors lying in the quadrants and not those lying on any of the axis can
be resolved.
3.1.3 Vector Addition

Let us assume we add any two arbitrary vectors A and B. The result of
adding the two vectors A and B forms a new resultant vector R, which is
the sum of A and B. This can be shown graphically by laying off the first
vector Ain the horizontal direction and then placing the tail of the second
vector B at the tip of vector A, as shown in figure 3.3. The resultant
vector R is drawn from the origin of the first vector to the tip of the last
vector. The resultant vector is written mathematically as
R = A + B …………………………………….3.4
Let A = Axî + Ayĵ and
B = Bxî + Byĵ
R = A + B = (Ax + Bx) î + (Ay + By) ĵ ………………….3.5
Fig.3.3: Addition of Vectors
34
Note that in this sum we do not mean scalar addition. The resultant vector
is the vector sum of the individual vectors A and B.
1) Vector addition is commutative i.e., it does not matter in which

order we add vectors.
A+B =B+A
2) Vector addition is associative
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
3) Subtraction is simply addition with one of vectors changing sign.
A - B = A + (-B)
3.1.4Multiplication of Vectors
Dot Product
The multiplication of two vectors yielding a scalar quantity is called a
scalar or dot product. The dot product of A and B is given by
A . B= /A / / B / Cos θ
Where θ is the angle between A and B, in terms of the resolved
component of A and B, the dot product is
A . B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz
Vector Product
The vector product of A and B equals another vector C which is
perpendicular to the plane of A and B in symbol;
C = A˄ B = /A/ /B/ sin
Where θ is the angle between A and Band r is unit vector in the direction
ofC.
This operation is also called cross-product; the direction of Cis usually

determined by the right hand screw rule.
Therefore, we can conclude that some vector products do not commute
i.e.,
A˄ B - B ˄ A 0
Analytically, C can be expressed in terms of the resolved component of

the vector A and B as
35
Î ĵ K
C= Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz
Or,
C=î Ay Az -ĵ Ax Az +k Ax Ay
By Bz Bx Bz Bx By
= (AyBz - AzBy) î + (AzBx - AxBz) ĵ + (AxBy - AyBx)k
3.1.5 Unit Vector

This is a vector of a unit magnitude, it is usually associated with very
vector i.e., for vector A on the 3-dimensional plane.
A = /A
Wher is a unit vector in the direction of A.
z x
Fig. 3.4: Unit Vector
The defining three unit vectors î, ĵ, ĸ are parallel to the x-, y- and z
respectively.
Hence, we write r as
r =
36
Note that the product of same unit vector is unity i.e.,
î.î = ĵ.ĵ = k.k = 1
and î.ĵ = ĵ.ĸ = ĸ.î = 0
Similarly, the cross products among the unit vectors are;
î ˄ ĵ = -ĵ ˄ î = k
ĵ ˄ î = -k ˄ ĵ = î
k ˄ î = -î ˄ k = ĵ
î˄ î =ĵ ˄ ĵ =k ˄k=0
SOLVED PROBLEMS
While the direction θ = (-12/6) = -63.43 degrees
2. Determine the angle between the vectors
A = -î + ĵ + 2K and
B = 2î + 3ĵ –K
Solution
Recall that;
A . B = /A / / B / Cos θ and
A . B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz
A . B = (-1) (2) + (1) (3) + (2) (-1)
= -2 +3-2
= -1
/A / = = 2.45 units
37
/B / = = 3.74 units
Cos θ =
θ = (-1/9.17) = (-1.09)
θ = 96.3 degrees.
1. What is the vector product of the vectors

A = 2î + 3ĵ - K
B = -î + ĵ +2K
Solution
A˄ B = î ĵ k î 3 -1 -ĵ 2 -1 K 2 3
2 3 -1 = 1 2 -1 1 -1 1
-1 1 2
= 7î - 3ĵ + 5K
ITQ
Question
The following are examples of scalar quantity except--------
(a) mass
(b) length
(c) power
(d) temperature
Feedback
The correct answer is power because a scalar quantity is a quantity that
can be completely described by a magnitude, that is, by a number and a
unit
38

In this Study Session, we discussed scalar and vector quantities. We also
explained addition and subtraction of vectors. Special attention was paid
to dot product and cross product (multiplication of vectors).
Summary
Assessment
Find the resultant of the following vectors:
A1 = -3î + 2 ĵ
Assessment
A2 = 2î - 6 ĵ
A3 = 7î - 8 ĵ
Bibliography
3.
2.
Reading
39
Study Session 4
Kinematics
Introduction
It is a fact of everyday experience that objects in the real world appear to
be in a continual state of relative motion because motion is defined as a
change of position of a body, depending on time. In this study session, we
will describe motion in a straight line with four parameters. We will also
discuss projectile and give examples. Finally, we will examine the term
uniform circular motion.
Learning Outcomes
4.1 describe motion in a straight line
4.2 discuss projectile and give examples
Outcomes 4.3 examine the term uniform circular motion
Terminology
Kinematics the branch of mechanics concerned with the motion of
objects without reference to the forces that cause the
motion
Projectile an object upon which the only force is gravity
4.1 Motion in a Straight Line

This is also known as a linear motion or rectilinear motion that is, a
motion of object in a straight line. There are four parameters required to
describe it. These are distance or displacement (s), speed or velocity (v),
acceleration (a) and time (t). There are also four types of motion, which
are; Random, Translational, Rotational, and Oscillatory motion.
4.1.1 Displacement
This is defined as the distance travelled in a specified direction (s). It is
an example of vector quantity because it has both size and direction. E.g.
40
Study Session 4Kinematics
supposed a car moves from point A to point B in North-East direction and

covered a distance of 5 m. It is illustrated in figure 4.1 below.
Figure 4.1:Illustrating the idea of displacement
4.1.2 Speed
This is the rate of change of distance with time (v).
V = d/t where s refers to change in distance and t change in time. It is a

scalar quantity. It is measured in m/s.
Uniform Speed
Supposed a body travels a distance s in a time interval t, and then the

average speed v of the body is
V = = a constant
4.1.3 Velocity
This is defined as the rate of change of distance with time in a given
direction or is a speed measured in a given direction. It is therefore a
vector quantity. The SI unit is m/s.
V=
Instantaneous Velocity
This is the rate of change of displacement with time during a very short
interval of time around that instant. If the short time interval is a
change of displacement take place. Then, the instantaneous velocity is
the limit of the ratio as the interval approaches zero.
41
V = Lim =
ITQ
Question
The following parameters are used to describe motion in a straight line
except------------
(a) distance or displacement (s)
(b) Newton (n)
(c) acceleration (a)
(d) time (t)
Feedback
The correct answer is (b), Newton, n.
4.1.4 Acceleration
This is defined as the rate of change of velocity with time. It is also a
vector quantity, the SI unit of acceleration is .
a= =
Uniform Acceleration
If the rate of change of velocity with time is constant, the acceleration is

said to be uniform i.e. if the motion of an object whose velocity increases
by equal amounts in equal time intervals.
a = = constant.
The opposite of acceleration is deceleration that is if the velocity of a

body is decreasing with time. In this case, acceleration is negative.
4.1.5 The Equations of Motion

