FUNDAMENTALS OF

ELECTRIC VEHICLES

UNIT – II
Components of Electric Vehicles
KSR ASSOC PROF
1. Traction battery pack
2. DC-DC Converter
3. Electric motor
4. Power inverter
5. Charge Port
6. Onboard charger
7. Controller
8. Auxiliary batteries
9. Thermal system (cooling)
10. Transmission

1. Battery Pack
The battery pack, consisting of lithium-ion batteries, is the
most important and expensive component of an EV, storing
energy and giving power to the entire vehicle including the
electric motor that allows the vehicle to move. While these
batteries have come a long way, according to the U.S.
Department of Energy, “research and development are
ongoing to reduce their relatively high cost, extend their useful
life, and address safety concerns in regard to overheating.”
You can learn more details about EV batteries in this Car and Driver article.

Though battery packs are exclusive to EV vehicles, ICE vehicles do have a much smaller battery present that
both powers the starter, as well as some of the electronic components while the vehicle is off. The alternator
takes over once the ICE vehicle is running.

2. Electric Motor(s)
EVs use an electric motor (or two, depending on EV model or drive type), to drive the wheels, similar to the
engine of an ICE vehicle. Electrical energy is transferred from the battery to the motor(s) and is then
converted to mechanical energy. The number of motors and their placement determines whether the EV is
front-wheel, rear-wheel, or all-wheel drive. Electric motors are far less complex than internal combustion
engines and do not require maintenance, contrary to the latter.

3. Power Electronics
The power electronics in an EV are composed of inverters, converters, controllers, and the onboard charger.
These components contribute to the flow of electricity throughout the vehicle, primarily from the battery to
the electric motor, as well as other powered components of the vehicle, such as the heating and ventilation
system, lighting, infotainment, etc.

More specifically, power electronics are responsible for converting direct current to alternating current (DC
to AC inverter) or the inverse (AC to DC converting), as well as DC/DC converters which either increase
battery voltage (boost) or decrease battery voltage (buck).

4. Charging System
The charging system is made up of the charging port where the cable is plugged in, the charging cable, and
the onboard charger that converts AC power from the electrical grid into DC energy which is then sent to and
stored in the battery. DC fast charging means AC power is converted to DC outside of the vehicle and sent
 directly to the EV battery, bypassing the onboard charger. Learn more about EV charging in our previous
article of the series.

5. Thermal Management System

The thermal management system, comprising radiators, fans, and coolant pumps, is a crucial component of
EVs. This system helps regulate the temperature of the battery pack, electric motor, and power electronics to
ensure they are operating at an optimal temperature for the best performance as well as increasing longevity.
Without a thermal management system, these components would be susceptible to damage through
overheating or excessive cooler conditions. Not only does the regulation of temperature protect the vehicle's
most valuable parts, but it also helps maximize efficiency and range by minimizing energy loss. While ICE
vehicles may not be as greatly impacted by extreme weather conditions, performance, and fuel efficiency can
still be reduced.

6. Regenerative Braking System

You may already be familiar with regenerative braking as one of the key functionalities of a hybrid vehicle.
This system converts the kinetic energy generated during braking into electrical energy that is stored in the
battery, which in turn reduces the amount of energy required from the battery.

Unlike traditional ICE vehicles, the regenerative braking systems store energy back into the battery that
would otherwise have been lost. These systems also help reduce wear on the brakes by leveraging the electric
motor to slow down the vehicle when activated, such as driving down a hill or approaching a stop sign.

7. Electric Vehicle Control Unit (VCU)

The vehicle control unit (VCU) is responsible for controlling and coordinating processes relating to the
functional aspects of an EV. In other words, it acts as the brain of the vehicle. The VCU receives information
(such as battery temperature, motor speed, vehicle speed, etc.) from various sensors and systems, and ensures
that the vehicle operates efficiently and safely. Additionally, the VCU communicates with other control units
including the battery management system (BMS) and motor controller to ensure all systems are working
together.

Understanding the core components of an EV and how they work together is essential in enabling EV owners
to help extend the life of these vehicles and ensure they are functioning optimally. Automotive businesses
also benefit from a comprehensive knowledge of EV structure to better protect their investments and develop
the best possible business processes for managing their EV-related workflows.

The Main Components of Electric Vehicles

The Main Components of Electric Vehicles

Electric vehicles consists of an electric motor that is powered by a battery pack. The main advantage of electric
vehicle components is that they emit zero emissions and are eco-friendly. They also do not consume any fossil
fuels, hence use a sustainable form of energy for powering the car. The main components of electric vehicles
are :

11. Traction battery pack

12. DC-DC Converter
13. Electric motor
14. Power inverter
15. Charge Port
16. Onboard charger
17. Controller
18. Auxiliary batteries
19. Thermal system (cooling)
20. Transmission

1. Traction Battery Pack

Traction battery pack is also known as Electric vehicle
battery (EVB). It powers the electric motors of an electric
vehicle. The battery acts as an electrical storage system. It
stores energy in the form DC current. The range will be
higher with increasing kW of the battery. The life and
operation of the battery depends on its design. The lifetime of a
traction battery pack is estimated to be 200,000 miles.

2. DC-DC Converter
The traction battery pack delivers a constant voltage. But
different components of electric vehicle has different requirements. The DC-DC convertor distributes the output
power that is coming from the battery to a required level. It also provides the voltage required to charge the
auxiliary battery.

3. Electric motor
Electric traction motor is the main components of electric vehicles. The
motor converts the electrical energy into kinetic energy. This energy
rotates the wheels. Electric motor is the main components of electric
vehicle that differentiates an electric car from conventional cars. An
important feature of an electric motor is the regenerative braking
mechanism. This mechanism slows down the vehicle by converting its
kinetic energy into another form, and storing it for future use. There are
basically two types of motors DC and AC motors.

4. Power Inverter
It coverts DC power from the batteries to AC power. It also converts the AC current generated
during regenerative braking into DC current. This is further used to recharge the batteries. The
inverter can change the speed of the vehicle.

