CRS215

HISTORY AND RELIGION OF ISRAEL AND JUDAH

THE SUMMARY OF THE COURSE

CHAPTER 1

Topic: THE SUPPOSED ORIGIN OF THE RACE

The supposed origin of the Biblical Israel is mostly traced to the three successive waves of
migration which happened in the Northern part of Arabia towards the beginning of the middle
bronze age towards 1550BC.

The first wave of migration, according to the archeological research, was made up of the Semites
who moved into Southern Mesopotamia subduing their Sumerian predecessors. The basic
language of this tribe was Akkadian.

After a thousand years, the second wave of migration which was made up of the Amorites broke
out of the Semites and moved into two directions, one to the eastward of Mesopotamia and the
other division moved to the westward of Syria-Palestine.

After a thousand years, likewise, another wave of migration broke out of Mesopotamia, called
the Arameans, and their spoken language was Aramaic. They as well broke into two directions,
one to the west and the other to the east, meanwhile, their presence was more felt in the west.
This wave is believed to be closely linked to the movement of Tera, Abraham and his family in
Gen 11 and 12 out of Ur of Chaldeans who moved to Canaan and lived a Nomadic life for
several years.

Furthermore, it is good to know the method used to settle in those places they migrated to. It is
believed that they either use forceful penetration or peaceful penetration. All these tribes started
their lives as nomads (they moved from one place to another as a community, they had no
permanent home and moved according to the season), and they settled for agriculture (basically
rearing of cattle) and trade.

At this period of time, the fertile crescent or the middle east was at this moment going through
many invasions and conquests, as a result of this, the intermingling of people at this part of the
world from different races led to the admixture of races. Therefore, it is believed that the
ancestry of the Israelites can be traced back to the admixture of the Arameans and the Hurrians.
That is, the coming together of the two races gave birth to the Biblical Israel. A valid reference to
back this up can be found in the O.T. Scripture, Ez.16:3, 44-46.

THE ARAMEANS AS NOMADS

“The Biblical tradition in Genesis about the beginnings of Israel as a people, goes back to the
nomadic stage of the Aramean tribe”. As earlier stated from the supposed origin of the Israelites
that the Arameans broke into two at the migrating stage of their tribes out of Mesopotamia, it is
believed that from one of these divisions, a group came out of them who invaded Egypt and
formed the Hyksos dynasty in 1800-1600 BC before they were later expelled from the territory
after when the Egyptians regained their independence.

However, on this note, the early stage of the Hebrews started as being nomads. Below are some
of the nomadic natures of the Hebrews.
There are some nomadic natures that explain the nomadic life of the Arameans (Hebrews) which
in one way or the other reflected in the formation of the Old Testament, and this different them
from the Sedentary Palestinians.
 The Aramean community as nomads exhibited an act of community soul, this account
for the practice of blood revenge, the practice of brotherhood and this is a basic
characteristic of the Hebrews.
 The nomads as an individual had their properties in common, that is, no individual can
claim any property as being their personal acquirement. Their entire wealth was labeled
as the common property of the tribe.
 The nomads had no organized religion, that is, there was no well spelt out liturgy at a
given permanent shrine among them. The deity they worshipped were those that were
bound to the community they moved to in an intimate relationship. To simply put, as
they moved to a new community, there believe was that, wherever they moved to there
was a deity associated with that community as a result of which they will erect an alter or
shrine to go into an intimate relationship with this divine. For instance, Abraham, Isaac
and Jacob (basically at Bethel and Shechem, etc.) where they always see a vision of
Angels coming up and down.
 The Arameans, as nomads, had no organized system of government, in case of any
emergency on Judicial matters, they always set up an AD-HOC approach (temporal
legislative assembly) to issues as they arose. Likewise, they had no organized laws.
 They as well engaged in Agriculture (basically the rearing of cattle) and trade moving
from one place to another.

THE SEDENTARY PALESTINIANS

The Sedentary Palestinians were the Amorites (basically, the second wave of migration) who
moved westward Syria-Palestine. This tribe as well had their own characteristics which are the
opposite of the nomadic characteristics.
 Unlike the nomadic Arameans, the Amorites dwelt in city states they founded at their
settlement in Syria-Palestine.
 They practiced agriculture and trade as their main occupations.
 They had a developed system of civil laws which is not very different from that found
elsewhere in Western Asia according to Archaeology and History.
 They also practiced an organized system of religion with its own rituals and liturgy which
were advanced than that of the nomads.
 They also built their own sanctuaries with a well-organized festivals and ritual system.
 Another notable characteristic of the Sedentary Palestinians is that “they operated a
regular calendar of agricultural festivals, practiced animal and human sacrifices”,
though, the ethical standard demanded by their religion is low.
 CHAPTER 2

APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF THE ISRAELITES

Over years there had been desire among the Biblical scholars to prove the authenticity of the
Bible (especially the Old Testament). Questions like, Does the Biblical accounts exist in the
history? What kind of method was used to give this account? How were these accounts
conceived?... this led to the proposition of these different approaches and theories used to proffer
solutions, even though, they are not absolute solution of the problems in sight, and these theories
will be discussed in this essay.

The underlisted are the different approaches as explained in the book A HISTORY OF EARLY
ISRAEL by Ven. Rev. J.O. Akao (Ph.D.).

CONSERVATIVE APPROACH
This approach is also known as orthodox or traditional approach. This approach is common
among the conservatives. This set of people believe that the Bible was infallible, or it has no any
error. This approach was common before the 18th Century, at this time, the Bible cannot be
questioned or criticized until the coming of renaissance which led to the criticism of this school
of thought.

Their hypothesis are as follows:

 They believed that the Bible is of a supernatural origin and it’s completely devoid of any
error. To simply put, they saw the Bible has been divinely inspired.
 On the other hand, this school of thought is divided into two (right and left-wingers). The
Left-Wingers, however also believed that the Bible is divinely inspired yet they like to
illustrate, supplement or even question some part of the Biblical narratives.
 The Right-Wingers, on the other hand (strictly conservatives) took the Bible as given,
they believed that criticizing the Bible is a form of “Adulteration and desecration of
the Holy writ” in other words, the Bible is perfect and did not need any literary
appreciation to be carried out on it because it is sufficient in itself to produce an accurate
account of the universe including its dating.
 There are some miraculous accounts explored by them. E.g., Abraham was born in
2166BC, Isaac got married to Rebekah in 2026BC, Jacob was claimed to be 77years old
when he went to Haran where he hired himself out to Laban for 14 years.
In conclusion, this approach is not considered as an enough theory that can produce us with the
evidence of the authenticity of the Biblical narratives because it is not scholarly upright and it
consist of religious interpretations and motifs.

