Nursing Research Ui

COURSE MANUAL
Introduction to Nursing Research

NSG 318
University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

Open and Distance Learning Course Series Development
NSG 318: Introduction to Nursing Research
Copyright © 2016 by Distance Learning Centre, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
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ISBN: 978-021-807-6
General Editor: Prof. Bayo Okunade
University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

University of Ibadan,
Nigeria
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Tel: +234 (80775935727)
E-mail: ssu@dlc.ui.edu.ng
Website: www.dlc.ui.edu.ng
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Vice-Chancellor
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Foreword
As part of its vision of providing education for “Liberty and Development” for
Nigerians and the International Community, the University of Ibadan, Distance Learning
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Apart from the responsibility for you to read this course material with others, you are also
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going to be of immense advantage if you complete assignments as at when due so as to
have necessary feedbacks as a guide.
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The implication of the above is that, a distance learner has a responsibility to develop
requisite distance learning culture which includes diligent and disciplined self-study,
seeking available administrative and academic support and acquisition of basic
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We would like to thank all our authors, reviewers and production staff for the high
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Best wishes.
Professor Bayo Okunade
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Course Development Team

Content Authoring Prisca Olabisi ADEJUMO
Content Editor Prof. Remi Raji-Oyelade

Production Editor Ogundele Olumuyiwa Caleb
Learning Design/Assessment Authoring SkulPortal Technology
Managing Editor Ogunmefun Oladele Abiodun
General Editor Prof. Bayo Okunade
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Course Information
Course Code & Course Name: NSG 318: Introduction to Nursing Research
Credit points: 3 Units
Year: 300-Level;
Semester: First Semester
About the Course: The course deals with evolution of research in nursing and introduces
the students to the basic principles of research.
Lecturer Information:
 Facilitators: Dr. O. Abimbola OLUWATOSIN and Dr. Prisca Olabisi ADEJUMO
 Email: aoluwatosin@yahoo.com; bisiandbayo@yahoo.com
 Consultation: Through SMS, email
Introduction to the Course:

You are welcome to NSG 318. This is an online course that runs in the distance learning
mode. It is a compulsory course open to all nursing students and it is a 3-unit course that
has 45 hours of interaction among teachers and learners for the period of the course.
Aim: The course aims at creating research interest and skills in the Students as a means
for improving nursing care
Overview: The course is designed to stimulate the interest of Nurses in the need for
research as a means of improving nursing care. It introduces Nursing Students to their
role in research, the major steps in research process, and provides a window of
opportunity for learners to explore proposal writing as well as research grants.
The course will arouse students’ interest in research; increase their motivation to acquire
knowledge of the research process in preparation for conducting original researches in the
next level. This to develop the skills necessary for conducting research so that changes in
nursing care can be based on results derived from research findings.
Course Objectives: at the end of this course, the students should be able to:
 Define research
 Describe nursing research
 Differentiate research from other methods of inquiry
 Describe major steps in research process
 Write a research proposal
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 Utilize the knowledge of research in investigating a problem relevant to nursing

profession and
 Conduct pilot study in relevant research area of interest in preparation for
complete study in the next level
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Table of Contents
Study Session 1: Introduction to Nursing Research ................................................................... 11
Introduction........................................................................................................................... 11
Learning Outcomes for Study session 1 ................................................................................. 11
Summary of Study Session 1 ................................................................................................. 21
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) ....................................................................................... 21
References............................................................................................................................. 25
Study Session 2: An Overview of Research Process .................................................................. 26
Introduction........................................................................................................................... 26
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 2: ............................................................................... 26
Summary............................................................................................................................... 41
Self-Assessment Question ..................................................................................................... 41
Learning Outcomes for Study session 3 ................................................................................. 44
3.1 Theory Terminologies ................................................................................................. 44
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 3 ........................................................ 58
SAQ 3.1 (Testing Learning Outcome 3.1).......................................................................... 59
Study Session 4: Nursing Research and Theories ...................................................................... 61
Introduction........................................................................................................................... 61
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 4 ................................................................................ 61
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Study Session 5: The Research Proposal ................................................................................... 73
Learning outcomes for Study Session 5 ................................................................................. 73
5.1 Writing a Research Proposal ....................................................................................... 74
5.4 Seeking Approval for a Study ..................................................................................... 80
5.5 Verbal Defense of a Proposal ...................................................................................... 81
Summary of study session 5 .................................................................................................. 81
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Study Session 1: Introduction to Nursing Research
Introduction
Nurses have the responsibility to ensure that their clients are the recipients of care that
reflects the most current and relevant available knowledge. Thus, research has become a
highly values activity for nurses.
In today’s world, nurses must become lifelong learners, capable of reflecting on,
evaluating, and modifying their clinical practice based on new knowledge. Nurses are
also increasingly expected to become producers of new knowledge through nursing
research.
In this study session, you will be learning about research especially nursing research,
goals, purpose and the state. The sources of nursing research and roles of nurses in
research will also be discussed.
Learning Outcomes for Study session 1

When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
1.1 Define research
1.2 Define nursing research
1.3 List the goals of nursing research
1.4 List the purpose of nursing research
1.5 Discuss the past, present and future of nursing research
1.6 Discuss the sources of nursing research
1.7 State the role of nurses in nursing research
1.1 Research
Merriam-Webster’s defines research as:
1. Careful or diligent search
2. Studious inquiry or examination; especially : investigation or experimentation
aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or
laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised
theories or laws
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3. The collecting of information about a particular subject

Research is a detailed study of a subject, especially in order to discover (new)
information or reach a (new) understanding. (Cambridge Dictionaries Online, 2003)
Research is a system inquiry that uses disciplined methods to answer questions or solve
problems with the ultimate goal of developing, refining, and expanding a body of
knowledge (Polit and Beck 2004).
The root meaning of the word research is “search again” or “examine carefully”. More
specifically, research is diligent, systematic inquiry or investigation to validate and refine
existing knowledge and generate new knowledge (Burns and Grove (2005). Systematic,
diligent inquiry is necessary for researchers to address the following question:
 What needs to be known for the discipline of nursing?
 What research methods are needed to validate, refine, and generate nursing
knowledge?
 What meaning can be extracted from health care-focused studies to build
evidence-based knowledge for nursing practice?
 Does the evidence-based knowledge used in practice produce the desired
outcomes for patients, providers, and the health care system?
In-Text Question
What is research?
In-text Answer
Research is a system inquiry that uses disciplined methods to answer questions or solve
problems with the ultimate goal of developing, refining, and expanding a body of
knowledge.
1.2 Definition of Nursing Research

Burns and Grove (2005) defined nursing research as being concerned with knowledge
that directly and indirectly influences clinical nursing practice.
Polit and Beck (2004) defined nursing research as a systematic inquiry designed to
develop knowledge about issues of importance to the nursing profession including
nursing practice, education, administration, and informatics.
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Gillis and Jackson (2002) defined nursing research as research into phenomena that are
predominantly and appropriately the responsibility of nurses in their professional
practice. Therefore research in nursing encompasses systematic investigations into
provision of health care services, administration of nursing and health care services, and
education of practitioners.
Figure 1.1: Nursing Process

Source: DLC, University of Ibadan
In-text Question
Define nursing research?
In-text Answer
Nursing research is being concerned with knowledge that directly and indirectly
influences clinical nursing practice.
1.3 Goals and Significance of Nursing Research

The importance of nursing research cannot be stressed enough. Some of the goals for
conducting research include:
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Figure 1.2: Goals of Nursing Research

Source: DLC, University of Ibadan
Significance
The ultimate goal of nursing is to provide evidence-based care that promotes quality
outcomes for patients, families, health care providers, and the health care system.
Evidence-based practice involves the use of collective research findings in:
 Promoting an understanding of patients’ and families’ experiences with health and
illness
 Implementing effective interventions to promote patient health
 Providing quality, cost-effective care within the health care system
Nursing research is essential for the development of scientific knowledge that enables
nurses to provide evidence-based health care
In-text Question
List two importance of nursing research
In-text Answer
 Improvement in nursing care
 Credibility of nursing profession
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1.4 The Purpose of Nursing Research

The general purpose of nursing research is to answer questions or solve problems of
relevance to the nursing profession. Basic research is undertaken to extend the base of
knowledge in a discipline, or to formulate or refine a theory. Applied research focuses
on finding solutions to existing problems.
Basic research is appropriate for discovering general principles of human behaviour and
bio physiologic processes; applied research is designed to indicate how these principles
can be sued to solve problems in nursing practice.
In nursing, the findings from applied research may pose questions for basic research and
the results of basic research often suggest clinical applications.
The specific purposes of nursing research include:
1. Description- Description involves identifying and understanding the nature of
nursing phenomena and, sometimes the relationships among them. Through research,
nurses are able to
 Describe what exists in nursing practice,
 Discover new information,
 Promote understanding of situations
 4 Classify information for use in the discipline
Nurses have described a wide variety of phenomena. Examples include patients’ stress
and coping, pain management, adaptation processes, health beliefs, time patterns of
temperature readings.
2. Exploration- Like descriptive research, exploratory research begins with a
phenomenon of interest; but rather than simply observing and describing it, exploratory
research investigates the full nature of the phenomenon, the manner in which it is
manifested, and the other factors to which it is related.
For example, a descriptive quantitative study of patients’ preoperative stress might seek
to document the degree of stress patients experience before surgery and the percentage of
patients who actually experience it. An exploratory study might as the following: what
factors diminish or increase a patient’s stress? Is a patient’s stress related to behaviours of
nursing staff? Is stress related to the patient’s cultural backgrounds?
3. Explanation- clarifies the relationship among phenomena and identifies the
reasons why certain events occur. Explanatory research is often linked to theories.
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Whereas descriptive research provides new information, and exploratory research

provides promising insights, explanatory research attempts to offer understanding of the
underlying causes or full nature of a phenomenon.
4. Prediction- through prediction, one can estimate the probability of a specific
outcome in a given situation. However, predicting an outcome does not necessarily
enable one to modify or control the outcome. With predictive knowledge, nurses could
anticipate the effects that nursing interventions would have on patients and families.
For example, research has shown that a woman aged 40years is at higher risk of bearing a
child with Down syndrome than is a woman aged 25years.
5. Control- if one can predict the outcome of a situation, the next step is to control or
manipulate the situation to produce the desired outcome. Dickoff, James, and
Wiedenbach (1968) described control as the ability to write a prescription to produce the
desired results.
In-text Question
One of these is not the main purpose of research
a. Description
b. Exploration
c. Explanation
d. Administration
In-text Answer
The answer is d
1.5 Nursing Research: Past, Present, and Future: Historical Perspective

YEAR EVENT
1850 Florence Nightingale is the first researcher with studies conducted to
improve soldiers’ health
1859 Nightingale’s Notes on Nursing publishes
1900 American Nursing Journal begins publication
1923 Columbia University establishes first doctoral program for nurses
Goldmark report with recommendations for nursing education publishes
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1929 First Master of nursing degree is offered in Yale University