5. Charge Port
The charge port connects the electric vehicle to an external
supply. It charges the battery pack. The charge port is sometimes
located in the front or rear part of electric vehicle components.

6. Onboard charger
Onboard charger is used to convert the AC supply received from the
charge port to DC supply. The on-board charger is located and installed
inside the car. It monitors various battery characteristics and controls the current flowing inside the battery pack.

7. Controller
Power electronics controller determines the working of an electric
car. It performs the regulation of electrical energy from the
batteries to the electric motors. The pedal set by the driver
determines the speed of the car and frequency of variation of
voltage that is input to the motor. It also controls the torque
produced.

8. Auxiliary batteries
Auxiliary batteries are the source of electrical energy for the
accessories in electric vehicles. In the absence of the main battery,
the auxiliary batteries will continue to charge the car. It prevents
the voltage drop, produced during engine start from affecting the
electrical system.

9. Thermal system(cooling)
The thermal management system is responsible for maintaining an operating temperature for the main
components of electric vehicle (EV) such as, electric motor, controller etc. It functions during charging as well
to obtain maximum performance. It uses a combination of thermoelectric cooling, forced air cooling, and liquid
cooling.

10. Transmission
The gearbox transfers the mechanical power from the electric
motor to the wheels. The advantage of electric cars is that they do
not require multi-speed transmissions. The transmission
efficiency should be high to avoid power loss.

PWM inverters used in Electric Vehicles (EVs):

PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) Inverters:

1. Purpose: PWM inverters are crucial in EVs for converting DC (direct current) from the battery pack
into AC (alternating current) needed for the electric motor.
2. Operation: They operate by switching transistors (typically IGBTs - Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors)
on and off at high frequencies to create a series of pulses that approximate a sine wave.
3. Advantages:
o Efficiency: PWM inverters are highly efficient, minimizing energy loss during conversion.
o Control: They offer precise control over the motor speed and torque, crucial for varying driving
conditions.
 o Compactness: Modern PWM inverters are compact and lightweight, suitable for integration into
EVs.
4. Key Components:
o IGBTs: These are the main switching devices that control the flow of current from the battery to
the motor.
o Gate Drivers: Manage the switching of IGBTs, ensuring they switch efficiently and at the right
times.
o Control Logic: Microprocessors and control algorithms manage the entire operation of the
inverter, including modulation techniques.
5. Modulation Techniques:
o Sinusoidal PWM: A technique where the width of each pulse is adjusted to approximate a sine
wave output.
o Space Vector PWM: Provides even better utilization of DC link voltage, reducing harmonic
distortion and improving efficiency.
6. Challenges:
o Heat Dissipation: High-power inverters generate significant heat, requiring effective cooling
systems.
o Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): Switching at high frequencies can generate EMI, which
needs to be mitigated to avoid interference with other electronic systems.
o Reliability: Ensuring the inverter operates reliably under various environmental conditions is
critical for vehicle safety and performance.
7. Future Trends:
o Integration with Power Electronics: Continued integration of power electronics with motor
drives to improve efficiency and reduce size and weight.
o Advanced Control Algorithms: Enhanced algorithms for motor control and energy
management to optimize performance and range of EVs.

These points cover the basics of PWM inverters used in EVs, focusing on their functionality, advantages,
components, and future developments in the field.

Power Converters

DC-DC converter is an essential component in electric vehicles, where there are several
electronic circuits operating at different voltage levels.

The DC-DC converter is an electromechanical device or circuitry used to convert a DC voltage

from one level to another based on circuit requirements. Belonging to the electric power
converter family, the DC-DC converter can be operated for small voltage applications like
batteries, or high voltage applications like HV power transmission.
When there were no semiconductors, a common technique for converting DC voltage into
higher voltage for low-power projects was to transform it into AC voltage by means of vibrator
circuits. Then, a step-up transformer was used to increase the output voltage level, followed by
a rectifier circuit for performing the DC conversion. A combination of motor and generator was
employed for applications where high power was required. The motor operates the generator,
providing the required load voltage. These techniques were expensive and less efficient but
used since no alternative method existed at that time.
The invention of power semiconductors and ICs led to different less expensive solutions, such
as DC power supply, where high-frequency AC is input to a transformer. This device is less
expensive and easy to handle. It varies the voltage that again converts into DC through
rectifiers.

Operation of a DC-DC Converter

The switching technique is commonly used for the operation of converters. Switched-operated
DC-DC converter transforms DC voltage from one level to another based on applications
demands; the output voltage can thus be higher or lower than the input value. During
conversion, the converter stores energy for some time and provides the output at different
levels. The energy is stored in conductors’ transformers in form of a magnetic field and in
capacitors in form of an electrical field. Switching voltage conversion is easier to process and
more energy efficient than linear voltage conversion, where power is dissipated in heat. High-
speed semiconductor devices with fast rise and fall times are needed to achieve efficiency.
High-speed switching requires an accurate layout and makes circuit creation difficult. The high
efficiency of the switched-mode converter reduces the need for heat sinks and increases the
battery operating life. Using FETs increases the converter efficiency since these devices
perform the switching process efficiently with fewer losses than BJTs.
Other improvements in the DC-DC converter include the replacement of the flyback diode with
synchronous rectifier circuitry with power FET that has less resistance and decreases the losses
during switching.
Most DC-DC converters are designed to direct the power flow in one direction, from the input
to the output. However, all switching regulator circuits can be bidirectional and transfer power
in any direction by replacing all diode-controlled active rectifier circuits. Bidirectional
converters are good for applications like the regenerative braking of vehicles, where power is
given to the wheel of vehicles during driving and received during braking.
Like in all high-frequency circuits, some measures must be taken to create DC-DC converters,
like components selection, connections, and the switching noise that must be set at an
acceptable level. Initially, the creation cost was higher than linear regulators, but then it
decreased due to using the latest technique for circuit creation.
DC-DC converters are today based on ICs and require a few additional components. They also
exist in a hybrid configuration used in several electronic structures.
Figure 1 shows the different types of DC-DC converters: buck, boost, buck-boost, and Ćuk
circuits. The input of these circuits lies on the left side, while the output is provided to the load
on the right. The power switches can be MOSFETs, IGBTs, or BJTs
DC-DC converter characteristics
The main characteristics of the converter are described here.