By definition, acceleration a = rate of change of velocity and since a is
constant we have
a=
42
Where u = initial velocity of the body,
v = velocity at time t,
a = the uniform acceleration
Then, at = v-u
V = u + at …………………… (i)
The distance s, travelled by the body during the time interval is average
velocity × time i.e.
S= t ………………… (ii)
Putting equation (i) into (ii) in order to eliminate v
S= t
S=
S = ut + ……………………….. (iii)
From equation (ii) substitute for t
S=
2as = -
= + 2as ……………………... (iv)
WORKED EXAMPLES
Example 1
A car travels from rest with an acceleration of 2 . Calculate its

velocity after travelling 9m.
Solution
From rest, u = 0, a =2 , s = 9m
43
Recall, = + 2as
=0+2
= 36
v=
v=6
Example 2
A train has a uniform velocity of 108 km/h. how far does it travel in ½
minute?
Solution
108 km/h = = 30 m/s
S =vt
V = 30 m/s
t = 1/2 minute = 30s

s = 30 30 = 900m = 0.9km
Example 3
An aeroplane lands on the runway with a velocity of 50 and

decelerate at 10 to a velocity of 20 . Calculate the distance
travelled on the runway.
Solution
Recall,
= + 2as,
= + (2×-10×s)
400 = 2500 – 20s
44
S=
S = 105 m
4.2 Projectile
This is a two-dimensional motion of an object launched into space
without any motive power of its own; therefore, it travels freely under the
action of gravity and air resistance alone. A projectile is an object whose
curved motion in space is affected or influenced by gravity alone.
EXAMPLES
i. Arrow or bullet shot into space;

ii. A stone shot from a catapult;
iii. A basket or football kicked into space;
iv. A tennis ball thrown against a vertical wall.
The motion of the projectile is always in two forms;
a) A constant horizontal motion along X-part,

b) A vertically downward acceleration of free fall due to gravity
along Y-part.
Figure 4.2: Projectile Motion
Table 3.1: The descriptive equations are tabulated as follows.
45
Description X- Part Y-Part
a. initial velocities (resolved

Cos θ Sin θ
)
= Cos θ = Sin θ – gt
b. Velocities at time (t)
X=( Cos θ)t Y = Sin θt -
c. Particle Co-ordinate at time ½g
(t)
Other useful equations are derived from the equations above. The time (t)
taken to reach the maximum height i.e. the peak is gotten from the y- part
(b) by setting =0
0= Sin θ – gt
gt = Sin θ
t= …………….. (1)
The time of flight, (T) of a projectile is the time required for the projectile
to return to the level from which it was projected.
T = 2t = ………………. (2)
The maximum height, (H), of a projectile is defined as the highest

vertical distance reached by the projectile as measured from the
horizontal projection plane
We set y = H and t = in y-part of equation (c)
Y= Sin θt - ½g
H= Sin θ × - ½g
H= ……………….. (3)
The range, (R), of a projectile is the horizontal distance from the point of
projection to the point where the projectile hits the projectile plane.
Substitute equation 1 into the x-part of equation (c)
X=( Cos θ) T
X=( Cos θ) ×
46
X=2 Cos θ Sin θ/ g
2 Cos θ Sin θ = sin2θ
R= …………………… (4)
To get the maximum range, we set θ = and the maximum peak θ =
ITQ
Question
-------- is an object whose curved motion in space is affected or
influenced by gravity alone
(a) force
(b) projectile
(c) acceleration
(d) distance
Feedback
The Correct answer is (b) that is to mean that a projectile is an object
whose curved motion in space is affected or influenced by gravity alone
The descriptive equations formulated are valid provided the following

assumption holds:
a. The range should be small so that the earth curvature may be

neglected
b. The peak (maximum height) should be small so that variation of
gravity with altitude is neglected
c. The initial velocity should also be small for air resistance to be
neglected.
WORKED EXAMPLES
Example 1
A ball is projected upwards with a speed of 20m/s, and attains a

maximum height of 5 m. Calculate (a) the angle of projection (b) the time
of flight, and (c) the horizontal range of the ball.
47
Solution
(a) The maximum height, H, is given by
H=
By substitution
5=
Sin θ = = 0.5
θ=
(b) The time of flight, T, is given by
T=
= 2s
(c) The horizontal range, T, is given by
R=
= 34.6 m.
48
4.3 Uniform Circular Motion

There are many examples of bodies involving in circular path.
Figure 4.3: Circular motion
Examples are:
i. The earth rotation round the sun

ii. Clothes circling in a spin drier
iii. Planetary revolution;
iv. Thee moon circling round the earth
v. A car moving in a circle at the constant speed of 20 km/hr is
an example of a body in uniform circular motion. At every
point on that circle the car would be moving at 20 km/hr.
vi. Motion in a circle with changing speeds
4.3.1 Definition of Terms

Uniform circular motion: This is defined as motion in a circle at
constant speed.
Angular Speed: This can be define as the change of the angle per second
= , is the angle measured in radians. (2 )
Period: T =
Radian is the angle in 1 revolution(
49
Length of an arc s = r θ = distance
θ=
Speed = s/t =
Hence, v = r
Acceleration in a circle =
Since v = r ,
a= =r
Centripetal force: This is the force F, required to keep an object of mass

m moving in a circle of radius r
F = ma =
Worked Examples
A model car moves round a circular track of radius 0.3 m at 2 revolutions

per second. What is?
(a) The angular speed

(b) The period T
(c) The speed v of the car?
Solution
(a) For 1 revolution, angel turned θ 2
= 2 × 2 = 4 rad/s
(b) Period T = time for I rev = = = 0.5 s

(c) Speed v = r = 0.3 × 4 3.8 m/s
50
ITQ
Question
……..can be defined as the change of the angle per second
(a) Uniform circular motion
(b) Angular speed
(c) Acceleration/deceleration
(d) Centripetal force
Feedback
Angular speed can be defined as the change of the angle per second. The
correct answer is (b)

In this Study Session, we were made able to differentiate between
distance and displacement; also, speed, velocity and acceleration were
explained. We also discussed projectile and gave examples. Finally, we
Summary examined the term uniform circular motion and defined some terms.
Assessment
What are the four types of motion?
Assessment What are the two forms of motion of a projectile? Give two examples of
a motion
Bibliography
3.
2.
Reading
51
Study Session 5
Newton’s Law of Motion

Introduction
In this study session, we will discuss Newton’s law of motion and define
all the three (3) types of Newton’s law.
Learning Outcomes
4.1 define the three Newton’s law of motion
4.2 list and explain various types of force
Outcomes
Terminology
Inertial force a force that resists a change in velocity of an object. It is
equal to—and in the opposite direction of—an applied
force, as well as a resistive force
Centrifugal force a force that acts on a body moving in a circular path and is
directed towards the center around which the body is
moving
Centripetal force an apparent force that acts outward on a body moving

around a center, arising from the body's inertia
5.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion

In 1687, Sir ISAAC NEWTON published a work called Principia
Mathematical, in which he set out clearly the laws of Mechanics. We
shall consider these laws as he gave them:
First law: Everybody continues to be in a state of rest or to move with

uniform velocity unless a resultant force acts on it.
52
Study Session 5Newton’s Law of Motion
Second law: The change of momentum per second is proportional to the

applied force and the momentum change takes place in the direction of
the force.
Third law: To every action there is equal and opposite reaction.
5.1.1 Force and Motion

INERTIAL: The inertial of a body is its reluctance to start moving, and
its reluctance to stop after it has begun moving. This is expressed by the
first law of Newton which states that an object will remain in its state of
rest or continue in motion unless it is acted upon by an external force.
Inertial of a body depends on its mass i.e. the quantity of matter
contained, the greater the mass the higher the inertial. The mass of a body
is constant at every point on the earth surface whereas the weight varies
from place to place.
5.1.2 Atwood’s Machine

Atwood’s machine is a system that consists of a pulley, with a mass mA
on one side, connected by a string of negligible mass to another mass mB
on the other side, as shown in figure 4.1. We assume that mA is larger
than mB. When the system is released, the mass mA will fall downward,
pulling the lighter mass mB, on the other side, upward. We would like to
determine the acceleration of the system of two masses. When we know
the acceleration, we can determine the position and velocity of each of
the masses at any time from the kinematic equations. Let us start by
drawing all the forces acting on the masses in figure 4.1 and then apply
Newton’s second law to each mass.
53
Figure 5.1: Atwood’s machine