1930s American Journal of Nursing publishes clinical case studies
1932 The Association of Collegiate Schools of Nursing is organized
1948 Brown publishes report on inadequacies of nursing education
1950 American Nurses Association (ANA) publishes study of nursing functions
and activities
1952 The journal Nursing Research begins publication
1953 Institute of Research and Service in Nursing Education established
1955 Inception of the American Nurses’ Foundation to sponsor nursing research
1957 Establishment of nursing research center at Walter Reed Army Institute of
Research
1963 International Journal of Nursing Studies begins publication
1965 American Nurses’ Association (ANA) begins sponsoring nursing research
conferences
1966 Nursing history archive established at Mugar Library, Boston University
1967 Image (Sigma Theta Tau publication) is first published
Stetler/Marram Model for Application of Research Findings to Practice is
first published
1968 Canadian Journal of Nursing Research begins publication
1971 ANA commission on Nursing Research is established
1972 ANA establishes its Council of Nurse Researchers
1973 First Nursing Diagnosis Conference is held
1976 Stetler and Marram publish guidelines on assessing research for use in
practice
1978 The journals Research in Nursing & Health and Advances in Nursing
Science begins publication
1979 Western Journal of Nursing Research begins publication
1982 The Conduct and Utilization of Research in Nursing (CURN) project
publishes report
1983 Annual Review of Nursing Research begins publication
1985 ANA cabinet on Nursing Research establishes research priorities
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1986 National Center for Nursing Research (NCNR) established within U.S.
National Institute of Health
1987 The journal Scholarly Inquiry for Nursing Practice begins publication
1988 The journals Applied Nursing Research and Nursing Science Quarterly
begins publication
Conference on Research Priorities (CORP #1) is convened by NCNR
1989 U.S. Agency for Health Care Policy and Research (AHCPR) is established
1992 The journal Clinical Nursing Research begins publication
1993 NCNR is renamed the National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR)
CORP #2 is convened to establish priorities for 1995 – 1999
The Cochrane Collaboration is established
The journal, Journal of Nursing Measurement begins publication
1994 The journal Qualitative Health Research begins publication
1997 Canadian Health Services Research Foundation is established with federal
funding
1999 AHCPR is renamed Agency for Healthcare Research Foundation and
Quality (AHRQ)
2000 NINR issues funding priorities for 2000 – 2004; annual funding exceeds
$100 million
The Canadian Institute of Health Research is launched
The journal Biological Research for Nursing begins publication
2003 NINR identifies mission and funding themes for the future
AHRQ identified mission and goals for the future
(Burns and Grove 2005, and Polit and Beck, 2004)
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Activity 1.1: Research

Allowed Time: 2hours
Task:
A. From your entry to nursing, write the progression of your introduction to research and
research activities till date as outlined above from with year and specific activity.
B. Go to Google and search your full names among researchers and print out the content
with the exception of the following: LinkedIn, Facebook, Instagram and other social
network media.
1.6 Sources of Nursing Knowledge

Nurses have relied on several sources of knowledge to guide nursing practice. These
include:
1. Tradition-handling down of knowledge from one generation of nurses to another
by written or verbal communication and role-modelling. “We’ve always done it
that way”. Tradition is efficient as an information source and provides a common
foundation of accepted truth. However, tradition can narrow and limit the
knowledge sought for nursing practice.
2. Authority-experts or authorities in a given field often provide knowledge for
other people. However, the knowledge acquired from authorities frequently has
not been validated, and although it may be useful, it must be verified through
research.
3. Clinical experience, Trial and error, and Intuition- Clinical experience
represents a familiar and functional source of knowledge. It involves gaining
knowledge by being personally involved in an event, situation, or circumstances.
Trial and error is an approach with unknown outcomes that is used in a situation of
uncertainty, when other sources of knowledge are unavailable. The goal was “If it
works, we’ll use it”.
Intuition is a type of knowledge that cannot be explained on the basis of reasoning
or prior instruction. It is difficult to develop policies and practices for nurses on
the basis of intuition.
4. Logical Reasoning- as a method combines experience, intellectual faculties, and
formal systems of thought. Inductive reasoning is the process of developing
19
generalizations from specific observations. Deductive reasoning is the process of

developing specific predictions from general principles.
5. Assembled information- health care professionals rely on information that has
been assembled for a variety of purposes in making clinical decisions.
6. Disciplined Research- research conducted within a disciplined format is the most
sophisticated method of acquiring evidence that humans have developed.
In-text Question
What are the shortcoming of tradition and authority as sources of nursing knowledge?
In-text Answer
Tradition can narrow and limit the knowledge sought for nursing practice. The
knowledge acquired from authorities frequently has not been validated; it must be
verified through research
Activity1.2: Sources of nursing knowledge

Allowed Time: 2 hours
Ask five of your friends in clinical practice their sources of nursing knowledge that drive
the nursing care rendered to their patients. Ask them how many journal articles they have
read in the last one to three months, ask for name and sources. Write down your own and
be sincere about it. Remember research is about integrity and much more as professional
nurses.
1.7 Roles of Nurses in Research

Overall, there are many roles that nurses can assume in association with research
projects. Some of these include:
1. Principal investigator
2. Member of a research team
3. Evaluator of research findings
4. User of research findings
5. Client advocate during studies
6. Subjects/participants in studies
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Activity 1.3:
Many nurses actually carry out research daily in their practice without realizing it. Take
a colleague as a partner with one person for and the other against the statement above and
engage each other in a 10 minutes debate.
Summary of Study Session 1

In this study session, you have been able to:
1. Nursing research is systematic inquiry to develop knowledge about issues of
importance to nurses. Nursing research is essential for the development of
scientific knowledge that enables nurses to provide evidence-based health care to
patients and their families.
2. Knowledge generated through research is essential for identification, description,
exploration, explanation, prediction and control of nursing phenomena.
3. The major reason for conducting nursing research is to foster optimum care for
clients. The nursing profession exists to provide a service to society, and this
service should be based on accurate knowledge. Scientific research has been
determined to be the most reliable means of obtaining knowledge. As was
previously mentioned, there are other means of acquiring knowledge, such as
through tradition, authority, and trial and error. The scientific method, however,
has been determined to be the most objective, systematic way of obtaining
knowledge.
4. Clinical nursing research parallels the nursing process. Research should be
conducted in the area of assessment, planning, nursing diagnosis, nursing
interventions, and evaluation of nursing care. Research findings enable the nurse
to describe, explain, predict, and control phenomena related to the health of
clients. Study findings must then be disseminated to members of the profession.
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)

Now that you have completed this study, you can assess how well you have achieved its
Learning outcomes by answering the following questions. Write your answers in your
study Diary and discuss them with your Tutor at the next! Support meeting.
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SAQ 1.1
Define research
SAQ 1.2
Give the definition of nursing research according to Polit and Beck
SAQ 1.3
List the purposes of nursing research
SAQ 1.4
List the milestones in nursing research in the 1990s to 2000s
SAQ 1.5
Discuss the different sources of nursing knowledge
SAQ 1.6 (Test Learning Outcome 1.6)
List three roles that nurses can assume in research participation
Notes on SAQS
SAQ 1: The root meaning of the word research is “search again” or “examine carefully”.
More specifically, research is diligent, systematic inquiry or investigation to validate and
refine existing knowledge and generate new knowledge.
SAQ 2- Polit and Beck (2004) defined nursing research as a systematic inquiry designed
to develop knowledge about issues of importance to the nursing profession including
nursing practice, education, administration, and informatics.
SAQ 2- The specific purposes of nursing research include:
 Description
 Exploration
 Explanation
 Prediction
 Control
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SAQ 3
YEAR EVENT
1992 The journal Clinical Nursing Research begins publication
1993 NCNR is renamed the National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR)
CORP #2 is convened to establish priorities for 1995 – 1999
The Cochrane Collaboration is established
The journal Journal of Nursing Measurement begins publication
1994 The journal Qualitative Health Research begins publication
1997 Canadian Health Services Research Foundation is established with federal
funding
1999 AHCPR is renamed Agency for Healthcare Research Foundation and
Quality (AHRQ)
2000 NINR issues funding priorities for 2000 – 2004; annual funding exceeds
$100 million
The Canadian Institute of Health Research is launched
The journal Biological Research for Nursing begins publication
2003 NINR identifies mission and funding themes for the future
AHRQ identified mission and goals for the future
SAQ 4: Sources of nursing knowledge

1. Tradition-handling down of knowledge from one generation of nurses to another
by written or verbal communication and role-modelling. “We’ve always done it
that way”. Tradition is efficient as an information source and provides a common
foundation of accepted truth. However, tradition can narrow and limit the
knowledge sought for nursing practice.
2. Authority-experts or authorities in a given field often provide knowledge for other
people. However, the knowledge acquired from authorities frequently has not been
validated, and although it may be useful, it must be verified through research.
3. Clinical experience, Trial and error, and Intuition- Clinical experience represents a
familiar and functional source of knowledge. It involves gaining knowledge by
being personally involved in an event, situation, or circumstances.
23
Trial and error is an approach with unknown outcomes that is used in a situation of
uncertainty, when other sources of knowledge are unavailable. The goal was “If it
works, we’ll use it”.
Intuition is a type of knowledge that cannot be explained on the basis of reasoning
or prior instruction. It is difficult to develop policies and practices for nurses on
the basis of intuition.
4. Logical reasoning- as a method combines experience, intellectual faculties, and
formal systems of thought. Inductive reasoning is the process of developing
generalizations from specific observations. Deductive reasoning is the process of
developing specific predictions from general principles.
5. Assembled information- health care professionals rely on information that has
been assembled for a variety of purposes in making clinical decisions.
6. Disciplined research- research conducted within a disciplined format is the most
sophisticated method of acquiring evidence that humans have developed.
SAQ 6
• Principal investigator
• Member of a research team
• Evaluator of research findings
• User of research findings
• Client advocate during studies
• Subjects/participants in studies
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References
Brown, S.J. (1999). Knowledge for health care practice: a guide to using research evidence.
Philadephia: Saunders
Burns, N. and Grove, S.K. (2005). The Practice of Nursing Research- Conduct, Critique, and
Utilization (5th edition). Elsevier Saunders.
Cambridge Dictionaries Online, Cambridge University Press 2003.
Craig, J.V., and Smith, R.L. (2002). The evidence-based practice manual for nurses. Edinburgh,
Scotland: Churchill Livingstone.
Dickoff, J., James, P., & Wiedenbach, E. (1968). Theory in a practice discipline: Practice
oriented theory (Part I). Nursing Research, 17 (5), 415 – 435.
Gillis, A. and Jackson W. (2002). Research for Nurses- Methods and Interpretation. F.A. Davis
Company.
Polit, D.F. and Beck, C.T. (2007). Nursing Research- Principles and Methods (7th edition).
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
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Study Session 2: An Overview of Research Process
Introduction
In the previous study session, you learnt about nursing research. Nurses have the
responsibility to ensure that their clients are the recipients of care that reflects the most
current and relevant knowledge available. Thus, research has become a highly values
activity for nurses.
In today’s world, nurses must become lifelong learners, capable of reflecting on,
evaluating, and modifying their clinical practice based on new knowledge. Nurses are
also increasingly expected to become producers of new knowledge through nursing
research. In this study session you will learn about the steps of the research process.
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 2:

When you have studied this study session, you should be able to:
2.1 Define the term “research”.
2.2 Discuss the phases of research process.
2.3 Explain the steps in research process.
2.1 Research Process