ARCHEOLOGICAL APPROACH
Archeology is the study of human history and prehistory through the means of excavation of
sites and the analysis of artifacts and other physical remains. Archeological approach to the study
of the Old Testament is considered to be the most effective approach that provides us with a
good understanding of the history of Israel.

The archeological approach to the study of the Old Testament was developed around 19th
Century in response to the Wellhausen Documentary Hypothesis and other Historical approach.
The American Archeological School, led by W.T. Albright was the first school to apply
archeological method to the study of the Old Testament in 1934. They traveled to Jerusalem and
some other Biblical sites in order to study the sites of the Old Testament characters, mostly, the
Hebrew Patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Joseph) to proof their existence in history which
was a success and these characters were proved to would have lived in history.
In the course of this research, some old documents from the ancient near east, especially, the
administrative correspondences like Mari Letters discovered in Mari which existed around the
middle Bronze age, this actually shed more light on nomadic life of the patriarchs as their names
were mentioned in this document. Likewise, a clear understanding of some biblical events is
provided for the readers of the Old Testament through the discovery of these documents. There
are obvious similarities between the culture of the Hebrews and the one discovered in the Nuzi
Tablet. The Babylonian Hammurabi’s law code is obviously similar to the book of covenant in
both literary and content of its case law. Likewise, the book of Job was analyzed from this
discovery which was compared with the liturgical and wise texts from Mesopotamia plus the
discovery of an Akkadian Text on the worthy sufferer at Ras Shamra, definitely, the Biblical Job
event is obviously similar to these discoveries. It can also be noted that the interpretation of the
Old Testament might be impossible without the discovery of the Ugarit texts, the Masorites
depended on these texts…

In conclusion, the archeological approach does not provide us with a total radiality on the Bible,
however, it proves the authenticity and the reality of the Old Testament.

TRADIO-HISTORICAL APPROACH
This approach was propounded by Harman Gunkel as the founding father, he was the one who
propounded the theory of formsgeschicte (form criticism). This approach was later being
supported through the works of Albrecht Alt, Gerhard Von Rad, Martin Noth, and Douglas
Knight.

To simply put, this approach exposes us to the fact that, to understand the Old Testament well,
we must go back to the basis of Old Testament in its oral form or it pure form. Narratives like the
Creation Story should be traced back to the ANET, likewise, some of the proverbs provided in
the Bible should be traced back to an Egyptian culture (e.g., King Amonomope), Prov.29.

Moreover, through this approach, the traditons behind the formation of the O.T. were discovered
as explored in Martin Noth’s work and some scholarly works of the O.T. (A History of
Pentateuchal Traditions) which are JEDP (Yahwehist, Elohist, Deuteronomist and Priestly
sources) are the traditions behind the formation of the Old Testament. This can account for the
different creation accounts found in Genesis 1 and 2, and as a result of duplication and repetition
of materials, variation in the divine names (at one point Yahweh and another Elohim),
Contrasting viewpoints in the text, and variations in the language and styles.

Basically, the Tradio-Historical Approach purely deals with the oral form and the traditions
behind the formation of the Old Testament.
 CHAPTER 3
PATRIARCHAL NARRATIVES AS HISTORY

SUBJECT OF DISCUSSION:
WERE THE PATRIACHS HISTORICAL FIGURES? HOW DOES THIS PROVIDES US WITH
THE AUTHENTICITY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT NARRATIVES?

To simply put, this phase of this course explains the patriarchal narratives as a proof of the
authenticity of the Old Testament (if the Patriarchs exist in history definitely the events of the
Old Testament will be authentic). However, it is believed among the Biblical Scholars that the
motif behind the provision of the History of Israel is purely a religious interpretation of the
normal life of the Patriarchs. The religious motif behind the interpretation of the O.T. has made it
so difficult to proof the authenticity of the existence of the Hebrew Patriarchs in history. For
instance, the existence of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Joseph in history has been a subject of
debate among scholars. The reasons behind this debate will be discussed in this essay as noted
below.

 The sense of history and the method of narration used by the Old Testament writers are
different from the improved method used by the historians.
 The patriarchal story of God calling Abraham out of Mesopotamia was nothing more
than a normal tribal movement, however, was given a religious interpretation.
 The reality of some events narrated in the Old Testament to the O.T. writers was not their
concern but rather were concerned with the religious lesson. For instance, the event of
circumcision of Abraham and his household at an old age should be questioned, likewise,
the story of the pillar of salt, among many others.
 To the historians, the cause of Abraham’s migration was due to the change of religion
effected by the new king of Babylon as at that time (King Hammurabi) who came with
his own religious idea. However, to the Hebrew writers, this pictured as a pilgrimage.

All these points among many others were written down from a religious perspective, this in turn
made it difficult among scholars to rely on the patriarchal accounts recorded in the Old
Testament.

However, efforts had been made by the archeologists to proof the authenticity of the patriarchs as
historical figures around the 19th Century as stated in Archeological Approach, through the
excavation they carried out on the biblical sites (Ancient Near East), which in turn resulted to the
discovery of some ancient tablets (these tablets are religious in nature, also have the cultural and
political heritage of these people). Tablets like Tell-El-Amarna, Nuzi Tablets, Mari Letters
(which some of the Hebrew Patriarchs names were written on them).

The Tell-El-Amarna tablet exposes us to some information about the patriarchs:

 This tablet proves that some Semites migrated to Egypt due to a famine that occurred in
Palestine. This can be compared to the story of Abraham who went to Egypt as a result
of a famine that occurred in Palestine. Likewise, Jacob and his sons who moved to
Egypt as a result of a famine in Palestine.
 It was recorded in this tablet that some sets of Asiatic refugees were seeking permission
to enter into Egypt at the time of famine. This is obviously similar to the events
recorded in Genesis 12:1ff
 Some of officers in Egypt with Semitic names are mentioned in this tablet. For instance,
a governor with the name YAMHANU in charge of corn growing district, this office is
similar to that of Joseph’s as recorded in Genesis.
Furthermore, it can be noted that some biblical cultures are obviously similar to some cultures
recorded in the Nuzi Tablet, this in turn is also a proof that the Patriarchs were historical figures.
For instance:
 The practice of adoption of a slave boy if a couple could not produce a child, this slave
will be considered as the one who would inherit after them. This is obviously similar to
the event of the adoption of Eliezer, a slave boy, as practiced by Abraham who was later
scared of that slave boy inheriting him. Gen.15:1-4.
 In the Nuzi Tablet, a wife, if childless is bound to give her husband a substitute as
provided in the law (it can be her slave). This is similar to Sarah giving her slave, Hagar,
to Abraham for child bearing, and this can also account for the reason why Abraham was
reluctant to send Hagar away, Gen.21:10.
 The Nuzian custom also proof the Jacob-Laban stories as an event of history. The
conditions laid on Jacob before he can marry Rachael (Gen.31:50) as a result of their
culture of the younger sister who cannot be allowed to marry before her elder sister
which in turn made Jacob to serve for 14 years. The stealing of Rachael’s father’s god
was intended to entitled them to their father’s inheritance (Gen.31:15). It was the Nuzian
culture that once their daughters are being married out, they eventually had no part in
their father’s inheritance and automatically all their inheritance belonged to their
husbands.
 The sisterhood status practice recorded in Genesis 12:1ff where Abraham called his wife,
Sarah his sister was a common practice among the Nuzians. According to the Nuzian
culture, a woman can enjoy the right of sisterhood even after getting married to her
husband.