(The assumption that the tension T, in the rope is the same for each mass
is again utilized. On rotational motion where the rotating pulley is
massive and hence the tensions on both sides of the pulley are not the
same). For mass A, Newton’s second law is:
= …………………………………1
or
T + wA = mAa …………………….....2
We can simplify this equation by taking the upward direction as positive
and the downward direction as negative, that is,
T − wA = −mAa …………………………3
We cannot yet solve for the acceleration of the system, because the
tension T in the string is unknown. Another equation is needed to
eliminate T. We obtain this equation by applying Newton’s second law to
mass B:
FB = mB a T + wB = mB a ………………4
Simplifying again by taking the upward direction as positive and the
downward direction as negative, we get
T − wB = + mBa………………………….5
We thus have two equations, 3 and 5, in the two unknowns of
acceleration a and tension T. The tension T is eliminated by subtracting
equation 5 from equation 3. That is,
T − wA = −mAa
Subtract T − wB = mBa
54
T − wA − T + wB = −mAa − mBa
wB − wA = −(mA + mB)a
Solving for a, we obtain
–
=
Hence, the acceleration of each mass of the system is

–
)g
We find the tension T in the string from equation 3 as

T = wA − mAa
T = mAg − mAa
Hence,
T = mA(g − a) is the tension in the string of the
Atwood’s machine.
A Passenger in a Lift
Example
A man stands on a scale in an elevator. If the scale reads 600N when the
elevator is stationary, what will it read when the elevator is
i. Ascending with an acceleration of 2 m

ii. Descending with an acceleration of 2 m
iii. Moving with a constant speed
iv. Descending with an acceleration due to gravity
55
Comment on your results.
Solution
N-W = 0 (i.e. no acceleration)
Or N = W, the man feels his own weight which is equal to the reaction
force.
The mass of the man, m = = 600/9.8 = 61.2kg
i. The elevator and the man ascend with a = 2 m

N – W = ma
N = ma + W
N = (61.2kg) (2m + 600N
And N = 722.4 newton
i.e. the man feels heavier than his normal weight.
ii. The elevator and the descend with a = 2 m

W – N = ma
N = W – ma = 600 – (61.2) (2 m
N = 477.6 newton
i.e. the man feels higher than his normal weight
iii. At constant speed, the acceleration, a = 0m
56
Therefore, N – W = 0
N = W the man feels his true weight (W)
iv Elevator and the man descending with a = g
W = N = ma
But a = g,
W – N = mg
and N = W – mg = mg – mg = 0
The man feels weightless.
ITQ
Question
Isaac Newton’s ----------law of motion states that the change of
momentum per second is proportional to the applied force and that the
momentum change takes place in the direction of the force.
(a) First
(b) Second
Feedback
The correct answer is (b). Second law of motion states that the change of
momentum per second is proportional to the applied force and the
momentum change takes place in the direction of the force.
5.2 Force and its Types

Force in general, is the agency of change. In mechanics, it is a pull or a
push that changes the velocity of an object. Force is a vector quantity,
having both magnitude and direction.
A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's

interaction with another object. Whenever there is an interaction
between two objects, there is a force upon each of the objects
Note
There are external and net force, an external force is one whose source
lies outside of the system being considered. Net or resultant external
force acting on an object causes the object to accelerate in the direction of
57
that force. The acceleration is proportional to the force and inversely

proportional to the mass of the object. The SI unit of force is Newton (N).
F= ,
F = kma,
if k = 1,
then F = ma
5.2.1 Types of Forces

There are different types of force such as:
Tensile Force: The tensile force ( ) acting on a string, chain or tendon
is an applied force tending to stretch it.
Normal Force: The normal force ) is the force acting perpendicular to
the surface.
Frictional Force: This is the tangential force ( ) acting on an object
that opposes the sliding of that object on an adjacent surface with which it
is in contact.
The Coefficient of Kinetic Friction: This is defined for the case of one
surface sliding across another at constant speed.
= =
Centripetal Force: This is the force , which must act on a mass m,
moving in a circular path of radius r to give the centripetal acceleration .
From F = ma
F= =
5.2.2 Conical Pendulum

If a small object, A of mass m, is tied to a string O-A of length l, and then
whirled round in a horizontal circle of radius r, with O fixed directly
above the centre B of the circle. Suppose the circular speed of A is
constant, the string turns at a constant angle θ to the vertical. This is
called conical pendulum.
58
Figure 5.2: Conical pendulum
Since A moves with a constant speed v in a circle of radius r, there must
be a centripetal force acting towards the centre B. The horizontal
component, T Sin θ, of the tension T in the string provides this force

along AB. So
T Sin θ = ……………………………………. 1
Since the mass does not move vertically, its weight mg must be
counterbalance by the vertical component T Cos θ of the tension.
T Cos θ = mg ……………………………………2
Dividing equation 1 by 2,
Tan θ = …………………………………………3
Centrifugal Force: This is the reaction force to the centripetal force. The
reaction force does not act on the same body as the centripetal force. That
is, if a string was tied to a rock and the rock was swung in a horizontal
circle at constant speed, the centripetal force would act on the rock while
the centrifugal force would act on the string.
59
ITQ
Question
The following are types of force except --------
(a) Tensile Force
(b) Normal Force
(c) motion force
(d) Frictional Force
Feedback
The correct answer is ‘C’, Motion force

In this Study Session, we highlighted and defined Newton’s first, second
and third law of motion. We also discussed force and noted that
frictional forces, normal force, tensile force among others are types of
Summary force.
Assessment
Differentiate between the first and third Newton’s law of motion
Assessment SAQ 5.2 (tests Learning Outcome 5.2)
List and explain three types of force
Bibliography
3.
2.
Reading
60
Study Session 6Gravitational Force of Attraction
Study Session 6
Gravitational Force of Attraction

Introduction
The space round the earth where the mass of an object experiences a
gravitational pull, or force due to gravity is called the gravitational field
of the earth. In this study session, we will discuss gravitational force
thereby explaining acceleration due to gravity
Learning Outcomes
5.1 examine gravitational force and explain acceleration due to gravity
Outcomes
Terminology
Gravitational a force that attracts any object with mass
force
Satellite an artificial object which has been intentionally placed into

orbit
6.1 Gravitational Force of Attraction

6.1.1 Acceleration Due to Gravity
When an object falls to the ground under gravitational pull that is freely
falling under gravity, it is shown that the object has a constant or uniform
acceleration of about 9.8 or approximately to 10 when it is
falling. The acceleration due to gravity ‘‘g ’’ is directed downward
towards the earth as shown in the figure below and varies slightly from
place to place on the earth’s surface i.e. its value is least at the equator
while greatest at the poles.
61
Figure 6.1: Motion under gravity-free fall
g is given as g =
The equations of motion now become;
V=u t
S = ut
= 2 s
Note for raising objects, u = 0, v = 0 and g = -ve
While, for falling objects, u = 0, v 0 and g = +ve in value.
Example 1
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 30 m/s.