Research is a process similar in some ways to other processes. A process consists of a
purpose, a series of actions, and a goal. Therefore, the background acquired early in
problem solving and nursing process is also useful in research.
The research process involves conceptualizing a research project, planning and
implementing that project, and communicating the findings. Each step progressively
builds on the previous steps, however it is flexible.
Characteristic features of research are:

 Systematic solving of scientific problems
 Using scientific methods
 System of interconnecting phases and steps
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Types of research
1. Quantitative research: This is a formal, objective, systematic process in which
numerical data are used to obtain information about the world. It seeks to
quantify, or reflect with numbers, observations about human behaviour. This type
of reserach method is used to decsribe variables, examine relationships among
variables, and determine cause-and-effect interactions between variables.
It is currently the predominantly used method of scientific investigation in nursing.
The types of quantitative research are: Descriptive research, correlational research,
quasi-experimental research and experimental research
2. Qualitative research- is a systematic, interactive, subjective approach used to
describe life experiences and give them meaning. It emphasizes verbal
descriptions and explanations of human behaviour. Rather than concerning itself
primarily with representativeness samples, qualitative research emphasizes careful
and detailed descriptions of life experiences such as pain, caring, and comfort.
This method is very useful for investigating emotional responses. The types of
qualitative research are: phenomological research, grounded theory research,
ethnographic reserach, historical research, philosophical inquiry, critical social
theory methodology.
Comparative Characteristics of Quantitative and Qualitative Researches

FEATURE QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
Purpose To explain and predict To describe and explain
To confirm and validate To explore and interpret
· To test theory · To build theory
Process Focused Holistic
Known variables Unknown variables
Established guidelines Flexible guidelines
Static design Emergent design
Context-free Context-bound
· Detached view · Personal view
Data Collection Representative Informative, small sample
Large sample · Observations, interviews
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· Standardized instruments
Data Analysis · Deductive analysis · Inductive analysis
Report of findings Numbers Words
Statistics, aggregated data Narratives
Formal voice, scientific style. Individual quotes
Personal voice
Library style.
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In- text-question
What is research process?
In- text-answer
This involves conceptualizing a research project, planning and implementing that project,
and communicating the findings.
2.2 Phases of Research Process

There are five phases of reseach process, and these are as follows:
 Phase of concepcion
 Phase of elaboration of research plan
 Empiric phase
 Analytic phase
 Disseminative phase
1. Phase of conception
The first phase of research process: This is the phase in which content and structure of
research are created. Conceptualisation refers to the process of developing refining
abstract ideas. The activities include thinking, rethinking, theorising, making decision,
and reviewing ideas.
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It is composed of four steps:

a. Formulation and set bounds of research problem, determine the purpose of study
b. Searching and review the literature related to the research problem
c. Development of theoretical construction of the future research
d. Creation of hypothesis
How the research problem is formulated

a. Formulation and set bounds of research problem, determine the purpose of study
i. accidental observation of phenomenon which we are not able to explain 
curiosity
ii. formulation of questions ( why and how the phenomenon originated)
a. a lot of uncertainties
b. small amount of certainties
iii. considerations on possible cause (es) of the phenomenon:
 discussion with co-workers
 study of literature
 personal experience of researcher
iv. formulation of first draft of research problem
v. considerations whether the research problem is solvable:
 if yes – then what kind of methods should be used
 if no – it is necessary to go back and start to think of another way
b. Looking for information related to research problem in literature

The aim of this step is to find the ‘‘older“ and current informations related to the research
problem
We would like to find the answers to following questions:
 did anybody formulate the same research problem as mine in the past?
 did anybody solve the same or similar problem ?
 is the solving of the defined research problem fruitful or not?
c. Development of the theoretical construction for solving the research problem
Main aims: Thinking on the content of future research.
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 on its timing and structure

 on the necessary conditions
Good virtual model of future research will save time, money and decreases probability of
stress and mistakes during research.
Necessary conditions:
 the research problem is clearly defined
 the technical and personal conditions are available
 the social, legal and ethical views are known
 the main aims are defined
Result of this step: - clear framewerk for solving the research problem
d. Formulation of hypothesis
A well-thought-out and focused research question leads directly into hypothesis.
 Creation of rational assumption on the possible cause(es) of the observed
phenomenon
 Creation of the questions focused on the essence of the research problem.
Characteristics of good hypothesis:

a. gives insight into research questions
b. is testable and measured by the proposed research
c. springs logically from the experience of the staff
The goal of science is to find an explanation for why the facts are as they are. Such an
explanation is a hypothesis. A good hypothesis meets several standards. It should provide
an adequate explanation of the observed facts. If two or more hypotheses meet this
standard, the simpler one is preferred.
It should be able to predict new facts. One of the most exciting events in science is to
predict the results of an experiment not yet performed if the hypothesis is valid and then
to perform the experiment. The hypothesis that the experimental treatment had no effect
is called the null hypothesis.
In- text-question
why is the conception phase the first step in a research process
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In- text-answer
It is the phase in which content and structure of research are created. Other steps in the
research process build on it.
2. Phase of elaboration of proposal and research plan

It is a general plan of research:
1. selection of patients, animals, other objects used for solving the problem: -
creation of representative sample, inclusion, exclusion criteria
2. selection of the methods –qualitative, quantitative
3. creation of pilot study
4. selection of methods
5. selection of research technology
6. development a protocol of research
7. to define the schedule of research
8. to define the control methods: to control if the research procedures are
correct or not
9. to define the statistcal methods used for evaluation of the obtained results
10. to define the financial, material and personal needs to secure success in the
research
In- text-question
why the need for elaboration of proposal and research plan?
In- text-answer
a. To define the schedule of research.
b. To define the control methods: to control if the research procedures are correct or
not.
c. To define the statistcal methods used for evaluation of the obtained results
d. To define the financial, material and personal needs to secure success in the
research.
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3. Empiric phase
The aim of this phase is production of results, collection of data, and their preparation for
next analysis. The results are produced by:
a. experiment on animals
b. by clinical study
c. by using questionnaire, interview, observation
d. by using models - biological, electronic, mathematic....
Reproducibility of scientific work

The single feature that is most characteristic of science is its reproducibility. If scientists
cannot duplicate their first results, they are forced to conclude that these were invalid.
This problem occurs often. Its cause is usually some unrecognized, and hence
uncontrolled, factor in the experiment (e.g., unrecognized variation in the properties of
different batches of the materials used in the experiment).
With luck, the inability to reproduce experiments will be discovered by the same
scientists who did the first experiments. This is why scientists generally repeat their
experiments several times before reporting them in a scientific paper.
4. Analytic phase
The content of this phase is:
 Quantitative analysis of the data
 Qualitative analysis of the data
 Statistical analysis of the data
 Interpretation of the results
Methods used in analytic phase:

 Correlation: looking for relationships among the two or more values
 Comparation: comparation of the result obtained in our research with similar
research done by other researchers
ACTIVITY:
Look for any five journals, decsribe the type of analysis in the five selected journals.
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5. Disseminative phase
It is the phase when results of the research are published as:
 research report
 lectures and posters at congresses and conferences
 papers in journals
Note- most nursing researches especially among students end up on the bench without
reaching this important phase.
In- text-question
During which phase of the research process is data collected?
In- text-answer
The empiric phase
ACTIVITY:
Prepare an action plan of how you will disseminate the findings of your own research in
the next session.
2.3 Steps in the Research Process

There are steps to undertake in a research process, and these are:
1. Identify the Problem
The first step and one of the most important steps, in the research process is to clearly
identify the problem that will be studied. Generally, a broad topic area is selected, and
then the topic is narrowed down to a specific one-sentence statement of the problem.
This step of the research may be the most difficult of all and may take great ideal time.
Martin (l994) contended that a “good” problem statement helps the researcher to move
through the steps of the process.
2. Determine the Purpose of the Study
Justification/Significance- Although the term purpose is often used interchangeably with
problem, a distinction can be made between these two terms.
• The statement addresses what will be studied.
• The purpose furnishes why the study is being done.
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There must be a sound rationale or justification for every research project. Some studies
are viewed as inconsequential and wasteful of time and money. The researcher must
make explicit the expectation for the use of the study result. If the purpose of a study is
clearly presented and justified, the researcher will be much more likely to receive
approval for the study and also will be more likely to recruit participants for the study.
3. Review the literature- purposes of the literature review
• To determine what is already known
• The idea for a study may be formed while the researcher is in the library
• If previous research is found, the researcher must decide whether to replicate a
study or examine another aspect of the problem.
• The review of the literature is necessary to narrow the problem to be studied.
• It also helps to plan the study methodology.
Research should build on previous knowledge. Before beginning a study, it is important
to determine what knowledge exists of the study. There are few topics about which there
is no existing knowledge based.
There are many routes of access to the published literature. Literature sources can be
located through the library card catalogue, indexes, abstracts, and computer assisted
searches.
Use of the library

a. The wealth of information libraries contain can be overwhelming
b. Beware of “serendipity”- the unexpected or unplanned finding of information on
one topic during the process of searching for information on another topic.
c. Keep in mind your original focus
d. Prepare to spend a long time in the library
e. If you are not familiar with a particular library, consult the staff and tour the
library
In- text-question
What is the first step and one of the most important steps in the research process?
In- text-answer
To clearly identify the problem that will be studied.
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4. Develop a theoretical/conceptual framework

The goal of research is to develop scientific knowledge. Research and theory are
intertwined. Research can test theories as well as help to develop and refine theories.
Thus, theoretical frameworks are a valuable part of scientific research. The theoretical or
conceptual frameworks will assist in the selection of the study variables and in defining
them. The frame work also will direct the hypothesis and the interpretation of the
findings
5. Identify the Study Assumption:
Assumptions are beliefs that are held to be true but have not necessarily been proven.
Each scientific investment is based on assumption. These assumptions should be stated
explicitly. Frequently, however, the assumptions are implicit.
This mean that the study was based on certain assumption but the researcher did not
openly acknowledge or list these assumptions. Study assumptions influence the question
that are asked, the data that are gathered, the methods used to gather the data, and the
interpretation of the data.
6. Acknowledge the Limitations of Study
The researcher should try to identify study limitations or weaknesses. Limitations are
uncontrolled variables that may affect study results and limit the generalizability of the
findings. In nearly every nursing study, there are variables over which the researcher
either has no control or chooses not to exercise control. These variables are called
extraneous variables. For example, the educational level of subjects would be a study
limitation if the researcher could not control this variable and thought that it might
influence the study results. In experimental studies, uncontrolled variables are referred to
as threats to internal and external validity.
7. Formulate the Hypothesis or Research question
A researcher’s expectation about the study is expressed in a hypothesis. A hypothesis
predicts the relationship between two or more variables. Whereas the problem statement
asks a question, the hypothesis contains the population and variables, just as the problem
statement does. In addition, the hypothesis proposes the relationship between the
independent and the dependent variables.
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In experimental studies, the independent variable is the “cause” or the variable that is
thought to influence the dependent variable. The dependent variable is the “effect” or the
variable that is influence by the researcher’s manipulation (control) of the independent
variable. A hypothesis must be tested or verified empirically, which means that it must be
capable of being tested in the “real world” by observations gathered through the senses.
8. Define Study Variable/Terms
The variables and terms contained in the study hypotheses or research questions need to
be defined so that their meaning is clear to the researcher and to the reader of a research
report. The definitions are usually dictionary or theoretical definitions, a variable should
be operationally defined.
An operational definition indicates how a variable will be observed or measured.
Operational definitions frequently include the instrument that will be used to measure the
variables. If anxiety were being measured, the theoretical definition would then be
indicated by the identification of the of the tool or behaviour that would be used to
measure anxiety.
9. Select the Research Design
The research design is the plan for how the study will be collected and the means used to
obtain these data. For example, the researcher must decide if the study will examine
cause-and-effect relationship or will only describe existing situations. The research
chooses the design that is most appropriate to test the hypothesis (es) or answer the
research question(s).
10. Identify the Population
The population is a complete set of individuals or object that possess some common
characteristic of interest to the researcher. The research must specify the broad population
or group of interest as well as the actual population that is available for the study. The
first type of population is identified as the target population, and the second type is called
the accessible population.
The target population also called the universe is made up of a study. The accessible
population is that group that is actually available for study by the researcher. The term
“population” does not always mean that available for studied. A nurse researcher might
study a population of charts or a population of blood pressure reading, for example.
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11. Select the sample