In conclusion, through the results of the archeological research, the historicity of the Hebrew
patriarchs has been proved. Therefore, the debate on whether the Hebrew patriarchs actually
existed in history or not has been reduced and proved authentic by the archeological research
through the discoveries of the ancient tablets on the biblical sites (mostly, the Tell-El-Amarna,
Nuzi Tablet) … that show the reflection of the cultural practices similar to the one recorded in
the Old Testament. In my view of point, according to the results of the archeological research,
the Hebrew were historical figures and it gives a partial proof that the Biblical accounts are
authentic.

THE RELIGION OF THE PATRIARCHS

“The history of the Israelites is their religion”. The Old Testament writers were more interested
in providing us with the religious interpretation of their history. This shows us the revelation of
the God of Israel and His dealings with them.

The religion of the Patriarchs was shaped to suit their occupation as nomads, they believed that
wherever they moved to, there were supernatural beings associated with that place, therefore,
they erected altars at these places at the point of their encounter with the deity.

Moreover, the issue of circumcision which became a contact of covenant between God and
Abraham was a normal rite that implied a full initiation of a young man into a tribe or the
community of the nomads, this was given a religious interpretation.

The active response of Abraham to God’s call led him to a new truth about God which resulted
to a blessing for him. His faith and obedience led him to learn new revelations about God which
laid the basis for the religion of the Hebrews.
 THE GOD WORSHIPPED BY THE PATRIARCHS
“Each of the Patriarchs worshipped a deity related to the clan”, the following can be adduced to
explain this.

 Their mode of encounter with the deity: They either encounter this deity through
mutual contract or through personal encounter.
 The result of their response to this encounter was submission.
 The title related to each Patriarchs is also important to take note of. This title or
appellation was usually recalled in times of covenant making with the deity, e.g., The
God or Shield of Abraham (Gen.28:13, 31:42), the Kinsman of fear of Isaac (Gen.31:42,
53), the Champion or Mighty one of Jacob (Gen.49:24).
 It can also be noted that this deity introduced himself to the patriarchs in special ways,
e.g., to some as Yahweh, El, Elohim. The difference in the self-disclosure of God resulted
to the different titles given to Him in the Pentateuch.

In conclusion, Yahweh was not clearly defined during the period of the Patriarchs until the time
of Moses and the monarchical period of the Israelites. As a result of the controversy that
generated among the scholars of Pentateuchal traditions, it is believed that the Patriarchs
worshipped Yahweh under a different title (El) or they were just the worshippers of the El deity.
It is either they worshipped God as Yahweh or not. God did not disclose Himself to them as
Yahweh, it is probable that they associated another divinity with God.
 CHAPTER 4

FROM ABRAHAM TO EGYPT

Abraham’s narratives began from Ur, the most important city in Babylon. Ur is the current
village of Mukkayor (in Iraq). The city was known for a notable commercial center in Babylon,
it was a significant center of the worship of the moon god, it also has a reputable temple with an
ordered priesthood, it also had a king which was famous with a rich palace. Abraham has
experienced a life of wealth and luxury in the great city of Ur before his emigration.

Moreover, the king of Abraham’s migration was Amraphel (2100-2000), Hammurabi. Terah and
his family’s movement from Ur to Haran was connected with the change of worship effected by
Hammurabi which may result to an obvious consequence if Abraham and his families if they
disobey the king after the death of Terah, Abraham moved to the southward of Canaan as sheik
(the leader of nomads). They camped at Shechem (Gen.12:6), Bethel (12:8), Hebron (13:18), and
Beersheba (21:31). At their arrival at Canaan, they encountered opposition from their
predecessors. The Israelites can be traced to the lineage of Isaac and Jacob, while some scattered
tribes who inhabited the geographical area between Palestine and Egypt were believed to be the
offspring of Ishmael.

From the offspring of Abraham, some groups moved (out of the Hebrews) from the North (Syria)
to Egypt to establish the Hyksos regime that ruled Egypt for years. Later on, during this period,
more of the Hebrews migrated into Egypt and made their homes in the north-eastern area of
Egypt (the movement of Jacob and his sons to Egypt as a result of famine in Canaan, Gen.37-50),
Goshen. The reason behind the favor bestowed on the Hebrews by Pharaoh during this period
was due to the connection between the Hebrews and the invaders (the Hyksos Dynasty). Later on,
after the defeat of the Hyksos dynasty in 1575BC, another line of Pharaoh reigned (Ex.1:8-10),
who subjected the Hebrews into force labor and were set into work as slaves for the construction
of great monuments and buildings in Egypt. According to the biblical account, they lived in
Egypt for 430 years, Ex.15:13, 12:41.

CHAPTER 5
THE EXODUS FROM EGYPT
“The exodus from Egypt constitute a milestone marking the appearance from nothingness into the
existence of Israel as a nation and a theological watershed for understanding the rest of the people’s
history” (pg.32, A History of Israel). This exodus also marked the meeting point between Yahweh and
Israel which resulted in the formalization of a mutual or a two-way relationship which was sealed at
the receive of the covenant on Mt. Sinai on which their life depended on for ill or good in
relation with her God (Yahweh).

The agent used for the deliverance of the Israelites was Moses. This exodus event, marked a
turning point in the history of the biblical Israel which marked the end of an era or season and
the beginning of a new era. However, the authenticity of this history is questioned because it is
not found verified or confirmed in the records or the history of the Egypt.

The course of their deliverance from Egypt resulted to a “little credo” meant for the Jews to
recite whenever they appeared before Yahweh at the offering of the first fruits, and Passover
feast, Gen.6:21-25; 26:5-9. This little credo summarizes their faith and relationship with Yahweh
and also assert that “God in His graciousness brought the Israelites out of the bondage of the
Egyptians”. Furthermore, this credo also serves as a reminder of how they were once a stranger
in a strange land and must always be accommodating and must be hospitable to strangers that
come to their land remembering that they were once like them.