Current rating
It is the highest value of current that the converter can provide to the load.

Temperature rating
It is the highest temperature value that the DC-DC converter must withstand during full-load
operation. The operating temperature must be set according to the ratings, otherwise, the
converter can be damaged and overheated.

Ripple voltage
This value defines the ripple voltage on the output of the converter. Must be careful about
these ratings during operations.

Voltage rating
DC-DC converter comes with some limits that define the voltage transformation ability of the
converter.

Converter size and weight

Since switching converters can work at higher frequencies, they can be designed with a small
footprint. During the design of the converter, a compromise between the size of the circuitry
and its efficiency shall be found.

DC-DC Converters for Electric Vehicles

Many different types of vehicles moving around us generate air pollution, global warming, and
depletion of the earth’s resources. To solve these issues, a solution is to replace conventional
vehicles with EVs, Hybrid vehicles, and fuel-cell electric vehicles. Electric and hybrid vehicles
use two types of energy storage devices. The first one is MES (Multi-Function Energy Storage),
used to store high energy, while the second one is a rechargeable energy storage system (RESS)
which provides high power capability ad reversibility. MES provides a high driving range and
RESS has fine regenerative braking and acceleration system. Energy storage device changes
output voltage based on load and the high voltage of the DC link creates problems for vehicle
engineers during the configuration of energy storage components with traction drive. DC-DC
converters can be used for interfacing components in electrical power trains.
Automobile converters must be light, small, reliable, effective, and produce low
electromagnetic interference.

Types of DC-DC converters for electric vehicle

In Figure 2, we can see the different types of converters used in electric vehicles. It shows how
at least one DC-DC converter interfaces the DC link with the fuel cell battery or super
capacitors module. Electric vehicles have different energy sources, like fuel cells and battery
super capacitors. In EVs, one or more energy storage devices are used. That reduces the overall
cost and volume and provides good operation. Commonly used energy storages are batteries
and super capacitors.
These devices are configured with fuel cell stacks in different configurations. The normal
configuration is a direct connection of two modules in parallel combination: fuel cell or battery,
fuel cell or super capacitors, or battery or super capacitors. In this method, power is used not in
control but can be measured through component impedance value. Impedance depends on
different parameters such as efficiency and device health condition.
The voltage parameters also match the two components’ specifications. This is the case of a fuel
cell/battery combination, where the fuel cell must have the same power during the complete
time due to the fixed voltage of the battery. In the case of a battery or super capacitors
combination, only very small energy exchange features of capacitors can be used. This is all
about the constant value of battery voltage. The DC-DC converter output voltage can be
selected and the power of every device can be regulated.

DC-DC converter is a power conversion circuit that transforms energy at different levels and
stores energy in magnetic and electrical fields. Here, different types of DC-DC converters
applied to EVs will be discussed.
 Non-isolated converters
The non-isolated converters are used for applications where voltage is increased or decreased in
a ratio of 4:1. With that, the output and input have no dielectric isolation. Non-isolated
converters also have sub-types: charge pump, buck, cuk, buck-boost, buck, and boost. Buck is
used for voltage decrease and boost for voltage increase, or step-up. Buck-boost and Cuk
converters are used for voltage increase and decrease. The charge pump converter is used for
voltage step-up and voltage inversion and is part of some projects.

Magnetic Converters
DC-DC converters store energy periodically and release it as a magnetic field in inductors or
transformers with a frequency value of three hundred kilohertz to ten-kilo megahertz. Through
stability, the duty cycle of charging the amount of power required to transmit the load can be
controlled.
With that control can be used across the input and output current and for maintaining the
constant power through circuitry. A converter having a transformer can provide the operation
between input and output.

Isolated converters
In these converters, the high-frequency transformer is used. For applications where output is
completely separated from input, this converter is used. There are different types of isolated
converters such as half-bridge, full-bridge, fly black forward, and push-pull DC-DC converters.
These converters can be used as a bi-directional converter.

Properties of EV DC-DC converter

For interfacing, the fuel cell DC-DC converters boost the fuel cell voltage and regulate the DC
link voltage. Though reversible dc to dc converter is required for interfacing the super
capacitors. There are different types of DC-DC converters with certain features designed and
applied. But in the case of vehicles, there are some consideration are follows that are listed here

 The efficiency of the converter used for the vehicle must be high
 The converter must have a small size and less weight
 There is less electromagnetic interference
 There is less ripple drawn from the fuel cell
 The function must provide the voltage rise or step-up function
 The regulation of the converter flow of power provides the different voltage changes in the
converter input

Every converter type has its benefits and disadvantages. Such as DC-DC boost converters not
following electrical isolation. High changes in the magnitude of input and output cause stress
on the switch and this circuitry effects by high current and voltage ripples and also faces high
weight issues.
 The simple multichannel converter helps to decrease input and output current and voltage
ripples that increase the weight of the circuitry and enhance efficiency. This circuit is
unsuitable for a high voltage step-up ratio as the duty cycle is restricted through the impedance
of the circuitry causing the highest step-up ratio of about four. So, two series configured step-up
converters are needed to get a certain voltage gain for the project. The full bridge DC-DC
converter is used in applications requiring electrical isolation. The full bridge DC-DC converter
is good for high-power transmission since voltage and current values are low. It faces the small
voltage and current ripples at the input and output.

Advantages of DC-DC converter

 The use of converters simplifies the circuitry of the power supply

 The use of converters deceased the space of battery in circuits and projects
 It provides organized output in both negative and positive polarities
 DC controls circuits use this device and voltage regulators use this module
 It comes in hybrid circuits that have all components of circuits in a single structure or casing
 It is helpful for the extension of voltage when needed
 The main benefit of this device is that it provides isolation between the input and output sides of
circuits.