Although researchers are always interested in population, usually a subgroup of the
population, called a sample, is studied. The sample is chosen to represent the population
and is used to make generalization about the population. Obtaining data from an entire
population is time consuming, and it may even be impossible, at times, to contact or
locate every member of a population.
If the sample is carefully selected, the researcher can make claim about the population
with a certain degree of confidence. The method of selecting the sample will determine
how representative the sample is of the population.
Elements of informed consent
The principal means for ensuring that the rights of research subjects are protected is
through informed consent. INFORMED CONSENT concerns the subject’ participation in
research in which they have of study before the study begins. The major elements of
informed consent are:
1. Researchers are identified and credentials presented.
2. Subject selection process is described
3. Purpose of study is described
4. Study procedures are discussed
5. Potential risk are described
6. Potential benefits are described
7. Compensation, if any, are discussed
8. Alternative procedures, if any are disclosed.
9. Anonymity or confidentiality is assured.
10. Right to refuse to participate or to withdraw from study without penalty is assured.
11. Offer to answer all question is made.
12. Means of obtaining study results is presented
12. Conduct a pilot study
It is advisable to conduct a study before the study participants are approached and the
actual study is carried out. A pilot study involves a miniature, trial version of the planned
study. People are selected for the pilot study that is similar to the sample that will be used
for the actual study.
There are several reasons for conducting a pilot study:
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 The researcher can determine the feasibility of the study.

 Test the instrument that will be used.
 Gain experience with the methodology and instrument.
 Identify problems in data collection.
A pilot study can be used to test new instrument or to evaluate an existing instrument that
has been altered. The researcher may think that the questionnaire is so simple that a 10-
year- old could fill it out but find out in a pilot study that 30 years old have great
difficulty in understanding several of the questions.
13. Collect the Data
Data are the pieces of information or fact that are collected in scientific investigation.
Although the data collection step of the research process may be very time consuming, it
is something considered to be the most exciting part of research.
14. Organise the Data for Analysis

After the data are collected, it is necessary to organise the data for tabulation and
evaluation. This task can be overwhelming at times. Actually, this step of the research
process should have been planned long before the data were collected. The researcher
should have prepared dummy tables and graphs that could then be filled in with the data
once they are obtained.
Analyse the Data: This stage of research process analyzing the data may make some of
you cringe, for you can quickly ascertain that the statistics may be involve. In this day of
computer, data analysis has been greatly simplified.
15. Interpret the Findings
After the data analysis the findings should be interpreted in light of the study hypothesis
or research questions. If a hypothesis was tested, a determination is made as to whether
the data support the research hypothesis or not. Also, the framework for the study is
discussed in light of findings.
If the data support the research hypothesis then the theoretical or conceptual framework
is also supported. Conversely if the research question hypothesis is not supported, the
framework of the study is also not supported. The researcher should discuss why any
problem incurred in the course of the study or any limitations of the design study that
may have influenced the study.
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16. Communicate the Findings

Final step in the research process and the most important one for nursing is the
communication of the study findings. No matter how significant the findings may be they
are of little value to the nursing profession if the researcher fails to disseminate these
results to other colleagues. Reporting research results contributes to the base of evidence
for nursing practice, and is a professional responsibility.
Research results can be presented in various venues and of types of publication to
audiences of nurses, health care professionals, policymakers, and health care consumers.
These include Student-related outlet (term papers, theses, and dissertation) and
professional ones (journal articles, books, reports to funders, conference presentations).
Researchers who want to communicate their findings to other researchers or clinicians
can opt to present findings orally or in writing. By presenting and publishing their
findings, researchers are able to advance the knowledge of a discipline and receive
personal recognition, professional advancement, and other psychological and financial
compensation.
Communicating research findings also promotes the critique and replication of studies,
identification of additional research problems, and the use of findings n practice.
Activity
Following the research process, write and submit the proposal for an original research in
your area of specialization. Discuss approval of topic with facilitator online.
2.3.1. Sources of Nursing Research Problems

The sources of generating appropriate nursing research problems are numerous. Some of
which include:
a. Personal experiences
b. Clinical sources
c. Literature sources
d. Existing theories
e. Previous research
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Summary
In this study session you have learnt that:
1. The research process involves conceptualizing a research project, planning and
implementing that project, and communicating the findings.
2. Quantitative research: This is a formal, objective, systematic process in which
numerical data are used to obtain information about the world.
3. Qualitative research: This is a systematic, interactive, subjective approach used to
describe life experiences and give them meaning.
4. The five phases of reseach process are as follows:
Phase of concepcion, Phase of elaboration of research plan, Empiric phase,
Analytic phase, and Disseminative phase.
Self-Assessment Question
Now that you have completed study session, you will need to assess yourself to see if you
have achieved the learning objectives. Try to answer the questions below. Compare your
answers to the correct answers at the end of the study session.
SAQ 1 (testing learning outcome 2.1)
Compare the characteristics of quantitative and qualitative researches
List the five phases of research process.
Discuss the steps in a research process
Note to SAQS
SAQ 1: Comparative Characteristics of Quantitative and Qualitative Researches
FEATURE QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
Purpose · To explain and predict · To describe and explain
· To confirm · To explore and interpret
and validate · To build theory
· To test theory
Process · Focused · Holistic
· Known variables · Unknown variables
· Established guidelines · Flexible guidelines
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· Static design · Emergent design

· Context-free · Context-bound
· Detached view · Personal view
Data Collection · Representative · Informative, small sample
· Large sample · Observations, interviews
· Standardized instruments
Data Analysis · Deductive analysis · Inductive analysis
Report of · Numbers · Words
findings · Statistics, aggregated data · Narratives
· Formal voice, scientific style. · Individual quotes
· Personal voice
· Library style.
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SAQ 2: Phases of research process

a. Phase of conception
b. Phase of elaboration of proposal and research plan
c. Empiric phase
d. Analytic phase
e. Disseminative phase
SAQ 3: Steps in research process

a. Identify the problem
b. Determine the purpose of the study
c. Review the literature
d. Develop a theoretical/conceptual framework
e. Identify the study assumption
f. Acknowledge the limitations of study
g. Formulate the hypothesis or research question
h. Define study variable/terms
i. Select the research design
j. Identify the population
k. Select the sample
l. Conduct a pilot study
m. Collect the data
n. Organise the data for analysis
o. Interpret the findings
p. Communicate the findings
REFERENCES
 Polit D.F. and Beck C.T. Nursing Research- Principles and Methods (2007). 7th edition.
 Burns N. and Grove S.K. The Practice of Nursing Research- Conduct, Critique, and
Utilization (2005). 5th edition. Elsevier Saunder.
 Gillis A. and Jackson W. Research for Nurses- Methods and Interpretation (2002). F.A.
Davis Company.
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Study Session 3: Theory and Nursing Research 1
Introduction
You ever wonder how people come up with reasons why things are the way they are?
Perhaps your parents have told you several times when you were young not to play in the
rain because if you do, you will catch cold. Then you go ahead to do this and you get
cold. As you grow up to read sciences you then discover the real cause of the cold s not
just the rain but the effect it has on your body.
In this study session, you will learn various theory terminologies, types of theories,
theory degeneration and development, sources of theory for nurses.
Learning Outcomes for Study session 3

At the end of this study, you should be able to
3.1 Define the various theory terminologies
3.2 Discuss different types of theories
3.3 Discuss the process of theory generation and development
3.4 Describe the different sources of theories for nursing research
3.1 Theory Terminologies

Theories are used by everyone to explain happenings in their lives and in their
environments. Theories are also used by nurses to explain happenings of significance to
nursing. Nursing research and nursing practice should be theory based. When research is
guided by a theoretical framework, the theory guides the research process from the
beginning to the end- that is, from identifying a research problem through to the
conclusion of the study.
The following theory terminologies will be discussed
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3.1.1 Theory
One of the most commonly quoted definitions of a theory was formulated by Kerlinger
(1973): ‘’A theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and
propositions that present a systematic view or phenomena by specifying relations among
variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena’’.
Theories explain why one event is associated with another event or what causes an event
to occur. Theories are composed of concepts and the relationships between these
concepts. Relationships between these concepts are presented in theoretical statements,
which are frequently called propositional statements. These propositions are connected
in a logical system of thought.
Figure 3.1: Theory

Source:
https://www.google.com.ng/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=
45
Theory comes from the Greek word ‘’theoria’’, which means beholding, spectacle, or
speculation. ‘’Speculation’’ is an appropriate word to use when discussing theories.
Theories are always speculative in nature and are never considered to be true or proven.
They provide description and explanation of the occurrence of phenomena are always
subject to further development or revision or may even be discarded if not supported by
empirical evidence.
In-text Question
One of the most commonly quoted definitions of a theory was formulated by---------------
---------
In-text Answer
Kerlinger (1973)
3.1.2 Concept
Concepts are the building blocks of theory. A concept is a word picture or mental idea of
a phenomenon. Concepts are words or terms that symbolize some aspects of reality.
Figure 3.2: A boy thinking of football

Source:
https://www.google.com.ng/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&u
46
The meaning of a concept is conveyed by the use of a definition and examples of

instances of the concept. Concepts may be very concrete, such as the human brain, or
may be very abstract, such as intelligence. Concrete concepts may be specified and
defined more easily than abstract concepts. E.g. the concept of a sport could symbolized
with a person playing football as seen in Figure 3.2.
In-text Question
------------------ are the building blocks of theory
In-text Answer
Concepts
3.1.3 Construct
A highly abstract, complex phenomenon (concept) is denoted by a ‘made up’ or
constructed term. Construct is the term used to indicate a phenomenon that cannot be
directly observed but must be inferred by certain concrete or less abstract indicators of
the phenomenon. Examples of constructs are wellness, mental health, self-esteem, and
assertiveness. Each of these constructs can be identified only through the presence of
certain measurable concepts.
Wellness might be defined through laboratory data or clinical observation. The laboratory
data would be a very objective indicator of wellness, whereas the clinical observation
would be a less objective indicator of wellness.
In-text Question
Relationships between these concepts are presented in theoretical statements, which are
frequently called ------------------------
In-text Answer
Propositional statements
3.1.4 Variables
These are concepts that are observable, measurable, and have a dimension that can vary.
For example, temperature is a variable that is observable, measurable and vary from high
to low. Variables can be Dependent i.e. a variable that is influenced by other variables. It
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is the effect in a cause-and-effect relationship; Independent i.e. a variable that has been
selected as a possible influence on variations in a dependent variable.
Figure 3.3: Simplified explanation of types of variable