The little Credo:

And you shall make response before the Lord your God. A wondering
Aramean was my father; and he went down into Egypt and sojourned there,
Few in number; and there he became a nation, great, mighty and populous.
And the Egyptians treated us harshly, and afflicted us, and laid upon us harsh
harsh bondage. Then we cried to the Lord, the God of our fathers and the Lord
heard our voice, and saw our affliction, our toil and our oppression; and the
Lord brought us out of Egypt with a mighty hand and an outstretched arm…
(Gen.6:21-25; 26:5-9).

This creed summarizes the whole books of Genesis and Exodus, and this creed was basically
recited at the Passover feast as a remembrance of their origin, how they sojourned in Egypt, how
they were oppressed by them, how they cried unto Yahweh, and how He brought them out of
Egypt who made them to become a nation.

Moreover, there is a usual argument that commonly attacked the “historical basis of the exodus
event”. It is commonly believed that the exodus events are only found in the records of the
Israelites and not in the Egyptian’s records, plus the route of escape as it is mentioned in the
Bible appears to be fiction.

It is claimed that the Hebrews were working in Avaris, building the house of Rameses. Avaris
was the old Hyksos capital city which was renamed “House of Rameses” by Rameses. The
Hebrews were employed as slaves to complete this fantastic project (A free labor).

In conclusion, during this labor, the Israelites suffered hardship and humiliation, as a result of
this bitterness, they called unto God who sent Moses to Pharaoh to ask for their release from
their slavery. Moses, the man who received the divine commission and mandate at Mountain of
God, Horeb, approached the king with all sorts of miracles and plagues, however, with all these
miracles wrought by Moses, the king remained stubborn, until when the Angel of destruction
was sent to struck all the first born of the Egyptians (mostly, their officials), as a result of this,
the Israelites were horridly ordered to leave Egypt. This event changed the Israelites state of
nothingness to a nation after the receive of the decalogue and going into covenant with Yahweh
at Mt. Sinai that established a reciprocal relationship between the two.
 MOSES AND YAHWISM
Who was Moses?
According to the Biblical account, Moses was born in Egypt around 1300 BCE to a Hebrew family. It
was at the time of oppression of the Hebrews under the Egyptian overlords who were killing the male
children of the Hebrews in order to subdue their strength of multiplying. However, as a result of this
horrible experience of the Hebrews, Moses’ mother, in order to save him, put Moses in a basket and
placed him on the river Nile, this was where the Egyptian princess got hold of him and raised him as a
prince and the future Pharaoh (definitely, for forty years Moses was influenced by the civilized Egyptian
system of education and was raised as a valiant soldier). The name Moses is from the Hebrew word
“mose” (which means “drawn”).

Moses was a prophet, leader, and mediator in the Hebrew Bible, considered one of the most important
figures in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. After his first forty years in Egypt as a result of a horrible
experience of him killing an Egyptian for a Hebrew which got him exposed, Moses ran out of Egypt to
Midian where he became a shepherd and married Zipporah, the daughter of Jethro, the priest of Midian
(where he stayed for another forty years). It was at this place Moses encountered Yahweh in a burning
bush who commissioned him to lead the Israelites out of slavery in Egypt and into the promised land.

Moses received the Decalogue and other laws from God on Mt. Sinai sometimes called Horeb (the
Mountain of God), establishing a covenant between God and Israel. He led the Israelites for 40 years,
guiding them through the wilderness and teaching them God’s laws. Moses is respected for his faith,
humility, and leadership, and is often referred to as the greatest prophet of the Hebrew Bible.

Scholarly arguments on the origin of the influence of Yahwism on Moses.

Moses brought proper shape and new definitions to the worship of the Israelite God after he encountered
God at Sinai which was assumed shapeless before this encounter. Moses, according to the Biblical
tradition was a social organizer, deliverer, judge, prophet and even priest. Based on this assumption, the
scholars attributed the origin of Yahwism to Moses.

However, as a result of some confusion caused by some passages of the Pentateuch, basically, Genesis
14:26, 15:7, 24:3, which claim that there was already the worship of Yahweh prior the coming of Moses
in Israel. As a result of this, several sources were proposed for this (from Genesis to Numbers) called the
Documentary Hypothesis, J. E. and P. based on this confusion, it is difficult to fully link the proper
beginning of Yahwism to Moses.

Another question that rose up from the scholar is, “If Moses mediated Yahwism to Israel, where did he
come under the influence of Yahweh worship?”. Some scholars suggested that Moses probably came
under the influence of Yahwism as a result of his encounter with the monotheistic revolution of
Akhenaton during his stay in Egypt whom Moses imitated under the umbrella of Yahwism. However, this
suggestion is easily criticized by the fact that throughout the Bible, there is no any trace of the influence
of the Egyptian religion on the birth of Yahweh’s worship.

Furthermore, some scholars prefer to look outside Egypt for a possible religious influence which was
easily linked to Midian based on various reasons.
 Moses was married to Zipporah, the daughter of Jethro, the priest of Midian.
 His encounter with Yahweh occurred in Midian.
 Sinai or Horeb where the covenant of relationship between Israel and Yahweh was sealed was
located in Midian.
 Immediately, after the rescue of the Israelites from Egypt, the first worship of thanksgiving in the
form of a sacrificial meal in which Jethro the priest of Midian officiated himself is argued that it
would have been impossible for him to officiate it if Moses was not already the worshipper of
Yahweh.
 Jethro, likewise, offered Moses some piece of advice on the dispensation of justice. This was
probably due to the fact that he did this as a senior priest and devotee of Yahweh.
  In addition to these points, Jethro is described as a Kenite, the Kenites were believed to have a
friendly relationship with the Israelites who were known to be zealous worshippers of Yahweh
(Judges 1:16; 14:11, 1 Sam. 15:6). The Kenites were the descendants of Cain who had the mark
of Yahweh upon him (Gen. 4:15-16).

Moses’ roles in midwifing Yahwism to Israel.

 YAHWEH AS A UNIVERSAL GOD
Through Moses, the people of Israel got to understand that Yahweh is not a God restricted to a locale. He
is a God who can disclose Himself anywhere like He did in Egypt and at the Red Sea including Mt. Sinai.
Likewise, Moses was able to expatiate the fact that Yahweh revealed Himself as someone that judge,
vindicate, bring grace and salvation throughout the history with His consciousness being with them. In
fact, the later prophets related the events (miracles and so on) that occurred in the history of Israel as the
activity of Yahweh.