Find (i) the time taken to get to its highest point (ii) the distance travelled
(assume g = 10 m )
SOLUTION
U = 30 m/s, V = 0, a = g = -10 m
(i) Recall, V = u t
0 = 30 – 10 × t
10t = 30
t=3s
(ii) Distance S = ut +
S = (30 × 3) + (-10) ×
= 90 – 45 = 45 m
62
6.1.2 Orbit Round the Earth

Satellites
These are bodies, which move in orbits around the moon or planet. It can
be lunched from the earth’s surface to circle the earth. They are kept in
space by the gravitational attraction of the earth.
Let us consider a satellite of mass m which circle the earth of mass M in

an orbit, close to its surface as seen in figure 6.2
Figure 6.2: Orbit round the Earth
Let us assume that the earth is spherical and its radius r, the centripetal
force = the gravitational force.
= = mg
Where g = acceleration due to gravity, and v = the velocity of m in its

orbit
= rg
And v = = =8k
Parking of Orbits
If a satellite of mass m is circling the Earth in a plane of the equator in an
orbit concentric with the earth, and if it moves with velocity v, in the
same direction of rotation as the earth at a distance R from the centre of
the earth, therefore;
But GM = where r = radius of the earth
63
And v =
If the period in the second orbit is , then
V=
= =
= and =
If the period of the satellite in its orbit equals the period of the earth as it
turns about its axis i.e. 24 hours, the satellite will stay at the same place
above as the earth rotates. The orbit is called ‘‘parking orbit’’
6.1.3 Earth Gravitational Potential

The gravitational potential energy = Mgh. The potential V, at a point due
to the gravitational field of the earth is defined as numerically equal to the
work done in taking a unit mass from infinity to that point.
Figure 6.3: Gravitational potential
64
If the earth is spherical, it can be imagined that the whole mass M of the
earth, is concentrated at its centre. The potential at a distance r from the
earth centre is given as V = -
Note that the negative sign is an indication that the potential at infinity
(zero) is higher than the potential close to that of earth.
On the earth surface of radius R, the gravitational potential is
V=- where G = 6.7 × N , M = 6.0 × kg,
R= 6.4 × m
The potential V, at the earth’s surface is – 6.3 × J .
ITQ
Question
Satellites are bodies which move in orbits around the moon or planet.
They can be lunched from surface of the earth to circle the earth.
TRUE/FALSE
Feedback
The correct answer is TRUE

In this Study Session, we discussed gravitational force of attraction and
examined aacceleration due to gravity, satellites, parking orbits and
gravitational potentials with examples
Summary
Assessment
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 90 m/s.
Find (i) the time taken to get to its highest point (ii) the distance
Assessment
travelled (assume g = 10 m )
65
Bibliography
3.
2.
Reading
66
Study Session 7Energy and Work
Study Session 7
Energy and Work

Introduction
In everyday language, we speak of mental work, physical work, medical
work, scientific work, and so on. In this study session, we will
differentiate kinetic energy from potential energy. We will also examine
conservative force and explain its properties
Learning Outcomes
7.1 define kinetic energy and relate it with work
7.2 distinguish potential energy from energy conservation
Outcomes
Terminology
Conservative a force with the property that the work done in moving a
force particle between two points is independent of the taken
path
Kinetic energy the energy that a body possesses by virtue of being in

motion
Potential energy the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position

relative to others, stresses within itself, electric charge,
and other factors
7.1 Kinetic Energy and Work

In physics, energy is a property of objects, which can be transferred to
other objects or converted into different forms. Energy is that which
makes it possible for a force to do work? Energy may be thought of, as
the property of something, which enables it to do work. When we say that
something has energy, we suggest that it is capable of exerting a force on
something else and performing work on it. When work is done on
something, energy has been added to it. Energy is measured in Joules, the
same units as work.
67
ITQ
Question
Energy is measured in……?
a. Newton
b. Joules
c. Metre per second
d. Volts
Feedback
The correct answer is ‘b’ because energy is measured in Joules
Energy takes on many forms. One type is the energy a moving body
possesses by virtue of its motion. Every moving object has the capacity to
do work. By striking another object that is free to move, the moving
object can exert a force and cause the second object to shift its position.
While the object is moving, it has the capacity for doing work. Energy
means the ability to do work, so all moving things have energy by virtue
of their motion. This type of energy is called kinetic energy.
The energy that an object possesses because it is moving, its kinetic

energy, is defined as:
Therefore, work is done when a force moves. An object acted upon by a

force moves when work is done by the force. The force may accelerate
the object, raise it, or change it shapes. The object that had been
accelerated does work when it comes to rest. A raised object does work
when it returns to its initial position. The ability to do work is known as
energy. The energy of an object due to its motion, position or physical
condition is known as mechanical energy.
Mechanical energy can either be in the form of kinetic energy or

potential energy.
Recall that, kinetic Energy (K.E) is the energy of a body due to its
motion. Suppose an object of mass m is acted upon by a constant force F
and is displaced a distance s in the direction of the force. Work done by
the force F is force applied in direction of displacement. This means that
68
if the force F acts at an angle θ with respect to the direction of motion,

then:
Work is a scalar quantity - it has magnitude but no direction.
Work has dimensions:
Work has units: 1 Newton x 1 Metre = 1 Joule (J)
If then;
Since where
If
Work done by the force F is changed into the kinetic energy of the body.
Therefore, kinetic energy of the body,
If the initial velocity of the body
Then, work done
From,
69
i.e.
7.2 Potential Energy (P.E.) and Conservation

of Energy
Potential energy is, as the word suggests, the energy “locked up”
somewhere and which can do work. The energy stored in the object is
called potential energy (P.E.). A stretched spring or rubber band has
potential energy due to its stretched condition. Work is done in lifting an
object against the earth’s gravity. The raised object possesses more
gravitational potential energy. Therefore, objects may contain the
potential to do work, even if they aren't moving. This is call potential
energy. It comes in several varieties:
1. Gravitational potential energy (GPE):
2. Spring potential energy (SPE):
The gain in gravitational potential energy when an object of mass m is

raised through a height h is equal to the work done against gravity. The
force required to raise a mass m without any acceleration is equal to the
gravitational force, mg, acting on it.
= mgh
The energy stored in a stretched spring that obeys Hooke’s law is given
by where is the force constant of the spring and is the
extension. As stated earlier, the energy of an object due to its motion,

position or physical condition is known as mechanical energy.
Mechanical energy can either be in the form of kinetic energy or
70
potential energy. Therefore, the mechanical energy of a system is the

sum over all the energy of the bodies. That is:
Under some circumstances, the mechanical energy of a system is

conserved, so that:
However, if friction is present, then the mechanical energy is not

conserved: friction does negative work on moving objects, which
decreases their kinetic energy without adding any potential energy to
make up for the loss. In this case, conservation of energy can be written
as:
Thus, the Principle of Conservation of Energy states that: In a closed

system, energy can neither be created nor destroyed but, can only be
transformed from one form to another. This principle can be summarized
as: The total energy of a closed system is conserved.
In this context, system means situation that consists of one or more

bodies. A closed system is a system where no external forces act on the
body (or bodies) in the system.
Assuming a system where the total energy, (T.E.) consists of kinetic

energy (K.E.) and potential energy (P.E.), then;
Therefore,
This means that any increase in kinetic energy ( is equal

to the decrease in potential energy ( ).
71
For instance, when a mango fruit of mass m falls out from a mango tree,
after falling through a distance h, its velocity is v.
Then kinetic energy of the and it’s initial
Using
Gravitational force on the mango,
Work done by the force F is
This implies that the work done by the gravitational force is converted
into the gain in kinetic energy. Furthermore, when an object has potential
to have work done on it, it is said to have potential energy, e.g. a ball in
your hand has more potential energy than a ball on the ground. If you
release the ball, gravity will perform work on the ball and its kinetic
energy will increase. If a spring with a block attached is compressed, the
block has potential energy because if the block is released, the spring will
perform work on the block and give it kinetic energy.
In general,
 Potential energy is energy associated with the configuration of

two or more objects, e.g. the ball and the earth or the block and
the spring.
 A force is acting between objects. When the configuration of the
system changes and work is performed on one of the objects, the
potential energy of the system is transferred to the kinetic energy
of that object.
 If the system returns to the original configuration, the force
between the objects removes kinetic energy from the objects and
stores it in the potential energy of the system.
72
 The amount of work done in the original change and the reversal
are equal in magnitude but differ by a sign:
 The force in the system is known as a conservative force.
7.2.1 Conservative Force