Disadvantages of DC-DC converter

 These converters cause noise during the operation

 It has a high ripple current and high loess and a high value of input and output capacitance
 The circuitry of converters is expensive
 These circuits provide unsteady voltage and current supply.

Conclusion
DC-DC converter is an electronic device that is helpful for DC voltage conversion to other
levels, higher or lower, according to circuits and project requirements. It is a basic part of power
supplies that changes the voltage value to operate different applications that need either low or
high DC voltage. It is the main part of electric vehicles, which consist of batteries that provide a
high DC voltage. Since EV components operate on different voltage levels (high or low), to
maintain the voltage value for these components DC-DC converters are used. DC-DC
converters have become a crucial part of electrical vehicles and other electronic projects that
operate at different DC levels.

Definitions of the key parts of an EV are as follows:

Charging port or vehicle inlet: It is a connector present on the electric vehicle to allow it to be
connected to an external source of electricity for charging.

Power electronic converter: A power electronic converter is made of high power fast-acting
semiconductor devices, which act as high-speed switches. Different switching states alter the input
voltage and current through the use of capacitive and inductive elements. The result is an output
voltage and current, which is at a different level to the input.

On-board charger: It is an AC-to-DC power electronic converter (often referred to as a rectifier)

that takes the incoming AC electricity supplied via the charge port and converts it to DC power for
charging the traction battery. Using the battery management system, it regulates the battery
characteristics such as voltage, current, temperature, and state of charge.

Traction battery pack: It is a high voltage battery used to store energy in the electric car and
provide power for use by the electric traction motor.

Battery power converter: It is a DC-to-DC power electronic converter that converts the voltage of
the traction battery pack to the higher-voltage of the DC-bus used for power exchange with the
traction motor.

Motor drive: It is a DC-to-AC (often referred to as inverter or the variable frequency drive) or at
times a DC-to-DC power electronic converter, used to convert power from the high voltage DC bus
to AC (or at times DC) power for the operation of motor. The converter is bidirectional for
operating in both driving and regenerative braking mode.

Traction electric motor/generator: It is the main propulsion device in an electric car that converts
electrical energy from the traction battery to mechanical energy for rotating the wheels. It also
generates electricity by extracting energy from the rotating wheels while braking, and transferring
that energy back to the traction battery pack.

Transmission: For an electric car, usually a single gear transmission with differential is used to
transfer mechanical power from the traction motor to drive the wheels.

Power electronics controller: This unit controls the flow of electrical power in the different power
electronic converters in the electric car.

Battery (auxiliary): In an electric drive vehicle, the auxiliary battery provides electricity to start
the car before the traction battery is engaged and is also used to power the vehicle accessories.

Role of Power Electronics in Electric Vehicles

In electric vehicle (EV) drive systems, power electronics serve as a critical component in efficiently
delivering and controlling electrical energy from the battery to the propulsion unit. In essence,
power electronics devices control and convert power, making it available in the appropriate form
and quantity when and where it is needed.

EV drive systems typically comprise a battery pack, power electronics converters (including the
inverter and DC-DC converter), an electric motor, and control units. The high-voltage DC power
from the battery pack needs to be converted into three-phase AC power suitable for the electric
motor. This process is facilitated by a key power electronics device, the inverter.
The inverter utilizes pulse width modulation (PWM) techniques to create an AC output waveform
from the DC input. Modern inverters also incorporate intelligent control algorithms that allow for
variable frequency drive, improving the efficiency and performance of the electric motor .

Conversely, during regenerative braking, the motor functions as a generator. The generated AC
power must be converted back to DC power for battery charging. This process of conversion is
again facilitated by a power electronics device known as a rectifier.

In addition to the primary power conversion function, power electronics in the EV drive system
also enhance efficiency, power factor correction, and reduce harmonics in the electrical system.
Advanced power electronics devices built using wide-bandgap materials like Silicon Carbide (SiC)
or Gallium Nitride (GaN) are enabling higher efficiencies, compactness, and better thermal
characteristics, improving overall vehicle performance.

Power electronics also enable advanced features such as torque vectoring in multi-motor EVs,
where individual inverters control each motor, allowing for precise torque control at each wheel.
This enhanced level of control can improve vehicle handling, performance, and safety.

Finally, power electronics also play a crucial role in interfacing the vehicle with the grid during
charging, including controlling and converting power during both conventional and fast charging
scenarios.

Battery Charging Systems and Power Electronics

The efficient and safe charging of the electric vehicle's battery is a central concern in the design and
operation of EVs. This process is primarily governed by power electronics systems, which offer
control, conversion, and management of electrical energy during the charging process.

Power electronics play a critical role in onboard and off-board EVs' charging systems. In an
onboard charger, power electronic converters, including AC-DC converters, are used to convert the
AC voltage from the mains to a DC voltage suitable for charging the vehicle's battery. This
involves a rectification process followed by a DC-DC conversion stage to provide the required
voltage level and control the current flow to the battery. It is essential to ensure that the charging
process adheres to the battery's charge profile, which typically involves constant current and
constant voltage phases, to preserve the battery's health and longevity.

Off-board charging systems, such as DC fast-charging stations, rely heavily on power electronics.
The power electronic converters in these systems convert the AC supply into a high-voltage DC
output, which can directly charge the vehicle's battery, bypassing the onboard charger. Advanced
control strategies are implemented via power electronics to regulate the charge rate and protect the
battery from potential harm.

The advent of bidirectional charging or Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technologies has added another
layer of complexity and capability to the role of power electronics in EV battery charging. In these
systems, power electronics facilitate vehicle charging and the supply of power from the vehicle
battery back to the grid or home during peak demand or outages. Bidirectional DC-DC converters
are crucial to enabling this two-way power flow, ensuring that power can be efficiently transferred
while maintaining the safety and integrity of the grid and vehicle systems.
In wireless charging systems for EVs, power electronics are used to manage the power transfer
process between the grid, the primary coil (transmitter), the secondary coil (receiver), and the
vehicle's battery. This involves rectification, inversion, and control processes to facilitate efficient
power transfer while ensuring safety and standards adherence.