Source:
http://www.google.com.ng/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&
The cause in a cause-and-effect relationship; Control i.e. a variable that is taken into
account in exploring the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent
variable.
In-text Question
-----------------is the term used to indicate a phenomenon that cannot be directly observed
but must be inferred by certain concrete or less abstract indicators of the phenomenon.
In-text Answer
Construct
3.1.5 Proposition
A proposition is a statement or assertion of the relationship between concepts.
Propositions are also referred to as axioms or theorem. Propositions link concepts of a
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theory together so something can be described. Propositional statements are derived from
theories or from generalizations based on empirical data.
In-text Question
A variable that is influenced by other variables is called -------------------------
In-text Answer
Dependent
For example, there is a relationship between pulse rates and respiration rates.
Propositional statements may also assert that one variable causes another variable; for
example, bacteria cause diseases.
causes
3.1.6 Empirical Generalization

When a similar pattern of events is found in the empirical data of a number of different
studies, the pattern is called an empirical generalization (Reynolds, 1971). Empirical
generalizations summarize the results of several empirical studies.
Jacox (1974) proposed an example of a nurse who observes 40 or 50 preoperative
patients and finds that each is anxious. Many studies have shown that women attend
church more often than men. The empirical generalization can therefore be made that
women are more frequent church attenders than men.
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In-text Question
A -------------- is a statement or assertion of the relationship between concepts.
In-text Answer
Proposition
3.1.7 Hypothesis
A hypothesis predicts the relationship between two or more variables. Hypotheses present
the researcher’s expectation about the outcome of a study. They form a bridge between
the abstract world of theory and the concrete reality of nursing’s practice world.
They may be directional (specifying a direction for the relationship) or non-directional
(simply stating that there will be difference between groups or variables). Through
hypotheses, theoretical propositions can then advance scientific knowledge by supporting
or failing to support the tested theory.
3.1.8 Model
The more complex the issues, the greater is the need to ‘’create order out of chaos’’ by
constructing models (Blackwell, 1985). A model is a symbolic representation of some
phenomenon or phenomena. Bush (1979) wrote that a model ‘’represents some aspect of
reality, concrete or abstract, by means of a likeness which may be structural, pictorial,
diagrammatic or mathematical’’.
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Figure 3.4: A model of the human heart

Source:
http://www.google.com.ng/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8
Probably the most common usage of the term model is when discussing structural types
of models, such as model trains, model airplanes, and models of the human heart as seen
in figure 3.4. The types of models that nurses are interested in when conducting nursing
research are generally of the structural or diagrammatic form. A diagram or a picture can
portray a theory in a fashion that clearly demonstrates the structure and parts of the
theory.
Whereas a theory has focuses on statements or explanations of the relationship between
phenomena, a model focuses on the structure or composition of the phenomena.
In-text Question
---------------wrote that a model ‘’represents some aspect of reality, concrete or abstract,
by means of a likeness which may be structural, pictorial, diagrammatic or
mathematical’’.
A. Bush (1979)
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B. Blackwell (1985)
C. Reynolds (1971).
D. Jacox (1974)
In-text Answer
A. Bush (1979)
3.2 Types of Theories

Theories can be described according to the range of phenomena they describe and
explain. There are two main types of theories
 Grand theories
 Middle-range theories
3.2.1 Grand Theories

Grand theories are concerned with a broad range of phenomena in the environment or in
the experiences of humans. Grand theories are important in every discipline. According
to Fitzpatrick and Whall (1996), a grand theory ‘’serves as a guiding light, as a historical
holder of disciplinary beliefs, and as a provider of visions of the future’’.
Although grand theories are revered by many nurses, middle- range theories have been
found to be more valuable to nursing research than have grand theories. The works of
many of the nurse theorists have been identified as conceptual models at the grand theory
level. Some nurses have contended that these models do not drive research (Tripp-
Reimer, Woodworth, McCloskey, & Bulechek, 1996).
3.2.2 Middle- range Theories

Middle-range theories have a much narrow focus; they are concerned with only a small
area of the environment or of human experiences and incorporate a small number of
concepts.
One of the shortcomings of the use of middle- range theories appears to be that most of
them are from other disciplines. Examples of these theories include social support,
coping, anxiety, adult learning, body image, stress and helplessness. Although knowledge
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does not belong to any one discipline, each discipline looks at phenomena from a
different perspective. Few disciplines are concerned with people who are ill.
For example, learning theories that may be useful with well people may not be
appropriate for sick people who not only are ill, but are under a great deal of stress. An
individual whose normal preferred learning mode is auditory may need a totally different
approach when hospitalized. This person may now need visual as well as auditory
learning signals, and the signals may need to be repeated several times.
Therefore, we cannot assume that a theory used in one discipline should be transferred
directly over for use in another discipline. Modifications may be needed or the theory
may be deemed inappropriate for use in nursing.
In-text Question
-------------are concerned with a broad range of phenomena in the environment or in the
experiences of humans.
In-text Answer
Grand theories
3.3 Theory Generation and Development

Researchers are concerned with both theory generation and the development of
theories. The two activities go hand in hand. The processes of theory generation and
development of theories through testing are shown below.
As can be seen, theory generation and development involve both inductive and
deductive reasoning processes.
Deduction Induction
Theory Theory
Propositional Statement Propositional Statement
Hypothesis Empirical Generalization
Empirical Data Empirical Data

Deductive and inductive processes in theory generation and development
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3.3.1 Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning proceeds from the general (theory) to the specific (empirical data).
The deductive process moves from a general abstract explanation to a specific event in
the real world. A hypothesis is deduced from a theory, and the hypothesis is empirically
tested in a real- life situation.
3.3.2 Inductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning, on the other hand, proceeds from the specific (empirical data) to the
general (theory).When an inductive process is used, data are gathered from a real- life
situation and the researcher tries to derive a general explanation of this behavior or event.
The question is asked, how can I explain what I have been observing?
For example, you might observe that patients, who have been occupied in some activity
such as watching television, seem to be less anxious than patients who have not been
involved in any activity. You continue to observe many patients and you find that this
pattern seems to hold true for most of the patients on the unit where you work.
Your explanation for this phenomenon would involve an inductive reasoning process.
An existing anxiety theory might provide an explanation for the phenomenon that was
just discussed.
If no existing theory can be located that explains this phenomenon, the researcher may
start the process of generating a new theory. After empirical data are gathered on a
number of occasions, empirical generalizations are made. The next step is to develop
propositional statements. Finally, the propositional statements are logically related to
form a theory.
In-text Question
Researchers are concerned with both ------------- and the ----------------.
In-text Answer
Theory generation and the development of theories.
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3.4 Sources of Theories for Nursing Research

Nurses have available to help them a wealth of theories upon which to base their research. These
theories have been developed in nursing and in many other disciplines. At the present time,
nurses continue to use many theories from other disciplines.
3.4.1 Theories from Nursing

Although there are a number of nursing conceptual models, only a few theories have been
derived from these models. Additionally, there have been a few studies in which these
theories have been tested.
Figure: Nursing theory

Source:
http://www.google.com.ng/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&
Abdellah and Levine (1994) wrote that one of the gaps in nursing research is the lack of
tested nursing theories. Some nurses have even questioned the usefulness of nursing
theories. Others, such as Rosemarie Parse, have made string pleas for the use of nursing
theories in nursing research.
In an editorial in Nursing Science Quarterly (Parse, 1996), Parse wrote that ‘’knowledge
continues to be expanded through nursing- based research studies and practice projects,
offering much promise for survival of the discipline in the 21st century. She asserted that
articles on nursing theory- based research and practice are being published in journals in
greater number than ever before. She also mentioned the growing number of international
conferences that focus on nursing theory.
Although nurse researchers have generally used theories that were not developed by
nurses, there are many examples in the literature of studies that relied on the theoretical
55
work of nurses. Examples of studies that used Orem’s, Rogers’, and Neuman’s models
were presented earlier.
Additional theories developed by nurses can be identified in published studies. Some of
these include Cox’s (1982) interaction model of client behavior (IMCHB), Mishel’s
(1988) uncertainty theory, King’s (1981) theory of goal attainment, Pender’s (1987)
health promotion model, and Peplau’s interpersonal theory (1988). An example of a study
that used Mishel’s theory and one that used Peplau’s theory will be presented.
Mishel’s theory of uncertainty in illness (Mishel, 1988) was used to examine the
relationships among illness uncertainty, stress, coping, and emotional well- being of
clients with multiple sclerosis who were beginning a drug trial (Wineman, Schwetz,
Goodkin, & Rudick, 1996).
The results suggested that when a client enters a drug trial with high levels of illness
uncertainty and stress, he or she is likely to experience mood disturbances and not be
very hopeful about the effectiveness of the drug that is being prescribed.
Peplau’s interpersonal theory (Peplau, 1988) was used as the framework to study nursing
students’ knowledge and anxiety about AIDS (Bower, Webb, & Stevens, 1994). Peplau’s
theory describes the relationship between anxiety and learning.
The experimental group attended a 6-hour workshop where participants were given
information about AIDS and participated in exercises that focused on anxiety awareness.
Findings indicated that recognition of anxiety contributed to students’ learning about
AIDS.
In-text Question
-------------- is not a theory developed by nurses that can be identified in published
studies.
a. Cox’s interaction model of client behavior
b. Uncertainty theory
c. Theory of goal attainment
d. Killing the sick theory
In-text Answer
d. Killing the sick theory
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3.4.2 Theories from Other Disciplines

Nursing is referred to as a practice discipline. It has been said frequently that nursing, as a
practice discipline, has ‘’borrowed’’ knowledge from other disciplines, such as
chemistry, biology, sociology, psychology, and anthropology. Levine (1995) has opposed
the use of the term ‘’borrowed’’.
She said it indicates that something needs to later be ‘’returned’’. Levine wrote, ‘’the
fruits of knowledge are not the private domain of one discipline, to be returned like a
borrowed cup of sugar to a neighbor’’.
The use of knowledge from other disciplines is necessary, but frequently this knowledge
is not suitable to the needs of the nursing profession. Nurses must find a way to adapt the
numerous theories from other disciplines. Once these theories have been adapted, they
should be considered as shared knowledge rather than as borrowed theories (Stevens,
1979).
Table 3.1 presents theories from other disciplines that have been used to explain
phenomena in nursing. These theories concern concepts such as social learning, role
socialization, stress, helplessness, cognitive dissonance, human development, motivation,
crisis, relaxation, pain, anxiety, body image, job satisfaction, family interactions,
communication, coping, moral reasoning, health behaviors, and change. Many nursing
studies have used theories from other disciplines.
THEORIES FROM OTHER DISCIPLINES