We will consider the following, which can be regarded as conservative
force
a. Can store energy in the system as potential energy

b. Can retrieve that energy and give it to an object in the system as
kinetic energy.
c. Gravitational and spring forces are conservative forces.
d. Friction is a non-conservative force. If we let a block scrape
along a rough floor, the friction force will take kinetic energy
away from the box. However, if we reverse the block and attempt
to put it back in its original position, we do not retrieve the
energy out of the system. The friction force has converted the
kinetic energy into thermal energy by heating up the block and
the floor. The thermal energy cannot be turned back into the
kinetic energy of the block.
Properties of Conservative Force:

The net work done by a conservation force as the object moves from
point 1 to point 2 and back to point 1 is zero.
W12
W21
Figure 7.1: Illustration of Conservative Force
Thus;
73
The work done by a conservative force in moving the object from point 1
to point 2 does not depend on the path between the two points.
ITQ
Question
The energy of an object due to its motion, position or physical condition
is known as-----------
(a) mechanical energy
(b) electrical energy
(c) chemical energy
Feedback
The correct answer is (a).Mechanical energy can also either be in the
form of kinetic energy or potential energy.

In this Study Session, we differentiated kinetic energy from potential
energy. We also examined conservative force and explained its
properties
Summary
Assessment
What is the mathematical representation for kinetic energy?
Assessment SAQ 7.2 (tests Learning Outcome 7.2)
Differentiate between conservative force and the principle of
conservation of energy
Bibliography
3.
2.
Reading
74
75
Study Session 8
Linear Momentum and Collision

Introduction
Newton defined the force acting on an object as the rate of change of its
momentum, the momentum being the product mass and velocity. In this
study session, we will consider linear momentum and collisions. We will
state the principle of conservation of linear momentum. Lastly, we will
define collisions, list its features and highlight its two types as well.
Learning Outcomes
8.1 state the principle of linear momentum
8.2 define collision and list its features
Outcomes
Terminology
Collision an instance of one moving object or person striking
violently against another
Momentum the quantity of motion of a moving body, measured as a

product of its mass and velocity
8.1 Linear Momentum and Collisions

The linear momentum of a body can be defined as the product of its mass
and its velocity.
That is,
The momentum of a body is a vector quantity, and it occurs in the

direction of the velocity.
76
Study Session 8Linear Momentum and Collision
8.1.1 The Principle of Conservation of Linear

Momentum
The Principle of Conservation of linear momentum states that the linear
momentum of a closed system before collision is equal to the linear
momentum after collision.
This means that; the total linear momentum of a system is constant, if

no external forces act on the system.
8.1.2 Collisions
A collision is an event in which two or more bodies exert forces on each
other for a relatively short time. Although the most common colloquial
use of the word "collision" refers to incidents in which two or more
objects collide, the scientific use of the word "collision" implies nothing
about the magnitude of the forces.
Some examples of physical interactions that scientists would consider

collisions:
 An insect touches its antenna to the leaf of a plant. The antenna is

said to collide with leaf.
 A cat walks delicately through the grass. Each contact that its
paws make with the ground is a collision. Each brush of its fur
against a blade of grass is a collision.
Some colloquial uses of the word collision are:
 automobile collision, two cars colliding with each other

 mid-air collision, two planes colliding with each other
 ship collision, two ships colliding with each other
Features of Collision
A collision is a phenomenon, which has these features:
1. It occurs in a short time interval.

2. What happen after the collision differs from what happens before
the collision.
3. The colliding bodies may be assumed to constitute a closed
system.
4. Momentum and energy are conserved during the collision.
77
Therefore, collision is short-duration interaction between two bodies or

more than two bodies simultaneously causing change in motion of bodies
involved due to internal forces acted between them during this time.
Collisions involve forces (there is a change in velocity). The magnitude
of the velocity difference at impact is called the closing speed. All
collisions conserve momentum. What distinguishes different types of
collisions is whether they also conserve kinetic energy.
Line of impact – It is the line which is common normal for surfaces are
closest or in contact during impact. This is the line along which internal
force of collision acts during impact and Newton's coefficient of
restitution is defined only along this line.
Specifically, collisions can either be elastic, meaning they conserve both

momentum and kinetic energy, or inelastic, meaning they conserve
momentum but not kinetic energy. An inelastic collision is sometimes
also called a plastic collision.
ITQ
Question
The colloquial uses of collision include all of the following except one..
a. automobile collision, two cars colliding with each other
b. An insect touches its antenna to the leaf of a plant. The antenna is
said to collide with leaf
c. mid-air collision, two planes colliding with each other
d. ship collision, two ships colliding with each other
Feedback
The correct answer is (b) that is ‘‘an insect touches its antenna to the leaf
of a plant. The antenna is said to collide with leaf’’.
A “perfectly inelastic” collision (also called a "perfectly plastic"

collision) is a limiting case of inelastic collision in which the two bodies
stick together after impact. The degree to which a collision is elastic or
inelastic is quantified by the coefficient of restitution, a value that
generally ranges between zero and one. A perfectly elastic collision has a
78
coefficient of restitution of one; a perfectly inelastic collision has a

coefficient of restitution of zero.
Types of Collisions
There are two types of collisions between two bodies. They include:
a. Head on collisions or one-dimensional collisions - where the

velocity of each body just before impact is along the line of impact.
b. Non-head on collisions, oblique collisions or two-dimensional
collisions - where the velocity of each body just before impact is not
along the line of impact
According to the coefficient of restitution, there are two special cases of

any collision as written below:
1. A perfectly elastic collision is defined as one in which there is no

loss of kinetic energy in the collision. In reality, any macroscopic
collision between objects will convert some kinetic energy to
internal energy and other forms of energy, so no large-scale
impacts are perfectly elastic. However, some problems are
sufficiently close to perfectly elastic that they can be
approximated as such. In this case, the coefficient of restitution
equals one.
2. An inelastic collision is one in which part of the kinetic energy is
changed to some other form of energy in the collision.
Momentum is conserved in inelastic collisions (as it is for elastic
collisions), but one cannot track the kinetic energy through the
collision since some of it is converted to other forms of energy.
In this case, coefficient of restitution does not equal one.
In any type of collision there is a phase when for a moment colliding

bodies have the same velocity along the line of impact. Then the kinetic
energy of bodies reduces to its minimum during this phase and may be
called a maximum deformation phase for which momentarily the
coefficient of restitution becomes one.
79
Collisions in ideal gases approach perfectly elastic collisions, as do

scattering interactions of sub-atomic particles which are deflected by the
electromagnetic force. “Collisions” in which the objects do not touch
each other, such as Rutherford scattering or the slingshot orbit of a
satellite off a planet, are elastic collisions. In atomic or nuclear scattering,
the collisions are typically elastic because the repulsive Coulomb force
keeps the particles out of contact with each other.
Collisions in ideal gases are very nearly elastic, and this fact is used in the
development of the expressions for gas pressure in a container.
Collisions between hard spheres may be nearly elastic, so it is useful to

calculate the limiting case of an elastic collision. The assumption of
conservation of momentum as well as the conservation of kinetic energy
makes possible the calculation of the final velocities in two-body
collisions.
Deflection
Figure 8.1: Deflection
Considering the diagram above, deflection happens when an object hits a

plane surface. If the kinetic energy after impact is the same as before
impact, it is an elastic collision. If kinetic energy is lost, it is an inelastic
collision. It is not possible to determine from the diagram whether the
illustrated collision was elastic or inelastic, because no velocities are
provided. The most one can say is that the collision was not perfectly
inelastic, because in that case the ball would have stuck to the wall.
Suppose that two bodies of masses m1 and m2 are moving with velocities
u1 and u2 respectively before collision. During collision, m1 exerts a force
F1 on m2 and m2 also exerts a force F2 on m1.
According to Newton’s Third Law of motion,
80
Using Newton’s Second Law of Motion,
So, if
respectively after collision, then;
Thus, linear momentum is conserved.
ITQ
Question
The principle of conservation of linear momentum states that the linear
momentum of a closed system before collision is equal to the linear
momentum after collision.YES/NO
Feedback
YES