Energy Management and Regenerative Braking

Energy management in Electric Vehicles (EVs) represents a sophisticated orchestration of power
flows executed with the assistance of power electronics. This primarily involves distributing power
from the battery to various subsystems in the vehicle, such as the electric motor, heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system, and other auxiliary systems. Moreover, energy
management includes the recuperation of energy during regenerative braking.

Regenerative braking is a mechanism that enables the conversion of the vehicle's kinetic energy,
usually lost as heat during braking, into electrical energy that can be stored in the battery for later
use. It is an efficient way to extend the driving range of an EV and reduce the load on the
mechanical brakes. Power electronics play a vital role in enabling regenerative braking.

The process begins when the driver applies the brake. The electric motor then acts as a generator,
converting the kinetic energy into electrical energy. A power electronic converter, usually an
inverter, regulates this process. It controls the energy flow from the motor (acting as a generator)
back to the battery.

This operation requires precise control over the inverter to maintain stability, ensuring that the right
amount of energy is fed back to the battery while also providing sufficient braking force. The
control algorithms running in the background, usually a part of the vehicle's electronic control unit
(ECU), have to consider the battery's state of charge and the driver's braking request, among other
parameters.

Furthermore, power electronics contribute to the energy management system (EMS) in an EV,
which decides the optimal energy distribution from the battery to the different loads in the vehicle.
This distribution needs to be dynamic and responsive to changing driving conditions and driver
inputs. For instance, more energy should be directed to the drive motor during high-speed driving
or rapid acceleration. In contrast, more energy can be allocated to auxiliary systems like HVAC at
lower speeds or during idle times.

Power electronic converters, such as DC-DC converters, are used in this context to provide the
correct voltage levels and manage power flows to different vehicle subsystems. These converters
are controlled by sophisticated algorithms that aim to optimize energy use, extend driving range,
and maintain vehicle performance.
Controller and Electric Traction Motor
EV Power Systems (Motors and controllers) The power system of an electric vehicle consists of
just two components: the motor that provides the power and the controller that controls the
application of this power. In comparison, the power system of gasoline-powered vehicles
consists of a number of components, such as the engine, carburetor, oil pump, water pump,
cooling system, starter, exhaust system, etc.

Motors

Electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. Two types of electric motors
are used in electric vehicles to provide power to the wheels: the direct current (DC) motor and
the alternating current (AC) motor.

DC electric motors have three main components:

• A set of coils (field) that creates the magnetic forces which provide torque

• A rotor or armature mounted on bearings that turns inside the field

• Commutating device that reverses the magnetic forces and makes the armature turn, thereby
providing horsepower.

As in the DC motor, an AC motor also has a set of coils (field) and a rotor or armature,
however, since there is a continuous current reversal, a commutating device is not needed.

Both types of electric motors are used in electric vehicles and have advantages and
disadvantages, as shown here.

While the AC motor is less expensive and lighter weight, the DC motor has a simpler
controller, making the DC motor/controller combination less expensive.

The main disadvantage of the AC motor is the cost of the electronics package needed to convert
(invert) the battery‘s direct current to alternating current for the motor.
Past generations of electric vehicles used the DC motor/controller system because they operate
off the battery current without complex electronics. The DC motor/controller system is still
used today on some electric vehicles to keep the cost down.

However, with the advent of better and less expensive electronics, a large number of today’s
electric vehicles are using AC motor/controller systems because of their improved motor
efficiency and lighter weight.

These AC motors resemble motors commonly used in home appliances and machine tools, and
are relatively inexpensive and robust. These motors are very reliable, and since they have only
one moving part, the shaft, they should last the life of the vehicle with little or no maintenance.

Controllers

The electric vehicle controller is the electronics package that operates between the batteries and
the motor to control the electric vehicle‘s speed and acceleration much like a carburetor does in
a gasoline-powered vehicle. The controller transforms the battery’s direct current into
alternating current (for AC motors only) and regulates the energy flow from the battery. Unlike
the carburetor, the controller will also reverse the motor rotation (so the vehicle can go in
reverse), and convert the motor to a generator (so that the kinetic energy of motion can be used
to recharge the battery when the brake is applied).

In the early electric vehicles with DC motors, a simple variable-resistor-type controller

controlled the acceleration and speed of the vehicle. With this type of controller, full current and
power was drawn from the battery all of the time. At slow speeds, when full power was not
needed, a high resistance was used to reduce the current to the motor. With this type of system,
a large percentage of the energy from the battery was wasted as an energy loss in the resistor.
The only time that all of the available power was used was at high speeds.
Modern controllers adjust speed and acceleration by an electronic process called pulse width
modulation. Switching devices such as silicone-controlled rectifiers rapidly interrupt (turn on
and turn off) the electricity flow to the motor. High power (high speed and/or acceleration) is
achieved when the intervals (when the current is turned off) are short. Low power (low speed
and/or acceleration) occurs when the intervals are longer

The controllers on most vehicles also have a system for regenerative braking. Regenerative
braking is a process by which the motor is used as a generator to recharge the batteries when the
vehicle is slowing down. During regenerative braking, some of the kinetic energy normally
absorbed by the brakes and turned into heat is converted to electricity by the motor/controller
and is used to re-charge the batteries. Regenerative braking not only increases the range of an
electric vehicle by 5 - 10%, it also decreases brake wear and reduces maintenance cost.