1. Social learning theory: Bandura (1986); Rotter (1954)
2. Adult learning theory: Knowles (1980)
3. Role theory: Mead (1934)
4. Stress: Selye (1976)
5. Helplessness: Seligman (1975)
6. Cognitive dissonance: Festinger (1957)
7. Developmental theory: Piaget (1926); Freud (1938); Erikson (1950); Havighurst (1952)
8. Motivation: Maslow (1970)
9. Crisis: Caplan (1964)
10. Relaxation: Benson (1975)
11. Pain: Melzack and wall (1983)
12. Anxiety: Spielberger (1972)
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13. Body image: Schilder (1952)

14. Job satisfaction: Herzberg (1966)
15. Family communication theory: Satir (1967)
16. Family theory: Minuchin (1974); Duvall (1977)
17. Coping: Lazarus and Folkman (1984)
18. Moral reasoning: Kohlberg (1978)
19. Change theory: Lewin (1951)
20. Health behaviors: Becker (1985)
Summary of Study Session 3

Theories are used by everyone to explain happenings in their lives and in their
environments. Theories are also used by nurses to explain happenings of significance to
nursing. The following are terminologies used when discussing theories- theory, concept,
Construct, variable, proposition, empirical, generalization, and model etc.
There are two main types of theories- grand theories and middle-range theories. Grand
theories are concerned with a broad range of phenomena in the environment or in the
experiences of humans. Middle-range theories have a much narrow focus; they are
concerned with only a small area of the environment or of human experiences and
incorporate a small number of concepts.
Researchers are concerned with both theory generation and the development of theories.
Theory generation and development involve both inductive and deductive reasoning
processes. Deductive reasoning proceeds from the general (theory) to the specific
(empirical data). Inductive reasoning, on the other hand, proceeds from the specific
(empirical data) to the general (theory).
Nurses base their researches on various theories. These theories have been developed in
nursing and in many other disciplines. At the present time, nurses continue to use many
theories from other disciplines.
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 3

Now that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have
achieved its Learning Outcomes by answering these questions. You can check your
answers with the Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Module.
58
SAQ 3.1 (Testing Learning Outcome 3.1)

Briefly explain the term Variables
Discuss the types of theories
Explain inductive and deductive reasoning
Why does the nursing discipline use theories from other field.
Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1

SAQ 3.1
Variables are the concepts that are observable, measurable, and have a dimension that can
vary. Dependent Variable is a variable that is influenced by other variables.
Independent Variable is a variable that has been selected as a possible influence on
variations in a dependent variable.
Control Variable is a variable that is taken into account in exploring the relationship
between an independent variable and a dependent variable.
SAQ 3.2
Grand theories are concerned with a broad range of phenomena in the environment or in
the experiences of humans.
Middle-range theories have a much narrow focus; they are concerned with only a small
area of the environment or of human experiences and incorporate a small number of
concepts.
SAQ 3.3
Deductive reasoning proceeds from the general (theory) to the specific (empirical data).
The deductive process moves from a general abstract explanation to a specific event in
the real world.
Inductive reasoning, on the other hand, proceeds from the specific (empirical data) to the
general (theory).
SAQ 3.4
Nursing is referred to as a practice discipline. It has been said frequently that nursing, as a
practice discipline, has ‘’borrowed’’ knowledge from other disciplines, such as
59
chemistry, biology, sociology, psychology, and anthropology. The use of knowledge

from other disciplines is necessary, but frequently this knowledge is not suitable to the
needs of the nursing profession. Nurses must find a way to adapt the numerous theories
from other disciplines.
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Study Session 4: Nursing Research and Theories
Introduction
Lately, the relationship between nursing theory and research has gained more attention. It
appears that in the past two decades more research work have been published. Research
and Theory for Nursing Practice has the objective of improving nursing practice,
education, and patient care. These articles strive to discuss knowledge development in its
broad sense, reflect research using a variety of methodological approaches.
These studies also combine several methods and strategies in a single study because of
the journal's international emphasis, article donors address the effects of their studies for
a global audience. Therefore, the nursing research studies has increased (from 13% to
21%), but the use of nursing theories has been minimal. Although research results are
cumulated progressively in regard to theory or to other researches, our study focuses on
Nursing Research and its Theories.
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 4

At the end of this study, you should be able to:
4.1 Discuss theory testing in nursing research
4.2 Discuss various types of theoretical and conceptual models as research framework
4.1: Theory Testing in Nursing Research

In the early stages of a research project, the researcher should consider the theoretical or
conceptual framework for the study. The framework for the study is usually determined
after a thorough review of the literature. If nursing is to build a scientific knowledge base,
nursing studies should be based on a theoretical or conceptual framework so that the
findings may be placed within the existing knowledge base for the profession.
The most efficient way to obtain a body of knowledge for nursing is to build on the work
of other researchers who have used the same theoretical base. Even a small research
project becomes quite important when the study can be added to those of others who have
used the same theoretical frame of reference.
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Figure 4.1: A Nursing Research center

Source: http://wp.vcu.edu/nursing/2008/07/16/dr-mary-jo-grap-selected-for-n/
Many studies are conducted in which the researchers wish to study a particular problem
but have no theory in mind that will be tested. In such cases, an attempt should be made
to select a theory that will be useful in guiding the study. Sometimes more than one
theory might be appropriate, but the researcher should choose the one that seems to
describe and explain the relationship between the study variables better than other
available theories.
Choosing a theory for a study may be a difficult task, especially for the beginning
researcher. Descriptions of theories may be obtained through many sources. Various
books and articles contain information about theories. Once a theory has been selected, it
is wise to consult the original or primary source of the theory.
For example, if information is sought on Maslow’s theory of motivation, Maslow’s
(1970) book should be read. By using a primary source, the researcher will gain the most
accurate description of the theory as presented by the theorist.
The chosen theory should be considered throughout the research process. A step-by-step
use of the chosen theory requires that the researcher:
1. Review various theories that may be appropriate to examine the identified problem
62
2. Select a theory to be tested in the study

3. Review the literature on this theory
4. Develop study hypothesis or research questions basic on a propositional statement
or statements from the theory
5. Define study variables using the selected theory as the basis of the theoretical
definitions
6. Choose study instruments that are congruent to the theory
7. Describe study findings in light of the explanations provided by the theory
8. Relate study conclusions to the theory
9. Determine support for the theory based on study findings
10. Determine implications for nursing based on the explanatory power of the theory
11. Make recommendations for future research concerning the designated theory
In Text Question
The most efficient way to obtain a body of knowledge for nursing is to build on the work
of other researchers who have used the same theoretical base. TRUE/FALSE…………?
In Text Answer
TRUE
Theory generation and building through research are essential to the development of
scientific knowledge. Because the nursing profession is very concerned at present with
the need for nursing knowledge, it can be seen that an understanding and the use of
theory are critical for all nurses. Theory is of little benefit to the profession if it is deemed
to be unimportant by the rank-and-file members.
It is hoped you will become convinced of the value of theory that has been tested through
research. You can help spread the message to your nursing colleagues.
4.2: Nursing Conceptual Models

Conceptual models are models made up of concepts and propositions that state the
relationship between the concepts. These concepts are generally very abstract and are not
readily observable in the empirical world. Conceptual models in nursing present broad
general concepts of interests to nursing.
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Common concepts identified in nearly all of the nursing models are person, environment,
health and nursing (Fawcett, 1993; Fitzpatrick & Whall, 1996; George, 1995). Each
nursing model addresses these elements in a unique fashion.
4.2.1: Conceptual Models

Several nurse theorists have developed conceptual models concerned with the phenomena
of importance to nursing. These nurses include Dorothea Orem, Martha Rogers, Callista
Roy, and Betty Neuman. Attempts to develop theories based on these models have been
carried out by some of these theorists as well as the background for theory development.
A brief overview of the models introduced by these four nurse theorists will be presented.
Orem’s Self-Care Model

Dorothea Orem’s ideas about self-care first appeared in the nursing literature in the late
1950s. The most recent modifications of her ideas are found in the fourth edition of her
text nursing: Concepts of Practice which was published in 1991. Her model focuses on
each person’s role in self-health care. Self- care involves activities that people generally
know how to take care of themselves.
Figure 4.2: Dorothea Orem

Source: https://s-media-cache-
ak0.pinimg.com/736x/d5/27/bd/d527bd86b576b8d1b16cf16b072104b9.jpg
64
According to each person’s ability to meet self- care needs, the nurse provides ‘’wholly
compensatory’’, ‘’partially compensatory’’, or ‘’supportive- educative’’ care. Wholly
compensatory care is provided when the patient is totally unable to perform self- care
activities. Partially compensatory care is provided when the patient has some ability to
perform self- care activities.
Finally, in many instances, the patient needs only supportive-educative care to assist in
meeting self- care activities. Orem’s model is particularly appropriate today with the
general public’s increased interest in enhancing physical and psychological well- being.
Beach et al. (1996) used Orem’s Self- Care Deficit Theory to study factors associated
with a patient’s self- care activities after an acute myocardial infarction. These factors
were divided into Orem’s three categories of self- care limitations:
 Limitations of knowing,
 Limitations for making judgments and decisions,
 Limitations in engagement in result- achieving courses of action. The top- ranked
limitation was ‘’patterns of personal or family living that interfere with self-care.
Roger’s Model of the Unitary Person

One of the most unusual conceptual models in nursing is that proposed by Martha
Rogers. She first presented her ideas in her 1970 book An Introduction to the Theoretical
Basis of Nursing. By the time she died in 1994, her ideas had made a great impact on
nursing and probably will continue to do so for many years to come.
She continually refined her model, and when she spoke to groups of nurses in later years
she frequently asked that they discuss her most current ideas rather than those presented
in her 1970 book (which she called ‘’the purple book’’). Just as she viewed humans as
continually evolving, her ideas were continually evolving. She originally referred to a
theory of ‘’unitary man’’. In later years, she used the term ‘’unitary person’’.
65
Figure 4.3: Martha Rogers

Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Martha_Rogers,_Ph.D.jpg.
Humans and their environment are viewed as two energy fields that are always open to
each other. Each human field is unique, and change is always toward increasing
complexity and diversity. There is no repetition in the life of a person. The human field
continually reorganizes into a new and novel form. Aging is viewed as a ‘’creative
process directed toward growing diversity of field pattern and organization’’ (Rogers,
1980).
Rogers’ model is unique in that the person is viewed as a unified whole. No parts or
subsystems are separated out. Although other models propose to present a holistic view
of people, this view is often contradicted by the models’ examination of the parts or
subsystems of people.
Rogers’ conceptualized model was used as the framework for Yarcheski and Mahon’s
(1995) study of health in adolescents. The researchers studied human field rhythms,
creativity, and sentience in relation to perceived health status in 106 early, 111 middle,
and 113 late adolescents. Significant positive correlations were found between perceived
field motion and perceived health status in early, middle, and late adolescents.
66
The researchers also found a significant positive correlation between human field
rhythms and perceived health status in late adolescents and a significant positive
relationship between creativity and perceived health status in late adolescents.
In Text Question
These factors were divided into Orem’s three categories of self- care limitations except
one?
(a) Limitations of knowing (b) Limitations for making judgments and decisions (c)
Limitation in Patients (d) Limitations in engagement in result
In Text Answer
(b) Limitation in Patients
Roy’s Adaptation Model