In this Study Session, we considered linear momentum and collisions.
We were able to state the principle of conservation of linear momentum.
Lastly, we defined collisions, listed its features and highlighted its two
Summary types as well.
Assessment
Define collisions and highlight its features
Assessment
81
Bibliography
3.
2.
Reading
82
Study Session 9Equilibrium and Elasticity
Study Session 9
Equilibrium and Elasticity

Introduction
In this study session, we will explain the requirements for equilibrium.
We will also consider the relationship between linear momentum, centre
of mass and angular momentum as well as equilibrium and the force of
gravity. Subsequently, we will discuss the relationship between applied
force and the extension produced.
Learning Outcomes
9.1 explain
 Equilibrium and the force of gravity
Outcomes  Stacking blocks
 Rigid body
 Elasticity
 Hooke’s law
 Young modulus
 Bulk modulus
Terminology
Equilibrium a state in which opposing forces or influences are balanced
Elasticity the ability of an object or material to resume its normal

shape after being stretched or compressed; stretchiness
9.1 Equilibrium and Elasticity

An object is in equilibrium if the linear momentum (P) of its centre of
mass is constant and if its angular momentum (L) about its centre of mass
is constant:
That is; P = constant
L = constant
83
An object is in static equilibrium if its linear momentum and angular

momentum is equal to zero:
P = 0 kg m/s
L = 0 kg m2/s
9.1Requirements for Equilibrium

If a body is in translational equilibrium then dP/dt = 0, or
If a body is in rotational equilibrium then dL/dt = 0, or
In summary, the following equations must be satisfied for an object in

static equilibrium
If we restrict ourselves to two dimensions (the x-y plane) the following

equations must be satisfied:
84
9.1.2 Equilibrium and the Force of Gravity
Figure 9.1: Weight of an object balanced by a single force.
Figure 9.1 shows a body of arbitrary shape balanced by a single force.

The origin of the coordinate system is defined such that it coincides with
the centre of gravity of the object, which is the point upon which the
balancing force acts. An object that is supported at its centre of gravity
will be in static equilibrium, independent of the orientation of the object.
If the body is in equilibrium, the net force acting on it must be zero.
Figure 9.1 shows that
Since the body is in equilibrium
and therefore
In obtaining this result, we have assumed that the gravitational

acceleration is the same for every point of the body. The net torque
acting on the body is given by
85
Since the body is in static equilibrium
and therefore
This shows that rcm = 0 or rcm is parallel to g. We conclude that for a

body to be in equilibrium, its centre of mass must coincide with its
centre of gravity.
Sample Problem
A uniform beam of length L whose mass is m, rest with its ends on two
digital scales (see Figure 4.2). A block whose mass is M rests on the
beam, its centre one-fourth away from the beam's left end. What do the
scales read?
Figure 9.2: Sample problem
For the system to be in equilibrium, the net force and net torque must be
zero. Figure 9.2 shows that
86
Here we have replaced the force acting on the beam with single force
acting on its centre of gravity. The net torque of the system, with respect
to the left scale, is
This shows immediately that
From the equation of the net force we obtain
Sample Problem
A ladder with length L and mass m rests against a wall. Its upper end is a
distance h above the ground (see Figure 4.3). The centre of gravity of the
ladder is one-third of the way up the ladder. A fire-fighter with mass M
climbs halfway up the ladder. Assume that the wall, but not the ground, is
frictionless. What is the force exerted on the ladder by the wall and by the
ground?
The wall exerts a horizontal force FW on the ladder (the normal force); it
exerts no vertical force. The ground exerts a force Fg on the ladder with a
horizontal component Fgx and a vertical component Fgy. If these two
components were not present, the system would not be in equilibrium.
The net force in the x and y directions is given by
and
87
The net torque, with respect to O (which is the contact point between the
ladder and the ground), is given by
Figure 9.3: Sample Problem
This immediately shows that
We can now calculate the force Fg:
and
We observe that Fgx depends on the position of the fire-fighter. Suppose

that the fire-fighter is a distance f L up the ladder. In this case Fgx is given
by
88
If the coefficient of static friction between the ladder and the ground is us,
than the maximum distance the fire-fighter can climb is reached when
or
This shows that
9.1.3 Stacking Blocks

Two bricks of length L and mass m are stacked. Using conditions of
static equilibrium we can determine the maximum overhang of the top
brick (see Figure 9.4).
The two forces acting on the top brick are the gravitational force Fg and
the normal force N, exerted by the bottom brick on the top brick. Both
forces are directed along the y-axis. Since the system is in equilibrium,
the net force acting along the y-axis must be zero. We conclude that
Figure 9.4: Two stacked bricks.
89
If the top block is on the verge of falling down, it will rotate around O.
The torque exerted by the two external forces with respect to O can be
easily calculated (see Figure 9.5). The gravitational force Fg acting on the
whole block is replaced by a single force with magnitude mg acting on
the centre of mass of the top block. The normal force N acting on the
whole contact area between the top and the bottom block is replaced by a
single force N acting on a point a distance d away from the rotation axis
O. The torque of the normal force and the gravitational force with respect
to O is given by
The net torque acting on the top brick is given by
If the system is in equilibrium, then the net torque acting on the top brick
with respect to O must be zero. This implies that
Figure 8.5: Forces acting on top brick.
90
or
This equation shows that the system can never be in equilibrium if a >
L/2 (since d < 0 in that case). The system will be on the verge of losing
equilibrium if a = L/2. In this case, d = 0. We conclude that the system
cannot be in equilibrium if the centre of mass of the top brick is located to
the right of the edge of the bottom brick. The system will be on the verge
of losing equilibrium if the centre of mass of the top brick is located right
over the edge of the bottom brick. Finally, if the centre of mass of the top
brick is located to the left of the edge of the bottom brick, the system will
be in equilibrium.
9.1.4 Rigid Body

A rigid body under the action of a number of coplanar forces is in
equilibrium if:
1. The resultant forces is zero, and

2. The algebraic sum of the moments of the forces about any axis is
zero.
Therefore, a rigid body under the action of coplanar forces is not in
equilibrium if;
1. There is a resultant force acting on it, or

2. The algebraic sum of the moments of the forces about any axis is
not zero.
The general conditions for equilibrium of a body are:
Where are the sums of the resolved components about two

perpendicular axis and is the sum of moments about any axis.
91
ITQ
Question
What will happen if a rigid body under the action of a number of
coplanar forces is in equilibrium?
Feedback
A rigid body under the action of a number of coplanar forces is in
equilibrium if the resultant forces is zero and the algebraic sum of the
moments of the forces about any axis is zero
9.1.5 Defining Elasticity