Rectifiers used in EVs

In electric vehicles (EVs), rectifiers are crucial components used primarily in the charging
systems and inverter circuits. Here are the main types of rectifiers commonly used in EVs:

1. Rectifiers for On-Board Chargers (OBC):

o Silicon Diode Rectifiers: These are commonly used for rectifying AC voltage
from the charging station to DC voltage suitable for the battery pack. They are
reliable and cost-effective but less efficient compared to other types.
o Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs): Also known as thyristors, SCRs are used in
high-power applications where precise control of the charging current and voltage
is required. They offer better efficiency and power handling capabilities than diode
rectifiers.
2. Rectifiers in Inverters:
o IGBT Rectifiers: Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) are used in the
rectification stage of the inverter that converts DC power from the battery into AC
 power to drive the electric motor. IGBTs are chosen for their ability to handle high
currents and voltages efficiently.
o MOSFET Rectifiers: Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors
(MOSFETs) are also used in some high-frequency inverters due to their fast
switching speeds and lower conduction losses compared to IGBTs.
3. Regenerative Braking Rectifiers:
o In EVs, during regenerative braking, energy generated by the electric motor is fed
back into the battery. Rectifiers play a role in efficiently converting this AC
voltage generated by the motor back into DC voltage suitable for charging the
battery.

These rectifiers are critical for ensuring efficient energy conversion and management in electric
vehicles, contributing to overall performance, range, and energy efficiency.

Bidirectional DC-DC converters are essential components in electric vehicles (EVs) and other applications
where efficient energy transfer between two DC voltage sources in both directions is required. Here’s an
overview of bidirectional DC-DC converters and their applications in EVs:

Bidirectional DC–DC Converters

Functionality:

Bidirectional DC-DC converters are designed to handle power flow in two directions:

1. Buck Mode: In this mode, the converter steps down (or bucks) a higher voltage from one
source to a lower voltage at another source. This is typically used to charge the EV
battery from a higher voltage source like the traction battery or regenerative braking
system.
2. Boost Mode: Conversely, the converter can step up (or boost) a lower voltage to a higher
voltage. This mode is useful when power needs to be transferred from a lower voltage
source, such as the 12V auxiliary battery, to a higher voltage bus like the traction battery
or other high-voltage systems in the EV.

Applications in Electric Vehicles:

In EVs, bidirectional DC-DC converters serve several critical purposes:

 Battery Charging: They facilitate charging the main traction battery from external
sources, such as AC mains through an onboard charger or DC fast chargers. They ensure
efficient conversion of AC (from the grid) or DC (from a charger) to the appropriate
voltage required by the traction battery.
 Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Applications: Bidirectional converters enable energy flow from
the EV’s battery back to the grid or to power external devices (like a home during power
outages), thus supporting V2G and vehicle-to-home (V2H) functionalities.
  Regenerative Braking: During braking, bidirectional converters manage the energy
generated by the electric motor, converting it from DC back into the traction battery or
auxiliary systems.

Types of Bidirectional Converters:

There are several types of bidirectional DC-DC converters used in EVs:

 Full-Bridge Converters: These are commonly used for high-power applications due to
their ability to handle large currents and voltages efficiently.
 Dual Active Bridge (DAB) Converters: DAB converters offer advantages in terms of
reduced size, weight, and higher efficiency compared to traditional full-bridge converters.
 Half-Bridge Converters: These are simpler configurations suitable for lower-power
applications or where cost and size constraints are critical.

Key Features and Considerations:

 Efficiency: High efficiency is crucial to minimize losses during energy conversion,

maximizing the range of the EV.
 Voltage and Current Ratings: The converter must handle the voltage and current levels
required by the specific application, ensuring reliability and safety.
 Control and Monitoring: Advanced control algorithms and monitoring systems are
implemented to manage power flow efficiently and protect the components from
overcurrent, overheating, etc.

In conclusion, bidirectional DC-DC converters play a pivotal role in the efficient operation of
electric vehicles by enabling seamless energy transfer between different voltage sources,
supporting charging, regenerative braking, and V2G capabilities. Their design and
implementation are critical for optimizing the performance, range, and overall efficiency of
EVs.

Converters
Being able to control the voltage and current coming to or from a powersource has been a
challenge for as long as electronics existed. There are many ways to switch between different
voltages and there are many applications where it is necessary to do so. For example when
using batteries to power devices that require another voltage level than the one of the battery.

In Fig. 7 the fundamental idea of a converter is presented. The converter in this case is shown as
a “transfer box”. What this box contains can vary a lot but its function should always be the
same: convert voltage up or down.
.

A simple way to convert voltage to different levels is to use an linear regulator which is a
device that keeps constant voltage and dissipates the unwanted energy as heat with the help of a
voltage divider, an amplifier and a “pass transistor”. A way more efficient, yet more complex,
way to convert voltages is via switched converters which will be explained in the following
subchapter. Their basic topologies will be shown and commented as well as their functionality.
Note that the following topologies are just examples of how the different converters can look.
There are many other topologies that will have the same functionality but may look a different.

Buck converter A buck converter, or a step-down converter, is designed to provide an output

voltage that is lower than the input voltage. In Fig. 7 this would mean that (v1 > v2). where for
example v1 could be a 12V car battery and v2 could be a phone charger, charging at 5V. Fig. 8
shows the topology of a buck converter where vd is greater than vO and the current is flowing
in the direction of the arrow. M1 in the figure is a transistor and acts as a switch. When M1 is
on and conducting the diode M2 is blocking and the inductance L is charged from Vd . Then
when M1 is off, since the inductor current can not stop flowing instantly, the diode will start
conducting and the inductor current will slowly start to decrease until the transistor M1 is
turned back on again and the process is repeated .

The inductance in the circuit reduces current ripple and the capacitance acts like a backup
energy source smoothing out the output voltage, lowering the voltage ripple.
Doing this, controlling how long the transistor is turned on, lets you control the output voltage
VO. The time where the transistor is turned on is called TON and the time its off and the diode
is conducting, is called TOFF . The duty cycle, D, tell us how long the transistor is on during
one period (Ton + Toff) and can be calculated by

Through a bit of mixing around with different formulas and equations describing the electrical
components of the buck converters topology and assuming that the converters runs in CCM,
equation (2) can be derived. How this is done will not be included in this thesis but that and
much more about the buck converter is covered in

Equation (2) shows that vO is only dependent on the duty cycle and since the duty cycle is in
percentage, it can only vary between 0 ≤ D ≤ 1 meaning that the possible voltages vO can
obtain is: 0 ≤ V o ≤ V . d

Boost converter

A boost converter, also called step-up converter, has the exact opposite function of a buck
converter. The boost converters job is to increase the voltage on the output side. Looking at Fig.
7 this would mean (v1 < v2). A good example where a boost converter can be used is in battery
powered applications where space is limited so batteries cannot be couple in series to achieve a
higher voltage. Instead the converter can boost the batteries voltage to a desired level.