 MOSES AS AN INTERMEDIARY BETWEEN THE ISRAELITES AND YAHWEH

The role of an intermediary is to stand between two individuals in order to facilitate communication
between them, likewise, as a translator who converts information from one language to another, as well as
an interpreter who explains complex information, and so on. In many occasions, Moses displayed the role
of an intermediary between the Israelites and Yahweh as recorded in the Pentateuch in diverse ways.
Moses facilitated communication between Yahweh and the Israelites, in the sense that he communicated
the will of Yahweh to them. Moses as well received complex information from Yahweh and took it as his
responsibility to interpret and translate it to the Israelites (funnily, the stubborn Israelites once accused
Moses of being the only one receiving the information from Yahweh, probably out of their disbelief, they
told Moses that they also wanted to hear directly from Yahweh which they could not bear when Yahweh
spoke to them in His thunderous voice), however, the Israelites accepted him as an interpreter of God’s
commandments, and as a messenger of Yahweh, this later became significant in the prophetic office of
the Israelites . In many cases of the Israelites disobedience to Yahweh, which as a result of that caused
Yahweh to be angry at them who would always bring unto them disasters, Moses, as an intermediary,
would always stand in the gap and beg Yahweh to turn away from His anger.

 THE TRANSMITTER OF THE KNOWLEDGE OF YAHWEH

Moses acted as someone who led the Israelites into the in-depth understanding of Yahweh
(Ex.3:12), through the true revelation of the name “YAHWEH” (’EHYEH ’ASHER ’EHYEH),
which means “I am who I am, that is, a God who reveals what He is by what He does” that is,
His characters, potentials, and nature are all display in His activities or actions. Yahweh revealed
these attributes to Moses to set a distinction between Him (Yahweh) and the other neighboring
gods. Yahweh displayed His attributes through how He fought against the Egyptians and their
gods through various plagues in order to deliver of children. Moses transmitted this knowledge
of Yahweh, His attributes, what He likes and dislikes to the Israelites, meanwhile, this same
knowledge of Yahweh was communicated to generations after them who conceive the
understanding of how Yahweh dealt with the nations that oppressed their fathers.

 THE RECIPIENT OF THE DECALOGUE

As recorded in Exodus, Moses played a significant role in the collection of the Ten
Commandments which laid the proper foundation of the covenant between Yahweh and the
Israelites. According to the Exodus account, Moses stayed at Mt. Sinai for forty days and forty
nights without food in order to receive this decalogue. These laws became the major part of the
Israelite community and activities. Through these laws, Yahweh claimed the loyalty and the
submission of the Israelites to His will, with the emphasis on them not associating another god
with Him because He is a jealous God.
  MOSES INITIATED THE PROPER ESTABLISHMENT OF YAHWEH WORSHIP
In Exodus 3:12, Yahweh revealed Himself to Moses and commissioned him to bring the Israelites out of
slavery, basically, to establish the proper consciousness of Yahweh and His worship with His elected
nation. However, there had been some controversy on the fact that Moses had been the worshipper of
Yahweh before he had an encounter with Him properly at Midian. Yahweh might have been worshipped
in one way or the other, but not in an orderly manner as brought by Moses during the course of their
wandering in the wilderness. Moses brought the worship of Yahweh into proper establishment in the
wilderness as he inaugurated the Yahweh Priests that will serve before Yahweh, he as well established the
Tabernacle which was later upgraded to the Jerusalem Temple where Yahweh was to be worshipped. He
also initiated a proper liturgy (sacrifices), the Ark of Covenant, and so on. These are the establishments
that made it easier for the Israelites to be conscious of their responsibility to Yahweh, and made them to
be conscious of worshipping Him from time to time.

 THE INITIATOR OF COVENANT AND ITS RENEWAL

The covenant established between Yahweh and the Israelites laid the basis of the relationship between
them, and this mark the beginning of the Israelites as a nation. The relationship between the Israelites and
Yahweh was well defined through the covenant He made with them. The basic role of Moses on this is
the fact that he initiated this between Yahweh and the Israelites, and as well initiated the covenant
renewal through the various rituals and religious ceremonies. This is very crucial in the sense that it help
the Israelites to maintain their relationship with God.

 MOSES AS A LIBERATOR/DELIVERER
Moses was the instrument used by Yahweh to liberate the Israelites from their slavery in Egypt. He
received this mission at his first encounter with Yahweh at Midian, this resulted to the redemption of
God’s people who later became the major recipient of Yahwism.

 THE RECIPIENT OF THE REVELATION OF YAHWEH

This is the most important part of his roles. In Exodus 3:12, Moses had an encounter with Yahweh which
opened another chapter of his life, and a new beginning of the Yahweh worship. When he was leading the
sheep of Jethro in the wilderness at Midian, he saw a burning bush from which he had a voice who
disclosed Himself as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He is a God who reveals his nature and
identities through His actions (’ASHER ’EHYEH ’ASHER, that is, I AM WHO I AM THROUGH
WHAT I DO). Without this part of the Old Testament, it might be impossible for the Old Testament
readers to know the real name of God worshipped by the Patriarchs. Moses received this revelation of
Yahweh and passed it down to the Israelites and their oppressors.

In conclusion, Moses played crucial roles in midwifing Yahwism to the Israelites. Through him, Yahweh
is well conceived as a Universal God (a God of Justice), he served as an intermediary between Him and
the Israelites, he transmitted the accurate knowledge of Yahweh to the Israelites, he also served as the
recipient of the decalogue, his role in the establishment of Yahweh’s covenant with His people cannot be
skipped, he also served as the instrument of liberation of the Israelites from slavery, and the one who
received the proper revelation of Yahweh as the God worshipped by the Patriarchs. All these open the
understanding of the Old Testament readers of who Yahweh is.
 DECALOGUE, COVENANT AND COVENANT RENEWAL

1. DECALOGUE
The scholars gave decalogue the name “Apodictic Law”, that is “Necessary Law” (A law that
must be true, and cannot be otherwise), or in other words called “Absolute Law” (A law that is
unconditionally and universally true). The decalogue comes with an absolute demand of “You
shall not”, that is, no excuse of the breaking of the law is allowed. It comes with an absolute
obedience and submission.

The decalogue consists the Ten Commandments given to Moses on Mt. Sinai. Significantly, the
Israelites became a nation when they received these laws from Yahweh, which means that the
decalogue marked the beginning of the Israelites as a nation of Yahweh.

As stated in Exodus, this decalogue consists the instructions of Yahweh to Israelites which will
determine how smooth the relationship between the Israelites and Yahweh will be. The
decalogue demands for an absolute responsibility and obedience to Yahweh in order for Yahweh
to remain faithful to His covenant with them, while disobedience to these divine commandments
may attract a dreadful punishment from Yahweh.

Let’s quickly observe some of these commandments, below are the list of the Decalogue:
According to books of Exodus 20:1-17, and Deuteronomy 5:6-21, the commandments are as
follows:
 Worship only Yahweh: You shall have no other gods before me. (Ex.20:3).
The religious situation of that time was a polytheistic one, the Jews were surrounded with nations
who worshipped many gods which can ruin the relationship between them and Yahweh if they
otherwise turn to these gods. Yahweh disclosed Himself as a being that is jealous and who
cannot allow the association of other gods with him.