Elasticity is that property of a body, which enables the body to regain its
original dimensions (length, breath and height) when the deforming force
acting on the body is removed. Elasticity is the ability of an object or
material to resume its normal shape after being stretched or compressed.
Thus, elastic materials (e.g. rubber) are materials that will return to their
original shapes after the deforming force is removed within an elastic
limit while, inelastic materials are materials that do not return to their
original shapes after the deforming force is removed. Examples of
inelastic materials are plasticine, clay and dough.
Most materials are elastic up to a certain limit known as the elastic limit.
Beyond this limit a material will not return to its original dimensions
when the deforming force is removed.
ITQ
Question
1. A material is said to be ____ if it changes shape when a deforming
force acts on it and returns to its original shape when the deforming
force is removed.
A. elastic
B. inelastic
C. plastic
D. stretchy
E. rigid
Feedback
A material is said to be elastic if it changes shape when a deforming
force acts on it and returns to its original shape when the deforming
force is removed so the correct answer is A i.e. elastic
92
9.1.5 Hooke’s Law of Elasticity

Hooke’s law states that within elastic limits the extension (or
compression) e of an elastic material is directly proportional to the force
applied.
i.e.
thus,
where is the force constant.
Again, Again, Hooke's Law is when an elastic object - such as a spring -

is stretched, the increased length is called its extension. The extension of
an elastic object is directly proportional to the force applied to it:
F = k × e. F is the force in newton’s, N
Young Modulus, E: This is the ratio of stress to strain of a wire within

the elastic limit.
where
and
so,
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity: This is the ratio of change in pressure to

change in volume
thus,
where dP is the change in pressure and dV is change in volume, V0 is

initial volume. The negative sign is included in the definition of B
because an increase in pressure always causes a decrease in volume. The
reciprocal of bulk modulus is called compressibility (k).
Thus, compressibility is a fractional increase in volume per unit increase

in pressure. The unit of Bulk modulus is N/m2 and the unit of
compressibility is m2/N.
93
ITQ
Question
Hooke's Law relates the
A. distance a spring stretches to the force applied to the spring.
B. distance a spring stretches to the mass of the spring.
C. distance a spring stretches to the density of the spring.
D. density of a spring to the force applied to the spring.
E. density of a spring to the mass of the spring
Feedback
The correct answer is A i.e. Hooke's Law relates the distance a spring
stretches to the force applied to the spring

In this Study Session, we explained the requirements for equilibrium.
We also considered the relationship between linear momentum, centre of
mass and angular momentum as well as equilibrium and the force of
Summary gravity. Eventually, we discussed the relationship between applied force
and the extension produced.
Assessment
Answer the following questions
Assessment 1. Define elasticity
2. Differentiate between elastic and inelastic
Bibliography
3.
2.
Reading
94
Study Session 10Fluids
Study Session 10
Fluids
Introduction
Unlike solid objects, fluids can flow and does not have its shape or form.
In this study session, we will define fluid and highlight both the
properties and characteristics of fluids. Finally, we will describe viscosity
and list the various factors affecting viscosity
Learning Outcomes
9.1 list both the characteristics and properties of fluids
9.2 enumerate the factors affecting viscosity
Outcomes
Terminology
Fluid a state of matter, such as liquid or gas, in which the
component particles (generally molecules) can move past
one another.
Viscosity a quantity expressing the magnitude of internal friction, as

measured by the force per unit area resisting a flow in
which parallel layers unit distance apart have unit speed
relative to one another
10.1 What are Fluids?

A fluid is a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied
shear stress. Fluids are a subset of the phases of matter and include
liquids, gases, plasmas and, to some extent, plastic solids. Fluids can be
defined as substances that have zero shear modulus or in simpler terms, a
fluid is a substance, which cannot resist any shear force applied to it.
Although the term "fluid" includes both the liquid and gas phases, in
common usage, "fluid" is often used as a synonym for "liquid", with no
implication that gas could also be present. For example, "brake fluid" is
95
hydraulic oil and an hydraulic oil cannot perform its required

incompressible function if there is gas in it. This colloquial usage of the
term is also common in medicine and in nutrition ("take plenty of
fluids"). Liquids form a free surface (that is, a surface not created by the
container) while gases do not. The distinction between solids and fluid is
not entirely obvious.
10.1.1 Properties of Fluids

Having defined fluids, we shall now list properties displayed by fluids as
follow:
 not resisting deformation, or resisting it only slightly (viscosity)
 the ability to flow (also described as the ability to take on the
shape of the container).This also means that all liquids have the
property of fluidity
These properties are typically a function of their inability to support a

shear stress in static equilibrium. Solids can be subjected to shear
stresses, and to normal stresses — both compressive and tensile. In
contrast, ideal fluids can only be subjected to normal, compressive stress,
which is called pressure. Real fluids display viscosity and so are capable
of being subjected to low levels of shear stress. In a solid, shear stress is a
function of strain, but in a fluid, shear stress is a function of strain rate. A
consequence of this behaviour is Pascal's law, which describes the role of
pressure in characterizing a fluid's state.
10.1.2 Characteristics of Fluids

Depending on the relationship between shear stress, and the rate of strain
and its derivatives, fluids can be characterized as one of the following:
 Newtonian Fluids : where stress is directly proportional to rate

of strain
 Non-Newtonian Fluids: Where stress is not proportional to rate
of strain, its higher powers and derivatives.
96
The behaviour of fluids can be described by the Navier–Stokes equations

— a set of partial differential equations, which are based on:
a. continuity (conservation of mass)

b. conservation of linear momentum
c. conservation of angular momentum
d. conservation of energy
The study of fluids is fluid mechanics, which is sub-divided into fluid

dynamics and fluid statics depending on whether the fluid is in motion.
The study of fluids in motion is known as hydrodynamics. The flow of

the fluid is possible because matter contains molecules. Brownian
motion, diffusion, osmosis, convection, expansion, viscosity etc, are
some of the evidences of the molecular nature of matter.
10.1.3 Laminar (Uniform) and Turbulence

(Disorder) Flow of Fluids
Laminar and turbulent flow are the two types of fluid flow. In a laminar
flow, the particles of the liquid at the same distance from the axis always
have equal velocities directed and parallel to the axis. In a turbulent flow
the particles at the same distance from the axis have different velocities
varying in magnitude and direction with time.
ITQ
Question
Fluids can be characterized as one of the following except ----------
(a) Newtonian Fluids

(c) Mini-Newtonian fluids
(b) Non-Newtonian Fluids
Feedback
The correct answer is B which is Mini-Newtonian Fluid
10.2Defining Viscosity
Viscosity is the frictional force in fluids. The use of a liquid as lubricant
depends on its viscosity. The coefficient of viscosity is defined as the
force acting on a fluid per unit area in a region of unit gradient.
97
Thus, Viscosity is:
10.2.1 Factors Affecting the Viscosity of a Fluid

1. Viscosity, unlike solid friction increases as the surface area of the
fluid in contact increases.
2. Viscosity, unlike solid friction depends on the velocity with
which one fluid moves across the other.
3. Viscosity depends on the concentration of the fluid.
4. Pressure and Temperature affect viscosity. The higher the
pressure the higher the viscosity but increases in temperature
decreases viscosity of a fluid.
5. Presences of impurities affect the viscosity of a fluid.
Generally, fluids can be sub-divided into the following groups.
ITQ
Question
One of the factors affecting the viscosity of a fluid is that Viscosity
depends on the concentration of the fluid. YES/NO
Feedback
YES
98