The topology of the boost converter can be seen in Fig. 9. As shown, the boost converter is
design quite similar to the buck converter in Fig. 8 with the differences being: the transistor and
the diode swapped places, the inductor changed polarity because of the current now flowing in
the opposite direction. The inductor and the capacitor is in the circuit for the same reason as in
the buck converter, to reduce current and voltage ripple.
 The operation of the boost converter is based on the same principle as buck converter, using the
fact that an inductor can not stop its current from flowing 17 instantly. Also same as in the buck
converter, the inductance reduces current ripple in the circuit and the capacitance reduces output
voltage ripple. During TON when the transistor M2 is closed, the inductance L is charged. Then
when M2 is open, during TOFF , the inductor will release its charge through M1. The longer the
transistor is on (closed) the higher the voltage over the inductor will grow and theoretically with
ideal components, it could grow to infinity. In reality this is not the case since the inductance
will eventually get saturated.

Same as with the buck converter, an equation (3) can be derived that describes the correlation
between the input voltage and the output voltage dependent on the duty cycle.

Looking at equation (3) it is clear that Vd will be bigger than Vo in every case except when D =
0, giving: V o = V . This is due to the duty cycle, D, varying d between 0 ≤ D ≤ 1 . In reality the
converter has a minimum and a maximum duty cycle dependent on the input and output voltage

Buck-boost converter

In some applications, like the one this thesis work is researching, it is necessary to be able to
push current in both directions. For example in an electric powered vehicle where the converter
have to be able to run in motoring mode where it powers the motor and generator mode where
its charging a battery pack. This can be achieved by combining a buck converter and a boost
converter. The result is a two quadrant buck-boost converter that can operate either in buck
mode or boost mode depending on the situation.

The topology in Fig. 10 is almost the same as the ones described in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9. It is
basically just a combination of the two topologies which makes it possible for current to flow in
both ways in one converter, thus making it bidirectional. Note that swapping position of M1 and
L makes the buck-boost converter become a boost-buck converter.
Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) is a type of converter that converts DC voltage to AC voltage.
It is also known as voltage-fed inverter (VFI). A VSI consists of a DC power source,
transistors (thyristors, IGBT, MOSFET, etc.) for switching, and a DC link capacitor (to provide
filtering and minimize fluctuations). An ideal VSI keeps the voltage constant throughout the
process.

The DC input source can be batteries stacked in series or parallel, photovoltaic cells, or rectified
output from another AC power source. It can be used in both single phase and three phase
topologies.

Voltage Source Inverter can operate in two modes:

 Square wave mode.

 PWM (Pulse width modulation) mode.

Voltage source inverter is available in three configurations - single-phase half-bridge, single-

phase full-bridge, and three phase. Single phase voltage source inverters are ideally used in high
power supplies, active filters, and single-phase UPS applications whereas three phase voltage
source inverters are used in adjustable speed drives (ASDs), UPS, flexible AC transmission
systems (FACTS) devices such as the STATCOM, and PV generators.

Single Phase Half-Bridge Voltage Source Inverter

The circuit diagram of a single-phase HB-VSI with a load is shown below

In this type of topology, one thyristor T1 conducts for half of the time period and the other
thyristor T2 conducts for the other half of the time period of the output waveform. The diodes
are connected anti-parallel with the thyristor and will allow the current to flow when the main
thyristor is turned off. Diode D1 will conduct when the voltage is positive and the current is
negative, and diode D2 will conduct when the voltage is negative, and the current is positive. It
is especially useful in the case of non-resistive loads. When the diode conducts, the energy is
fed back to the DC source and hence, these diodes (D1 & D2) are called flyback diodes.

Each thyristor is triggered via its gate. While analyzing the circuit, it is assumed that each
thyristor conducts for the duration its gate pulse is present and is commutated as soon as this
pulse is removed. The gating signal for thyristor T1 (ig1) and thyristor T2 (ig2) and the output
voltage waveform of this inverter are shown below.

It can be observed that ig1 is applied for a period of 0 <t≤ (T/2), the thyristor T1 conducts during
this period and the load is directly connected to the source Vs/2 on the upper arm of the circuit
and the output voltage equals Vs/2 during this time. ig1 is removed at time T/2, thyristor T1 gets
turned off, ig2 is applied and thyristor T2 starts conducting. The load is then connected directly
to the -Vs/2 on the lower arm (it has the opposite polarity as compared to the upper arm). The
output voltage is now -Vs/2 as shown in the waveform above.
The resulting output waveform is an alternating square wave with a frequency of 1/T Hz and an
amplitude of Vs/2. The frequency is controlled by changing the value of the period, T.

The main drawback of this topology is its requirement for a 3-wire DC source. The output is
also half the magnitude of the input voltage which can be seen as a drawback. These drawbacks
are however overcome in the full-bridge topology.

Single Phase Full-Bridge Voltage Source Inverter

The circuit diagram of a single-phase FB-VSI with a load is shown below:

This topology consists of 4 thyristors, T1-T4, 4 diodes D1-D4, a 2-wire DC source, and a load.
The diodes are connected antiparallel to the thyristors, and they allow the current to flow when
the main thyristor is turned off. When these diode conduct, the energy is fed back to the DC
source and hence, these diodes (D1 to D4) are called flyback diodes. It is assumed that each of
the thyristors only conducts for the period its gate signal is present and as soon as the gate
signal is removed, the thyristors get turned OFF.