 Make no idols: You shall not make for yourself an idol in the form of anything in heaven
above or on the earth beneath or in the waters below. (Vs 4).

 Do not take God’s name in vain: You shall not misuse the name of the Lord your god,
for the Lord will not hold anyone guiltless who misuses his name. (Vs 7).
It is a big offense in Israel to call the name of Yahweh in vain, the outcome of this is the charge
of heresy and it results to death of the accused.

 Remember the Sabbath: Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy (Vs 8).
The sabbath day in Israel is meant for rest and a day separated for the worship of Yahweh. On
this day, no man must do any work. In the decalogue, Yahweh made it mandatory on the
Israelites to keep the Sabbath day holy, nobody must work on that day as means of observing
Yahweh’s rest after the works of creation for six days and he rested on the seventh day.
 Honor your parents: Honor your father and your mother, so that you may live long in
the land the Lord your God is giving (Vs 12).
 Do not murder: You shall not murder (Vs 13).
 Do not commit adultery: You shall not commit adultery (Vs 17).
 Do not steal: You shall not steal (Vs 15).
 Do not bear false witness: You shall not give false testimony against your neighbor (Vs
16).
 Do not covet: You shall not covet anything against your neighbor (Vs 17).
2. COVENANT
Covenant is an agreement between two entities (the superior and the inferior). The covenant
comes with terms and condition, and if these conditions are not met or kept by the inferior, the
fulfilment of this covenant by the superior partner will be voided. This means that the covenant
can be broken as a result of the failure of the inferior to obey the laws or the conditions of the
superior. However, if the laws or the conditions are met or kept, the inferior has the right to
expect the fulfilment of the promises (covenant) of the superior.

In the light of Yahweh and the Israelites, He made a covenant of being gracious to them if the
Israelites can keep His commandments. That is, the conditions (decalogue) of His covenant with
them must be kept, met and observed by the inferior (Israelites), failure to meet these conditions
may attract the nullification of the fulfilment of Yahweh’s promises to them.

Furthermore, as stated earlier, the covenant which Yahweh made with the Israelites was
conditioned by the decalogue, that is for Him to fulfil all his promises to them the Israelites must
keep all the conditions he had given them. The Hebrew term “Shema”, “hear O Israel, the Lord
your God is one”. Unlike the Canaanite gods, Yahweh has no wife, no children, and other gods
cannot compete with Him. This statement “Shema” was to remind the Israelites of their complete
loyalty to Yahweh. The Israelites were totally forbidden to worship any other gods except
Yahweh, and for Yahweh to fulfil his covenant with them, this condition among others must be
met. In summary, the decalogue laid the foundation for the conditions of the covenant, and these
conditions must be met for Yahweh to be gracious to them.

3. THE COVENANT RENEWAL

Yahweh made a covenant with His people which was built on the decalogue, likewise, the
Israelites also made a covenant with Yahweh to always keep His commandments. The renewal
of this covenant is another aspect of the duty of the Israelites which was officiated by Moses and
the Priests after his demise. On the day of some special festivals or rituals in Israel, like the
Passover day, the Day of Atonement (Holy Day), and so on, the Israelites were always reminded
of how they promised to keep their covenant with Yahweh (their absolute obedience to the
commandments of Yahweh) and the consequences of breaking these demands. Moses stood to
read the conditions of Yahweh’s covenant to them, he reminded them of how committed they
must be to these demands, and the curses that follow the disobedience of these demands,
therefore, the congregation of the Hebrews would say “Amen”. See Deuteronomy 27, 29, …

The main aspect of the covenant renewal was Moses reminding the Israelites the covenant they
made with Yahweh and how Yahweh had made a covenant of being gracious to them if they
could only meet His demands (basically, not associating any other gods with Him). “Shema”,
“Hear, O Israel, Yahweh is our God, Yahweh is one!” this must be written on their hearts and
must not be forgotten. During their ritual celebration, the Hebrews were reminded what Yahweh
had done for them, and how He had brought them out of Egypt, and how He had delivered them
from their adversaries, most importantly, how they had agreed to serve Yahweh without them
associating other gods with Him.

Let’s take note of the various occasions of this renewal

 The initial Covenant

God first established a covenant with the Israelites through Moses on Mt. Sinai (Ex.19-21),
promising to be their God and make them a holy nation if they obeyed His commands.
  Renewal at Moab
Deuteronomy 29-30. Before the Israelites entered into the Promise Land, Moses renewed the
covenant with the Israelites at Moab, stating God’s laws and promising blessings for obedience
and curses for disobedience.

 Renewal during Joshua’s Leadership

Joshua 8:30-35. After the death of Moses, Joshua led the Israelites into the Promised Land and
renewed the covenant at Mount Ebal, reaffirming their commitment to follow God’s laws.

 Renewal during King Hezekiah’s Reign.

2 Chronicles 29-31, during the reign of King Hezekiah, the Israelites renewed their covenant
with God, rediscovering and recommitting to the laws of Moses after a period of spiritual decline.

 Renewal during King Josiah’s Reign.

2 Kings 22-23, 2 Chronicles 34-35. King Josiah also led a covenant renewal, discovering the lost
Book of the Law and implementing reforms to restore Israel’s covenant faithfulness.

 Post-Exilic Renewal.
Ezra 9-10, Nehemiah 9-10. After the Babylonian exile, the Israelites renewed their covenant with
God under the leadership of Ezra and Nehemiah, recommitting to follow God’s laws and
separate themselves from influences.

The covenant renewal involved the following:

 Repentance: Recognizing and confessing their sins.
 Recommitment: Renewing their pledge to follow God’s laws and commands.
 Rituals and Sacrifices: Performing rituals, sacrifices, and ceremonies to symbolize their
renewed commitment.
Restating God’s Laws: Restating and reaffirming their understanding of God’s
commands and expectation.
These renewals demonstrated the Israelites’ desire to restore and maintain their relationship with
God, acknowledging their failures and reaffirming their commitment to be His holy people.

In conclusion of all, the decalogue marked the beginning of the Israelites as a nation, and as the
conditions of the covenant Yahweh made with them which must be met, breaking these
commandments will result to Yahweh not keeping His promises of being gracious to them. And
for the covenant not to be forgotten, the renewal of the covenant is necessary as it reminded them
of how they must be obedient to Yahweh.
THE EXPLANATIONS OF SOME BASIC THINGS ASSOCIATED WITH THE RELIGION OF
THE ISRAELITES, AND THE INSTITUTIONS OF THE FEDERATION (ANMPHICTYONIC
LEAGUE)

 THE ARK
The Ark was one of the most important liturgical objects formed for the worship of Yahweh
during the course of their wandering of the Israelites in the wilderness. According to the tradition
of the Old Testament, Moses received the instruction of the construction of the Ark directly from
Yahweh at Mt. Sinai (Ex. 25:10-22). The Ark was the product of the wilderness experience of
the Hebrews, which basically represented the presence of Yahweh in their midst. Its temporal
place was the Central Shrine, and on this Ark was the throne of Yahweh.