Roy first published her ideas about adaptation as a framework for nursing in a 1970
article in Nursing Outlook. She has continued to publish extensively on her model. The
most thorough presentation of her ideas is found in the second edition of her text,
Introduction to nursing: An Adaptation Model, which was published in 1984. In her
work, humans are considered to be bio-psychosocial beings in constant interaction with
the changing environment.
A person must adapt to a variety of stimuli called ‘’focal’’, ‘’contextual’’, and
‘’residual’’. Focal stimuli are those that immediately confront a person in a given
situation, such as loss of a loved one, involvement in a car accident, or loss of a job.
Contextual stimuli are background stimuli that include the person’s sex, developmental
state, coping mechanisms, and the surrounding environment. Residual stimuli concern
beliefs, attitudes, and traits.
The model stresses that the person needs a nurse when unusual stresses occur or coping
mechanisms are weak. Nurses use the nursing process to help adapt in four different
modes:
 Physiological needs,
 Self- concept,
 Role function
 Interdependence
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Roy has pointed out that nursing focuses on the person as a total being, whereas,
medicine focuses on the patient’s disease process.
Robinson (1995) used Roy’s Adaptation Model in her study of the grief responses of
widows. The bereavement event was viewed as the focal stimulus. Contextual stimuli
(social support, social network, income/education, spiritual beliefs) were related to
coping, which was in turn, related to the adaptation outcome (grief response). A
significant correlation was found between the widows’ coping processes and their grief
responses.
In Text Question
Contextual stimuli are ……….. stimuli that include the person’s sex, developmental
state, coping mechanisms
(a) Focal (b) Contextual (c) Residual (d) Background
In Text Answer
(d) Background
Neuman’s Systems Model

The Neuman model first appeared in a 1972 article in Nursing Research. It was also
presented in Riehl and Roy’s Conceptual Models for Nursing Practice (both in the 1974
and the 1980 editions). Betty Neuman presented refinements of the model in the 1982,
1989, and 1995 editions of her book The Neuman Systems Model.
Nursing interventions may occur at the primary, secondary, or tertiary levels of
prevention. Primary prevention is appropriate before reaction to a stressor has occurred.
Secondary prevention is used when reaction to a stressor has already occurred. Tertiary
prevention is used to foster rehabilitation and a return to wellness. The nursing process is
divided into three steps: nursing diagnosis, nursing goals, and nursing outcomes.
68
Figure 4.4: Betty Neuman

Source: http://fiuc.org/w/cms/BlogNEWS/NEWS/Betty_Neuman_3%20v2.jpg
Neuman’s model was used to study parents’ perception of the stressors of pediatric
ambulatory surgery (Maligalig, 1994). Parents identified intrapersonal, interpersonal, and
extrapers
onal categories of stressors. Intrapersonal stressors included anxiety about the child’s
feelings and reactions to surgery. Interpersonal stressors included the parents’ feelings of
separation anxiety when their child went into the operating room.
Extra-personal stressors identified by parents concerned their responsibilities in caring for
the child at home and the availability of resources to use if problems occurred at home.
4.2.2 The Health Promotion Model

Nola Pender’s (1996) Health promotion Model (HPM) focuses on explaining health-
promoting behaviors, using a wellness orientation. According to the model, health
promotion entails activities directed toward developing resources that maintain or
enhance a person’s well-being. The HPM encompasses two phases:
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Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks

A framework for a research study helps to organize the study and provides a context for
the interpretation of the study findings. Either a theoretical or conceptual framework
should be used in all quantitative studies. Theoretical and conceptual frameworks are
often used interchangeably in the literature. The two frameworks are similar in that both
provide a background or foundation for a study. However, there are differences in these
two types of frameworks.
A theoretical framework presents a broad, general explanation of the relationships
between the concepts of interest in a research study; it is based on one existing theory.
When using a theoretical framework in a study, each main study concept is related back
to a concept from an existing theory. A proposition from a selected theory will be tested
in any study based on that particular theory.
Suppose a teacher wanted to know if contracting for grades would motivate students to
earn higher grades. After exploring different theories, she might decide to test a
proposition from Carl Rogers (1969) theory of learning. One of Rogers’ propositions is
that learning is facilitated when the student participates responsibly in the learning
process. The two concepts are ‘’learning’’ and ‘’participates responsibly in the learning
process’’.
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Figure 4.5: Carl Rogers

Source: http://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/images/carl-rogers-1.jpg
The two study concepts that can be matched up with these two theory concepts are ‘’earn
higher grades’’ (which would match up with ‘’learning’’) and ‘’contracting for grades’’
(which will match up with ‘’participates responsibly in the learning process’’). Thus,
based on the stated proposition from Rogers’ theory, the researcher would be able to
predict that students who contract for grades would earn higher grades than students who
do not contract for grades.
If there is no existing theory that will fit the concepts to be studied, the researcher may
construct a conceptual framework to be used in the proposed research study. A
conceptual framework helps to explain the relationship between concepts but rather than
being based on one theory, this type of framework links concepts selected from several
theories, from previous research results, or from the researcher’s own experiences.
The researcher relates the concepts in a logical manner. A conceptual framework is a less
well- developed structure than a theoretical framework but may serve as the impetus for
the formulation of a theory.
The findings of a study should be related back to the study framework. Otherwise,
numerous isolated findings would be in existence for each study. The concrete findings
are linked to the abstract ideas of the theory or to the propositions proposed by the
researcher in the conceptual framework. Thus, an explanation for the study findings is
presented and the body of knowledge on the study topic is increased.
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SUMMARY to Study Session 4

In this module, we have attempted to critically examine theory and nursing research. The
following were considered: various theory terminologies were defined; different types of
theories were discussed as well as the process of theory generation and development.
Similarly, different sources of theories for nursing research were considered along with
theory testing in nursing research.
The module was wrapped off with various types of theoretical and conceptual models as
research framework. Theory generation and building through research are essential to the
development of scientific knowledge.
Self-Assessment Question (SAQs) for Study Session 4
SAQ 1 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.1)
List the step by step use of theory in a research
SAQ 2 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.2)
Discuss Orem’s Self-Care Model
Notes to SAQs for Study Session 4
SAQ 1
A step-by-step use of the chosen theory requires that the researcher:
1. Review various theories that may be appropriate to examine the identified
problem
2. Select a theory to be tested in the study
3. Review the literature on this theory
4. Develop study hypothesis or research questions basic on a propositional
statement or statements from the theory
5. Define study variables using the selected theory as the basis of the theoretical
definitions
6. Choose study instruments that are congruent to the theory
7. Describe study findings in light of the explanations provided by the theory
8. Relate study conclusions to the theory
9. Determine support for the theory based on study findings
10. Determine implications for nursing based on the explanatory power of the
theory
72
11. Make recommendations for future research concerning the designated theory.
SAQ 2
Orem’s Self-Care Model
Dorothea Orem’s ideas about self-care first appeared in the nursing literature in the late
1950s. The most recent modifications of her ideas are found in the fourth edition of her
text Nursing: Concepts of Practice, which was published in 1991. Her model focuses on
each person’s role in self-health care. Self- care involves activities that people generally
know how to take care of themselves.
According to each person’s ability to meet self- care needs, the nurse provides ‘’wholly
compensatory’’, ‘’partially compensatory’’, or ‘’supportive- educative’’ care. Wholly
compensatory care is provided when the patient is totally unable to perform self- care
activities. Partially compensatory care is provided when the patient has some ability to
perform self- care activities.
Study Session 5: The Research Proposal

Research proposals are documents describing what researchers propose to study,
prepared before a project has commenced. A research proposal is a written plan that
identifies the major elements of a study, such as the research problem, purpose, and
framework, and outlines the methods and procedures to conduct the study. A proposal is
a formal way to communicate ideas about a proposed study to receive approval for
conducting the study and to seek funding.
In this study session, you will learn about the writing of a research proposal, its functions,
contents and seeking approval for a study.
Learning outcomes for Study Session 5

At the end of this study session, you should be able to:
5.1 Writing a research proposal
5.2 Discuss the functions of a proposal
5.3 Content of a research proposal
5.4 Seeking approval for a study
5.5 Verbal defense of a proposal
73
5.1 Writing a Research Proposal

Writing a quality proposal involves: developing ideas logically, determining the depth or
detail of the proposal’s content, identifying critical points in the proposal, and developing
an aesthetically appealing copy.
1. Developing ideas logically
The ideas in a research proposal must logically build on each other to justify or
defend a study. A case is built to justify why a problem should be studied, and
appropriate methodology for conducting the study id proposed. Each step in the
research proposal builds on the problem statement to give a clear picture of the
study and its merit.
2. Determining the depth of a proposal
The depth of a proposal is determined by guidelines developed by schools of
nursing, funding agencies, and institutions where research is conducted.
Guidelines provide specific directions for the development of a proposal and
should be followed explicitly. The content in a proposal needs to be detailed
enough for reader, yet concise enough to be interesting and easily reviewed.
3. Identifying critical points
The key or critical points in a proposal must be clear, even to a hasty reader.
Critical points might be highlighted with bold type or italicized. Content
considered to be critical in a proposal are the background and significance of the
research problem; method; and research production plans (data collection and
analysis, plan, personnel, schedule, and budget).
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4. Developing an aesthetically appealing copy

An aesthetically appealing copy is typed without spelling, punctuation, or
grammatical errors. The format used in typing the proposal should follow the
guidelines developed by the reviewer.
In-text Question
Writing a research proposal has to do with one of the following
A. Developing ideas strategically
B. Developing ideas logically
C. Making ideas appealing
D. Developing ideas magically
In-text Answer
Answer is B, developing ideas logically.
5.2 Functions of a Proposal

Research proposals are an integral part of most studies, and are typically prepared after a
researcher has identified a topic, developed research questions or hypotheses, and
undertaken a literature review.
1. Research proposals usually help researchers to clarify their own thinking
2. Represent the means for opening communication between researchers and parties
interested in the conduct of research. The parties are typically either funding agencies
or faculty advisers, whose job it is to accept or reject the proposed plan, or to demand
modifications
3. Proposals often serve as the basis for negotiation with other parties as well.
4. Ensures that all researcher in case of collaboration are “on the same page” about how
the study is to proceed, and who is responsible for which tasks.
In-text Question
A research proposal hinders researchers from clarifying their thinking. TRUE OR FALSE
In-text Answer
FALSE
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5.3 Content of a Research Proposal

The content of a proposal is written with the interest and expertise of the reviewers in
mind. Reviewers of research proposals, whether they are faculty, funding sponsors, or
peer reviewers want a clear idea of what the researcher plans to study, what specific
methods will be used to accomplish study goals, how and when various tasks are to be
accomplished, and whether the researcher is capable of successfully completing the
project.
The content of a proposal varies with the reviewer, the guidelines developed for the
review, and the type of study (quantitative or qualitative) proposed.
1. Front Matter
Proposals typically begin with what is referred to as front matter, which orients
readers to the study and, in case of proposals for funding, contains administrative
information. The front matter typically includes, at a minimum, a cover page that
indicates the title of the proposed study and the author’s name and institution.
The proposed title should be given careful thought. The title should be concise and
informative, but should be compelling and interesting. The proposal titles should
indicate the phenomena to be studied, and the population of interest.
2. Abstract
Proposals must always begin with a brief synopsis of the proposed project. The
abstract helps to establish a frame of reference for reviewers. The abstract should
be brief (between 200 and 300 words) and should state concisely the study
objectives and methods to be used. Although an abstract appears at the beginning
of a proposal, it is often written last.
3. The problem and its significance
The problem that the intended research will address is identified early in the
proposal. The problem statement should clearly indicate the scope and importance
of the problem, conveying any potential application to clinical practice. The
proposal needs to describe clearly how the proposed research will contribute to
knowledge and to the enhancement of evidence-based practice.
The proposal should indicate the expected generalizability of the research, its
contribution to theory, its potential for improving nursing practice, and possible
applications or consequences of the knowledge to be gained.
76
4. Background of the problem