The thyristors are triggered diagonally. for half of the time period, thyristors T3 & T4 will be
ON while for the remaining half of the time period, T1 & T2 will be ON. Only two thyristors
are turned ON in half of the period. The thyristors turn on in a sequence as shown below:

 For the time 0 <t≤ (T/2), thyristors T1 & T2 conduct and load voltage Vo = Vs.
 For the time (T/2) <t≤ T, thyristors T3 & T4 conduct and load voltage Vo = -Vs.

The gate signal and the output voltage waveforms are shown below:
The thyristors T1 & T2 are triggered simultaneously for a time T/2. Therefore, the load is
connected to the source through T1 & T2, and hence, the load voltage is equal to the source
voltage with positive polarity. As soon as the gate signal (ig1 & ig2) are removed, T1 and T2
gest are turned OFF. However, at the same instant gate signal (ig3 & ig4) are applied and hence,
T3 & T4 are turned ON. When T3 & T4 are conducting, the load gets connected to the source.
The load voltage magnitude is again Vs but with reverse polarity.

3-Phase Voltage Source Inverter

This VSI is a 6-step bridge inverter. It consists of a minimum of six thyristors or IGBTs. In
inverter terminology, a step is defined as a change in the firing from one thyristor to the next
thyristor in a proper sequence. For getting one cycle of 360°, each step is of 60° interval. This
means thyristors will be gated at a regular interval of 60° in a proper sequence so that three-
phase AC output voltage is synthesized at its output. The circuit diagram of a 3-phase VSI is
shown below:
The numbering of the thyristors is done in the order in which they are triggered. It can also be
observed that 3-phase VSI is equivalent to 3 half-bridge inverters put side by side and the load
is assumed to be star connected. This inverter works in two modes, 180̊ conduction
mode (each thyristor conducts for 180°)and 120̊ conduction mode (each thyristor conducts for
120°). In both cases, gate signals are applied and removed at 60̊ intervals. For this article, the
180̊ conduction mode is explained.

For the 180° conduction mode, the triggering occurs in the following sequence:

 Step-I: In step-I, thyristors T1, T6, and T5 conduct.

 Step-II: T1, T2 and T6 conducts. Mind that T5 is turned off.
 Step III: Now, will have to turn off T6. Therefore, this step will comprise of conduction
of thyristors T1, T2, and T3.
 Step-IV: This time, T1 has to be turned off, and hence, T2, T,3, and T4 shall conduct this
step.
 Step-V: T4, T3, and T5 conduct,t, and T2 are turned off.
 Step VI: T4, T6, and T5 conduct, and T3 is turned off.
 


For each cycle of the output voltage of each phase, six steps are required and each step has a
duration of 60°.
The line voltage Vab = Vao + Vbo or Vab = Vao – Vbo is obtained by reversing Vbo and adding it to
Vao. This is shown in the output waveform (b). Similarly, line voltages V bc & Vca are plotted.

While the VSI offers multiple advantages such as small size, the output voltage is independent
of the type of load, etc there are some disadvantages as well. Short circuits in case of failure in
not preventable for VSI. The switching frequency is also low, up to 500 Hz. The input power
factor is low (<1) which leads to reactive power loss.

Voltage Source Inverters

Voltage Source Inverters (VSIs) are essential components in modern electric power systems and
industrial applications, including electric vehicles (EVs). Here’s an overview of what VSIs are,
their key characteristics, and their role in EVs:

Overview of Voltage Source Inverters (VSIs):

1. Functionality:
o Conversion: VSIs convert DC voltage from a source (such as a battery or DC bus)
into AC voltage of variable frequency and amplitude.
o Control: They provide precise control over the output voltage and frequency,
making them versatile for various applications.
o Waveform: Output waveform can be sinusoidal (for AC motors), quasi-square
wave, or modified sine wave depending on the application requirements.
2. Types of VSIs:
o PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) Inverters: These are the most common type,
where the output voltage is synthesized by switching the DC input using high-
frequency pulses. PWM inverters offer high efficiency and better harmonic
performance.
o Square Wave Inverters: Simpler design but produce more harmonics and are less
efficient compared to PWM inverters.
o Multilevel Inverters: Use multiple DC voltage sources to synthesize a stepped
approximation to a sine wave, reducing harmonic distortion and improving
efficiency.
3. Applications in Electric Vehicles:
o Motor Drive: VSIs are used to drive AC motors (induction motors or permanent
magnet synchronous motors) in EVs. They convert the DC voltage from the
traction battery into the three-phase AC voltage required to control the speed and
torque of the motor.
o Regenerative Braking: During braking, VSIs can operate in reverse to convert the
kinetic energy of the vehicle back into DC voltage to recharge the battery,
improving overall energy efficiency.
o Grid Connection (Vehicle-to-Grid): In V2G applications, VSIs enable bi-
directional power flow between the EV's battery and the electrical grid, allowing
the vehicle to supply power back to the grid during peak demand periods.
Key Features of VSIs in EVs:

 Efficiency: High efficiency is crucial to maximize the driving range of EVs. VSIs
typically operate at high efficiencies, especially PWM inverters.
 Size and Weight: Compact and lightweight designs are essential for integration into the
vehicle’s powertrain system.
 Reliability: Must be able to withstand the operational demands and environmental
conditions encountered in automotive applications.
 Control Algorithms: Advanced control techniques ensure smooth operation, precise
torque control, and protection against overcurrents and faults.

Advantages of VSIs in EVs:

 Flexibility: Can operate with various types of AC motors, allowing manufacturers to

choose the most suitable motor technology for their application.
 Energy Efficiency: Enable efficient energy conversion during both propulsion and
regenerative braking.
 Power Quality: Provide high-quality AC voltage output suitable for driving motors,
contributing to smooth operation and reduced electromagnetic interference.

In conclusion, Voltage Source Inverters (VSIs) are critical components in electric vehicles,
facilitating efficient energy conversion between DC battery power and AC motor drive. Their
advanced control capabilities and versatility make them indispensable for maximizing the
performance and range of EVs while supporting regenerative braking and grid connectivity
functionalities.