In this Study Session, we considered Newtonian and non-Newtonian
fluids. We discussed as well the properties and characteristics of fluids.
We also considered conditions under which we may have either laminar
Summary or non-laminar flow and factors that determine the viscosity of a fluid.
Assessment
Answer the following questions. List:
Assessment  Characteristics of fluids
 Properties of fluids
Highlight the factors affecting the viscosity of a fluid
Bibliography
3.
2.
Reading
99
Notes on Self-Assessment Questions
SAQ 1.1
Sinx 0 0.71 1 0.71 0 -0.71 -1 -0.71 0
Cosx 1 0.71 0 -0.71 -1 -0.71 0 0.71 1
tanx 0 1 * -1 0 1 * -1 0
SAQ 2.1
moments of the force F about the axis of rotation. Can be expressed thus:
SAQ 3.1
Solution
R = A1+ A2+ A3
R = (-3+2+7) î + (2-6-8) ĵ
R = 6 î -12 ĵ
The magnitude /R/ =
= 13.42 units
SAQ4.1
There are four types of motion and they are Random, Translational,
Rotational, and Oscillatory motion
SAQ4.2
The motion of the projectile is always in two forms, they are:
c) A constant horizontal motion along X-part
100
d) A vertically downward acceleration of free fall due to gravity

along Y-part
Examples of motion
v. Arrow or bullet shot into space;
vi. A stone shot from a catapult;
vii. A basket or football kicked into space;
viii. A tennis ball thrown against a vertical wall.
SAQ 4.3
Solution
From rest, u = 0, a =2 , s = 4m
Recall, = + 2as
=0+2
= 16
v=
v=4
SAQ 5.1
Newton’s first law of motion states that everybody continues to be in a

state of rest or to move with uniform velocity unless a resultant force acts
on it WHILE Newton’s third law of motion states that to every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction.
SAQ 5.2
If you have answered using any of these, you are very correct
Normal Force: The normal force ) is the force acting perpendicular to
the surface.
Tensile Force: The tensile force ( ) acting on a string, chain or tendon
is an applied force tending to stretch it.
101
Frictional Force: This is the tangential force ( ) acting on an object

that opposes the sliding of that object on an adjacent surface with which it
is in contact.
Centripetal Force: This is the force , which must act on a mass m,
moving in a circular path of radius r to give the centripetal acceleration .
From F = ma
Centrifugal Force: This is the reaction force to the centripetal force. The
reaction force does not act on the same body as the centripetal force. That
is, if a string was tied to a rock and the rock was swung in a horizontal
circle at constant speed, the centripetal force would act on the rock while
the centrifugal force would act on the string
SAQ 6.1
SOLUTION
U = 90 m/s, V = 0, a = g = -10 m
Recall, V = u t
0 = 90 – 10 × t
10t = 90
t=9s
(iii)Distance S = ut +
S = (90 × 9) + (-10) ×
= 810– 405 = 405 m
SAQ 7.1
Kinetic energy can be mathematically represented by =
SAQ 7.2
Conservative force can store energy in the system as potential energy and
can retrieve that energy and give it to an object in the system as kinetic
energy. It can also be gravitational and spring forces BUT the Principle of
Conservation of Energy states that in a closed system, energy can neither
be created nor destroyed but, can only be transformed from one form to
another
102
SAQ 8.1
1. A collision is an event in which two or more bodies exert forces on

each other for a relatively short time
Features of collisions include:
a) It occurs in a short time interval.

b) What happen after the collision differs from what happens
before the collision.
c) The colliding bodies may be assumed to constitute a closed
system
d) Momentum and energy are conserved during the collision
SAQ 9.1
Elasticity is that property of a body, which enables the body to regain its
original dimensions (length, breath and height) when the deforming force
acting on the body is removed
Elastic materials (e.g. rubber) are materials that will return to their
original shapes after the deforming force is removed within an elastic
limit while, Inelastic materials are materials that do not return to their
original shapes after the deforming force is removed
SAQ 10.1
Fluids can be characterised into:
 Newtonian Fluids : where stress is directly proportional to rate

of strain
 Non-Newtonian Fluids: Where stress is not proportional to
rate of strain, its higher powers and derivatives.
Properties of fluids are as follow:
 not resisting deformation, or resisting it only slightly (viscosity)
 the ability to flow (also described as the ability to take on the
shape of the container).This also means that all liquids have the
property of fluidity
SAQ 10.2
Factors affecting the viscosity of a fluid
103
 Viscosity, unlike solid friction increases as the surface area of

the fluid in contact increases.
 Viscosity, unlike solid friction depends on the velocity with
which one fluid moves across the other.
 Viscosity depends on the concentration of the fluid.
 Pressure and Temperature affect viscosity. The higher the
pressure the higher the viscosity but increases in temperature
decreases viscosity of a fluid.
 Presences of impurities affect the viscosity of a fluid
104
References
References
1. Haliday and Resnick. University Physics.
2. Introduction to Physics and Chemistry," (1964). Arthur Beiser
and Konrad Krauskopf, McGraw-Hill Book Company, p.70-
87.
3. Nelkon and Parker (1995). Advanced level Physics, seventh
edition. Heineann. London
4. Tolman, R. C. (1938). The Principles of Statistical Mechanics.
Oxford: Clarendon Press. Reissued (1979) New York: Dover
ISBN 0-486-63896-0.
5. Physics For scientists and Engineers,(1996)." Raymond A.
Serway, SaundersCollege Publishing, p.207-218.
6. University Physics (Also for Polytechnics and Colleges). (2002).
Poh Liong Yong, M. W. Anyakoha, P. N. Okeke. Africana-FEP
Publishers Limited: ISBN 978-175-417-6, p. 58-184.
7. http://teacher.pas.rochester.edu/phy121/lecturenotes/chapter13/ch
apter13.
8. http://teacher.pas.rochester.edu/phy121/lecturenotes/chapter12/ch
apter12.
9. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/collision.
10. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/fluid.
11. http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=fluid
105

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COURSE MANUAL

Mechanics and Properties of

University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

General Editor: Prof. Bayo Okunade

University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

Prof. Abel Idowu Olayinka

Professor Bayo Okunade

Content Editor Prof. Remi Raji-Oyelade

Getting around this course manual 4

Study Session Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 60

Notes on Self-Assessment Questions 100

About this course manual

How this course manual is

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

The course content

After completing Mechanics and Properties of Matter we would

Welcome to Mechanics and

Getting around this course manual

Activity Assessment Assignment Case study

Discussion Group Activity Help Outcomes

Note Reflection Reading Study skills

Summary Terminology Time Tip

Logarithm a quantity representing the power to which a fixed number

1.1 Essential Mathematics Functions

ii. Logarithmic functions

1.1.1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

The sine function f(x) = sinx

The cosine function f(x) = cosx

The tangent function f(x) = tanx

Sinx 0 0.71 1 0.71 0 -0.71 -1 -0.71 0

Cosx 1 0.71 0 -0.71 -1 -0.71 0 0.71 1

1.1.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Let f ( x) = ln( x). Find f (2.349)

f (2.349) = In(2.349) = 0.85399 (rounded)

The logarithmic functions satisfy the identities

AB = A+ B (the Product Identity),

(the Quotient Identity) and

=P (the Power Identity)

Where A and B may be positive numbers or variables, algebraic

Solve the equation log = 4.

Rewrite the logarithmic equation as the exponential equation = 81.

Use the Product Identity for Logarithms to write the equation as

(x - 2)(x + 1) = 2. Rewrite this equation as the exponential equation

The solutions to this quadratic equation are x = 3 and x = -2. On

1.1.3 DERIVATIVES FUNCTIONS

determined by another quantity (the independent variable). Derivatives

The process of finding a derivative is called differentiation. The

If y = f(x) the derivative is defined to be (x) =

Other notations are:

Some common derivatives

(Sec x) = Sec x Tan x

Study Session Summary

Sinx 0 0.71 0.71 0 -0.71 -1 0

Cosx 1 0 -0.71 -0.71 0 0.71

Kinetic energy energy that a body possesses by virtue of being in motion

2.1 Effects of Forces and their Reactions

Torque in rotational motion is analogous to force in linear motion. Since

Angular momentum in rotational motion is analogous to linear

For a rigid body containing many particles;

The unit for angular momentum is kgm2s-1.