A section of the proposal is usually devoted to a description of how the intended
research builds on an existing base of evidence, and how, if appropriate, it is
linked to a conceptual model. The background material should strengthen
arguments about the study’s significance, orient readers to what is already known
about the problem, and indicate how the proposed study will enhance the
knowledge.
In-text Question
Proposals must always begin with a…………..of the proposed project.
In-text Answer
Brief synopsis
5. Objectives
Specific achievable objectives provide the reader with clear criteria against which
the proposed research methods can be assessed. Objectives stated as research
hypotheses or specific models to be tested are often preferred.
6. Method
The explanation of the research methods should be thorough enough that readers
will have no question about how research objectives will be addressed. A thorough
method section includes the following:
The research design: for experimental research a description of both the treatment
and the control group condition;
The sampling plan: data collection methods and operational definitions of key
variables; procedures to be adopted; strategies for coding, storing, reducing, and
analyzing data, including any software to be used; methods of safeguarding human
(or animal) subject.
7. The work plan
Researchers indicate in the work plan the sequence of tasks to be performed, the
anticipated length of time required for their completion, and the personnel required
for their accomplishment.
77
5.3.1 Content of a Quantitative Research Proposal

Chapter I Introduction
a. Background and significance of the problem
b. Statement of the problem
c. Statement of the purpose
Chapter II Review of relevant literature
a. Review of relevant theoretical literature
b. Review of relevant research
c. Summary
Chapter III Framework
a. Development of a framework
b. Formulation of objectives, questions, or hypotheses
c. Definitions (conceptual and operational) of research variables
d. Definitions of relevant terms
e. Identification of assumptions
Chapter IV Methods and Procedures
a. Description of the research design (model of the design, strengths and
weaknesses of the design, and description of treatment if applicable)
b. Identification of the population and sample (sample size; use of power
analysis; sampling criteria; and sampling method)
c. Selection of a setting (strengths and weaknesses)
d. Presentation of ethical considerations (protection of subjects’ right)
e. Selection of measurement methods (reliability, validity, scoring, and
level of measurement of instruments, as well as plans for examining
reliability and validity of the instruments, in the preset study; precision
and accuracy of physiological instruments)
f. Plan for data collection (data collection process, training of data
collectors if applicable, schedule, data collection forms, and
management of data)
g. Plan for data analysis (analysis of demographic data; analyses for
research objectives, questions, or hypotheses; level of significance if
applicable; and other analysis techniques
78
h. Identification of limitations (methodological and theoretical limitations)

i. Discussion of communication of findings
j. Presentation of a study budget and timetable
References
Appendices
5.3.2 Content of a Qualitative Research Proposal

Chapter I Introduction
A. Identify the phenomenon to be studied
B. Identify the study aim or purpose
C. Describe the evolution of the study
1. Provide a rationale for conducting study
2. Place the study in context historically
3. Discuss the researcher’s experience with phenomenon
4. Discuss the relevance of the study to nursing
Chapter II Research paradigm or general method for proposed study
A. Identify the type of qualitative research (phenomenological, grounded
theory, ethnographic, historical, philosophical inquiry, or critical social
theory) to be conducted
B. Describe the philosophical basis for the research method
C. Explain the research assumptions
D. Discuss the general steps, procedures, and outcomes for this method
E. Translation of concepts or terms
Chapter III Method of inquiry: Applied
A. Demonstrate the researcher’s credentials for conducting this qualitative
study
B. Select a site and population
C. Describe the plan for the researcher’s role in the following
1. Entry into the site and approval to collect data
2. Selection of study participants
3. Ethical considerations
79
D. Describe the plan for data collection

1. Date to be collected
2. Procedures for data collection
3. Procedures for recording data during data collection
E. Describe the plan for data analysis
1. Steps for coding information
2. Use of specific data analysis procedures advanced in the specific
research method (phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography,
historical, philosophical inquiry, or critical social theory)
3. Steps to be taken to verify the information
Chapter IV Current knowledge, Limitations, and Plans for Communication of the Study
A. Summarize and reference relevant literature as appropriate for the type
of qualitative study
B. Disclose anticipated findings, hypotheses, and hunches
C. Discuss procedures to remain open to unexpected information
D. Discuss limitations of the study
E. Identify plans for communication of findings (Boyd & Munhall, 2001;
Creswell, 1994; Munhall 2001; Patton 2002)
References Include references cited in the proposal and follow APA (2001) format
Appendices Present the study budget and timetable
5.4 Seeking Approval for a Study

Seeking approval to conduct a study is an action that should be based on knowledge and
guided by purpose. Obtaining approval for a study from a research committee requires
understanding the approval process, writing a research proposal for review, and in many
cases verbally defending the proposal.
Clinical agencies and health care corporations review studies for the following reasons:
1. To evaluate the quality of the study
2. To ensure that adequate measures are being taken to protect human subjects
3. To evaluate the impact of conducting the study on reviewing institutions
(Fullwood et al., 1999).
80
Approval process
An initial step in seeking approval is to determine exactly what committee in which
agencies must grant approval before the study can be conducted.
5.5 Verbal Defense of a Proposal

Students writing theses or dissertations are frequently required to defend their proposal
verbally to their University committee members. In a verbal defense, reviewers can
evaluate the researcher as a person, the researcher’s knowledge and understanding of the
content of the proposal, and his/her ability to reason and provide logical explanations
related to the study.
Appearance is important in a personal presentation because it can give an impression of
competence or incompetence. These presentations are business-like with logical and
rational interactions, so one should dress in a business-like manner. Casual dressing may
give the impression that the individual does not value the review process.
Nonverbal behaviour is important as well, so appearing calm, in control, and confident
projects a positive image. Planning and rehearsing a presentation can reduce anxiety.
The verbal defense usually begins with a brief presentation of the study. The presentation
needs to be carefully planned, timed, and rehearsed. Salient points should be highlighted,
which can be accomplished by the use of audiovisuals.
Activity 5.1
Time allowed: 15mins
Suppose that you are interested in studying separation anxiety in hospitalized children.
a. Outline the methods you would recommend
b. Develop a work plan
c. Prepare a hypothetical budget
Summary of study session 5

In this study session, you have learnt that:
This study session focuses on writing a research proposal and seeking approval to
conduct a study. A research proposal is a written plan that identifies the major elements
81
of a study, such as the research problem, purpose, and framework, and outlines the
methods and procedures to conduct a study. Writing a quality proposal involves
1. Developing the ideas logically
2. Determining the depth or detail of proposal content
3. Identifying the critical points in the proposal
4. Developing an aesthetically appealing copy
The content of a proposal varies with the reviewers, the guidelines developed for the
review, and the type of study (quantitative or qualitative) proposed. A quantitative
research proposal usually has four chapters or sections
1. Introduction
2. Review of relevant literature
3. Framework
4. Methods and procedures.
A qualitative research proposal generally includes the following chapters or sections:
1. Introduction
2. Research paradigm and general method
3. Applied method of inquiry
4. Current knowledge, limitations, and plans to communicate the study
A research proposal is a formal way to communicate ideas about a proposed study to
receive approval for conducting the study or to seek funding. Research proposals are
reviewed to.
1. Evaluate the quality of the study
2. Ensure that adequate measures are being taken to protect human subjects
3. Evaluate the impact of conducting the study of the reviewing institution
82
References
Boyd C.O., & Munhall, P.L., (2001). Qualitative research proposal and report. In P.L Munhall
(Ed.), Nursing Research: A qualitative perspective (3rd ed., pp 613 – 638). Sudbury, MA:
Jones & Bartlett
Burns N. and Grove S.K. The Practice of Nursing Research- Conduct, Critique, and Utilization
(2005). 5th edition. Elsevier Saunder.
Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research design: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage
Fullwood, J., Granger, B. B., Bride, W., & Taylor, M.C. (1999). Heart center nursing research: A
team effort. Progress in Cardiovascular Nursing 14 (1), 25 – 29.
Munhall, P.L. (2001). Nursing Research: A qualitative perspective (3rd ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones
& Bartlett
Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3re ed.). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage
Polit D.F. and Beck C.T. Nursing Research- Principles and Methods (2007). 7th edition.
83

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COURSE MANUAL

Introduction to Nursing Research

University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

Copyright © 2016 by Distance Learning Centre, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.

General Editor: Prof. Bayo Okunade

University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

Prof. Abel Idowu Olayinka

Professor Bayo Okunade

Course Development Team

Content Editor Prof. Remi Raji-Oyelade

Introduction to the Course:

 Utilize the knowledge of research in investigating a problem relevant to nursing

Learning Outcomes for Study session 1 ................................................................................. 11

Summary of Study Session 1 ................................................................................................. 21

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) ....................................................................................... 21

Study Session 2: An Overview of Research Process .................................................................. 26

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 2: ............................................................................... 26

Self-Assessment Question ..................................................................................................... 41

Learning Outcomes for Study session 3 ................................................................................. 44

3.1 Theory Terminologies ................................................................................................. 44

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 3 ........................................................ 58

SAQ 3.1 (Testing Learning Outcome 3.1).......................................................................... 59

Study Session 4: Nursing Research and Theories ...................................................................... 61

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 4 ................................................................................ 61

Study Session 5: The Research Proposal ................................................................................... 73

Learning outcomes for Study Session 5 ................................................................................. 73

5.1 Writing a Research Proposal ....................................................................................... 74

5.4 Seeking Approval for a Study ..................................................................................... 80

5.5 Verbal Defense of a Proposal ...................................................................................... 81

Summary of study session 5 .................................................................................................. 81

Study Session 1: Introduction to Nursing Research

Learning Outcomes for Study session 1

3. The collecting of information about a particular subject

1.2 Definition of Nursing Research

Figure 1.1: Nursing Process

1.3 Goals and Significance of Nursing Research

Figure 1.2: Goals of Nursing Research

1.4 The Purpose of Nursing Research

Whereas descriptive research provides new information, and exploratory research

1.5 Nursing Research: Past, Present, and Future: Historical Perspective

1929 First Master of nursing degree is offered in Yale University

Activity 1.1: Research

1.6 Sources of Nursing Knowledge

generalizations from specific observations. Deductive reasoning is the process of

Activity1.2: Sources of nursing knowledge

1.7 Roles of Nurses in Research

Summary of Study Session 1

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)

SAQ 4: Sources of nursing knowledge

Study Session 2: An Overview of Research Process

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 2:

2.1 Research Process

Characteristic features of research are:

Comparative Characteristics of Quantitative and Qualitative Researches

2.2 Phases of Research Process

It is composed of four steps:

How the research problem is formulated

b. Looking for information related to research problem in literature

 on its timing and structure