The description of the Ark.

The Ark was made of acacia wood (a wood regarded as sacred to the Hebrews). The major
overlay of the Ark was gold both the inside and the outside of it. Four golden rings were cast
around the Ark, two rings on each side, with acacia poles overlayed with gold while the poles
will be put in the rings and must not be removed from it. On the lid of the Ark was the mercy
seat (the throne of Yahweh) of pure gold, and two Cherubim of gold standing face to face on it
spreading their wings upward (Ex.25:10ff).

Inside the Ark were the Decalogue, the Pot of Manna, and the Staff of Aron. Strict instructions
on how to handle Ark were given to the Priests which must be well observed and kept.

The significance of the Ark.

 It signified the presence of Yahweh
Moses was instructed by Yahweh to construct on it the seat of mercy which will serve as the
meeting point of Yahweh with the Israelites. The presence of the Ark of covenant symbolized the
presence of Yahweh amidst His people. The motif behind the construction was that it pleased
Yahweh to dwell among His people.

 It signified the source of protection (war palladium)

During the course of the Hebrews facing wars, they believed that with the presence of the Ark,
victory and protection were assured. However, there was a point when the Israelites faced defeat
from their adversary (Philistines) and the Ark was taken away from them due to their disobedient
act to Yahweh (thus, Yahweh did not keep His covenant of protection with them). The Ark gave
the Hebrews a full confidence of victory at wars.

In summary, during the time of Solomon, when the first Temple was built, the Ark found its
resting place in the Holy of Holies, however, clear information on the disappearance of the Ark
at the later time was not stated, because the Ark was not in the Second and the Third Temples
since it was gone with exile of the Israelites by the Babylonian King.

 THE TENT OF MEETING

The Tent of Meeting played a vital role in the religious life of the Israel during their wandering
in the wilderness. The tent of meeting was pitched outside the camp, and Moses always turned to
this place at regular times to commune with Yahweh in order to know his will for the people of
Israel. The tent of meeting was a portable shrine, and which was more useful to Moses in the
wilderness than the elaborated tabernacle. The tent of meeting facilitated the presence of Yahweh,
and it served as the meeting point between Yahweh and Moses.
The descent cloud that came upon the entrance of the tent indicated the presence of Yahweh,
unlike the Holy of Holies. However, this cloud did not remain permanently there, nor did the
Levites officiated in it.

 FESTIVALS
There are various festivals celebrated by the Hebrews, some are basically associated with
agricultural festivals which were observed when the Israelites were still wanderers (unsettled
agriculturists), and even at their settlement in Canaan. The most important ones among the
festivals celebrated by Jews were the Passover, the Feast of Unleavened Bread, the Feast of
Weeks, and the Feast of In-gathering. Except for the Feast of Passover which was considered
pastoral (rural) in nature, the remaining three are connected with agricultural calendar, and it’s
difficult to connect them to the worship of Yahweh during the time of their wandering in the
wilderness.

The Passover.
Biblically, the origin of Passover is traced back to Egypt which is closely connected with Exodus.
The observance of the Passover reminded the Israelites the last days of their forefathers in Egypt
when Yahweh instructed them to kill a lamb per family, put the blood on the door and the lintel
of their homes, and must eat the flesh in a communal (shared or common) meal. This later
became an established festival in Israel, which later initiated a period of seven-day celebrations,
in the course of the celebration, the Unleavened Bread was eaten as prescribed in Ex. 12.

Description
The Passover took place in the same month with Unleavened bread. The sacrifice of a young
animal was offered to secure fertility for the flock. (This in normal sense could be seen as a kind
of normal rite that shepherd would normally be in interested to perform).

The Unleavened Bread.

The Unleavened Bread does not have a pastoral origin. It was celebrated by the Jews after their
settlement in Canaan and had the agricultural festival nature. The celebration of the Unleavened
Bread paralleled (happened at the same moment) with the Feast of Passover, therefore, the two
Festivals were merged in the land of Canaan and celebrated as one.

Description

The feast of Unleavened bread was observed in spring every year, at the beginning of barley
harvest (the first harvest of the year). During its observation, barley bread was eaten with leaven
(yeast) in it, or without adding anything from the harvest of the previous year in it. And it
symbolizes a new beginning.

The purpose of the feast of Unleavened Bread.

 To remember the hasty departure of the Israelites from Egypt.
 For the celebration of freedom from slavery and oppression.
 It symbolizes the removal of sin and corruption (leaven or yeast represents sin).

It’s traditions.
 Eating the unleavened bread (matzah) for seven days.
 Removing all the leavened meals and gatherings.
 Recitation of specific prayers and scriptures.
Note that, the Feast of Unleavened Bread is still being observed by the Jewish communities
around the world, typically in March or April. Meanwhile, some Christian denominations also
celebrate this feast as a way to connect with their biblical heritage.

The other two festivals (The Feast of Weeks and the Feast of In-gathering).
These two feasts were harvest festivals whose observance were made compulsory for the Jews.
However, the time which these feasts became Jewish festivals is not certain. Some related these
festivals to the Canaanites origin, and others linked it to the time before the era of Moses
(basically because the Jews settled, they have had the knowledge of growing cereal crops even in
Egypt).
 The Feast of Weeks.
The feast of weeks is etymologically known as “Shavuot” or its later Greek name “Pentecost”. It
is a significant biblical holiday in the Jewish and Christian traditions.

The Biblical background of this festival is Leviticus 23:15-22 and Deuteronomy 16:9-12. The
two books describe the feast as a celebration of the wheat harvest, occurring for 50 days after the
Passover.

Description
This feast was held 49 days after the feast of Unleavened bread. At the observation of this
festival, leavened bread of wheat (that is last to be harvested will be offered unto Yahweh).
The leaven is symbolized the end of the harvest of grain.

Its purpose.
 For the celebration of the completion of the grain harvest.
 It is for the commemoration of the giving of Torah or the Decalogue to the Israelites at
Mount Sinai.
 It symbolizes the joy of receiving God’s word and the fruit of one’s labor.

Its traditions.
 Counting the omer (49 days between Passover and Shavuot).
 The reading of Torah and the reading of special prayers.
 Eating milk products and sweet foods.
 Decorating homes with flowers and greenery.

In the modern days, the Feast of Weeks is still observed by Jewish communities around the globe,
typically in May or June. The Christians also celebrate Pentecost on the same day, often with
special services and festivals.

The Feast of In-gathering.

This feast is also known as Sukkot, it is a biblical holiday celebrated in the Jewish tradition. The
biblical background of this feast is recorded in Lev. 23:33-43, and Deut. 16:13-17. They both
describe this feast as a celebration of the harvest season, specifically the gathering of fruits and
grains.

Description
The most important and crowded festival was the feast of In-gathering. It was usually held in
autumn when all farm produce has been gathered including all the olives and grapes. On this day,
likewise, all the Jews would build shelters from branches where both rich and the poor will make
their homes (no-one must sleep in their personal apartment except for these shelters that were
built outside) in order to remember when they were still wanderers in the wilderness.
Its purpose.
 To express gratitude for the harvest and Yahweh’s provision.
 To celebrate the completion of the agricultural cycle.
 To remember the Israelites’ journey through the wilderness and their dependence on God.

Its traditions.
 They built and dwell in sukkahs (temporary shelters) for seven days.
 The waving of lulav (palm branch) and etrog (citron) during prayers.
 Gathering and blessing the four species (palm, willow, myrtle, and citron).
 Celebrating with meals, singing, and rejoicing.

In the contemporary world, the feast of In-gathering is still observed by the Jewish communities
around the world, typically in September or October. It’s a joyous celebration of gratitude,
community, and God’s faithfulness.

In summary of the festivals, looking into all indications, it looks like it was only the feast of
Passover the Israelites brought from the desert. Meanwhile, the rest of the festivals have
relationship with the Sedentary Palestinians or Canaanites. After when they took over them ,the
Jews connected these festivals with the redemptive work of Yahweh for the Israelites.

 HOLY DAY
The Sabbath is considered the Holy Day among the Jews and has its own history which can be
traced back to the creation story when Yahweh created the heavens and earth from ex nihilo
(from nothing) and everything that is in it for six days and He rested on the seventh day
(Gen.2:1-3). God honored the seventh day and set an example for its observance. Yahweh
commanded the Jews to keep practicing His example of resting on the seventh day (Ex.20:11).
The word Sabbath is etymologically from the Hebrew verb “Sabbat” (which means “to rest” or
“cease from work”) and which fits in properly to the Genesis account of Yahweh observing a rest
after the creation activities. However, there is an unresolved requestion on the word “Sabbat” in
relation to its Akkadian origin “Sabbattu/Sapattu, it is possible that a common Western Semitic
root is behind the two words but this remained mysterious to researchers.

There are different biblical accounts on its actual meaning, for example, in Deut. 5:15, it is
connected with the freedom of the Jews from hard bondage of Egypt brought about by the
Exodus. While in other accounts where the word Sabbath is found, it is seen as a way of the Jews
being merely asked to abstain from work on the Seventh Day (Ex.23:12; 34:21). Comparing
these accounts, they show that resting from work on the seventh day is different from keeping it
holy.

In some Old Testament books outside the Pentateuch, the observance of the Sabbath is related to
the new month (2 Kings 42:3; Isa. 11:3, Hos.2:11, Amos 8:5) … This has brought about doubt
on the origin of the Sabbath and its actual practice in the Jewish religious tradition. An opinion
has been raised that keeping of the Sabbath day holy probably became prominent during the
exilic period of the Jews when they tried to distinguish their religion or race from the Nations
around them. In the views of some scholars, they suggested that the Jews added to the original
tense “Remember the Sabbath to keep it holy” (Ex. 20:8) at the time of their exile. They assumed
that, changing the tense to “Seventh day” occurred as a result of the change from a monthly
observance to a weekly observance.
In conclusion, the idea of the “Seventh day” among the Semitic peoples was of special
significance. However, the method of its practice among the Jews was different from the Ancient
Near East if compared. In the Babylonian tradition, the 7th, 14th, 21st, and 28th days of the month
were regarded as dangerous days of bad omen when the gods were likely to unleash their anger,
while for the Jews, the Seventh day was a day of peace and rest and not of fear, and was
considered as gift Yahweh gave to them (Ex. 16:29; Isa.58:13, Mk. 2:27).

 THE CENTRAL SHRINE

The Central Shrine was a Tent that contained the Ark on which Yahweh had his throne. It was a
portable tent which originated during the wandering of the Jews in the wilderness and it is either
called the tent of meeting or Tabernacle.

The shrine of the Ark (Holiest Place) was the most important shrine of the confederation of Israel,
and this had changed its location from time to time, it started from Shechem to Bethel, to Gilgal
and finally Shiloh. The shrine took its final location at Shiloh before the Tribes of Israel got
destroyed.

 THE CULT
The cult refers to the religious practices and beliefs of the ancient Israelites, which later
developed into Judaism. The cult was centered around the worship of Yahweh.

The priests were responsible for the upkeep and the maintenance of the cult which was headed
and led by the high priest. The cultic duty of the cult was the responsibility of the all the priests
and they were regarded must be from the descendant of Aaron which was from the tribe of Levi.
However, with a vow and dedication to Yahweh anyone could become a Levite.

The characteristics of the cult.

 Monotheism: Believe in one God, Yahweh, who was considered the creator and the ruler
of the universe.
 Temple worship: The Temple in Jerusalem was the central place of worship, where
sacrifices and offerings were made to Yahweh.
 Priesthood: Priests, descended from Aaron, played a crucial role in leading worship,
making sacrifices, and interpreting God’s will.
 Sacrificial system: Offerings and sacrifices, such as animals, grains, and incense, were
made to atone for sins, express gratitude, and maintain covenant relationship with
Yahweh.
 Covenant: The idea of a sacred agreement between Yahweh and the Israelites, obliging
them to follow God’s laws and commandment.
 Law (Torah): The written and oral traditions containing God’s commandments, guiding
daily life, ethics, and ritual practices.
 Festivals: Regular celebrations and observances, like Passover, Sabbath, and Day of
Atonement, marked important events and reinforced community identity.
 Prophets: Charismatic figures who spoke God’s word, called people to repentance, and
foresaw future events.
The functions of the priest in the cult.
 The offering of animal sacrifice to Yahweh: The major duty of the priests in the cult
was to offer animal sacrifices to Yahweh. According to the requirement of the Jewish
religion, every Jew is expected to go for pilgrimage at the cult three times in the year
presenting himself to Yahweh (the festival of unleavened bread and Passover, the feast of
weeks, and the feast of gathering). See the discussion on Festivals for more information.

 The maintenance of the cult: It was the responsibility of the priests to maintain and to
keep the cult and must be led by the high priest.

In conclusion, this cultic framework shaped the spiritual, social, and cultural life of ancient Israel,
influencing the development of Judaism and eventually Christianity.