Technical Note No 51

Environmental control glasses

Environmental control glasses modify the internal environment. They are used to improve
comfort and/or reduce energy use in the building. They may reduce cooling demands
caused by solar gain and heating demands due to radiated heat. This Technical Note
describes the different types of environmental control glass and their use.

This Technical Note should be read in conjunction with:

TN 11 Glass types
TN 13 Glass breakage
TN 35 Assessing the appearance of glass
TN 48 U-values of windows
TN 50 Shading and solar gain

Introduction
ι = ρ + α + τ = 100%
Environmental control glasses are
used to reduce the heat transfer Where:
through glazing by modifying the
absorptance, reflectance and ι = incidence
emissivity of the glass. They may be ρ = reflectance (%)
used to reduce heat loss through α = absorptance (%)
windows by reducing the U-value, TN τ = transmittance (%)
48, or to reduce incoming solar
radiation.

This Technical Note concentrates on

glazings that reduce the proportion of
solar radiation transmitted through the
glass.

Solar radiation can also be reduced by

the use of shading devices such as
blinds and brises soleil. Guidance on
these is given in TN 50.

Transmission, Absorption,
Figure 1 Reflectance, absorptance
reflection and transmittance

All radiation incident on a pane of Reflectance depends on the surface

glass is reflected, absorbed or properties of the glass or a coating if
transmitted. The reflectance and present. Absorptance depends on the
absorption are properties of the glass. glass type and any tint added to the
The direct transmittance is calculated glass.
as:

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Environmental control glasses TN 51

Manufacturers normally quote ε = emissivity

reflectance (ρ) and total solar heat A = Area (m2)
transmission also known as the g T = temperature (K)
value (τ + q1), as these are the
parameters that govern appearance Net radiation is the radiation emitted
and internal and external comfort. less the radiation received from other
surfaces.
Reflectance and transmittance vary
depending on the angle of the incident Emissivity is greatest for a ‘black body’
light, particularly at angles of incidence for which ε = 1.0. Emissivity of
greater than 60o, Figure 2. However, ordinary glass is 0.87 and for low
they are usually measured and emissivity coatings (low-e glass) lies in
specified for normal incidence of 0o. the range 0.025 to 0.2.

Total transmittance

The incident radiation that passes

directly through the glass is called
direct transmittance. However,
absorbed radiation may be re-
transmitted by radiation and
convection from the warmed glass into
the room and the total transmittance
into the room is greater than the direct
transmittance.

For multiple glazings, radiation

reflected from an inner pane will be
incident on the inner face of outer
Figure 2 Variation of transmittance panes and multiple reflections will
with angle of incidence occur, Figure 3. These secondary
reflections also increase the
Absorptance causes the glass to heat transmittance and are included in the
up and this continues until heat loss total transmittance.
from the glass is in equilibrium with the
rate of absorptance. Heat loss from
the glass occurs by conduction to the
frame, convection and radiation. The
radiation and convection to the inside,
qi, contribute to the total transmitted
radiation.

Emissivity

Radiation loss from the glass is

governed by it emissivity. The rate of
radiation emitted is given by:

Q = 5.67x10 εAT W
−8 4 Figure 3 Transmittance and
reflectance in an IGU
Where:

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Environmental control glasses TN 51

Spectral nature of solar radiation

Importantly the spectrum of radiation
Solar radiation comprises radiation of interest can be divided into:
with wavelengths principally in the
range 280 – 2500 nm. This covers the • Ultra violet
spectrum from ultra violet through • Visible light
visible light to short-wave infrared • Short-wave infrared
radiation. Half of the power lies in the • Long-wave infrared
visible range, Figure 4.

Figure 4 Solar radiation spectrum

Visible light radiation emitted from bodies in the

Visible light is radiation with temperature range 273 - 353 K ( 0 –
wavelengths in the range 380 - 780 80 oC) that is of interest. These emit
nm. wavelengths principally in the range
8000 – 11000 nm. Long-wave infrared
Ultra violet is radiated from glass and the contents
Ultra-violet radiation has wavelengths of a room at ambient temperature.
shorter than those of visible light.
Radiation with wavelengths in the
range 280 - 380 nm may be important When considering the performance of
when selecting glazing. a particular glazing it is important to
know the performance with respect to
Short-wave infrared the different classes of radiation.
Radiation with wavelengths in the
range 780 - 2500 nm is known as Subscripts are used to distinguish
short-wave infrared radiation. It is between the different bands of
radiation emitted from bodies in the radiation so that:
temperature range 1200 - 6000 K.
This is radiation from the sun. τv = Direct visible transmission
τuv = Direct ultra violet transmission
Long-wave infrared τe = Direct solar transmission
Radiation with wavelengths in the Each is expressed as a proportion of
range 2500 to 50000 nm is known as incident radiation.
long-wave infrared radiation. It is the

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Sometimes the term Light Reducing the transmitted visible light

transmission (LT) is used as an will increase the need for artificial
equivalent to τv. lighting to supplement daylight and
increase the energy demand of the
Note that direct solar transmission is building.
the transmission of all radiation in the
range 300 – 2500 nm. Note that in some climates it may be
desirable to allow short-wave infrared
radiation in to a building at times of the
Solar factor (g) year when it is beneficial. That is
when heating is needed on a winter
The total solar energy transmittance is day. If different performance is
the sum of the direct transmittance required at different times of the year
and the absorbed radiation entering then it is necessary to use blinds or
the room by long wave radiation and variable shading devices. Switchable
convection from the glass. It is glasses such as electrochromics have
commonly known as the solar factor, been developed but have not been
g-value, and: used on a large scale in buildings on
grounds of cost.
g= τ +q
e i

Control of ultra-violet
Where: Ultra-violet radiation can damage
materials and is the principal cause of
τe = Direct solar transmission fading. In buildings such as museums
qi = Solar radiation absorbed and and galleries steps are taken to restrict
re-transmitted inwards the admittance of ultra-violet radiation.
For many purposes plain glass
The g-value is often used to specify absorbs sufficient U.V. However,
glazing performance. tinted and/or laminated glass can
provide greater protection.
Note that the g-value is calculated as a
proportion of the radiation incident on Low reflectance
the glass and is a property of the Low reflectance may be desirable
glass. where reflections reduce the clarity of
vision through the glass. This is the
Sometimes a solar heat gain case with some display windows and
coefficient (SHGC) is given. This is windows in buildings such as air
defined as the sum of the direct control towers.
transmittance and the absorbed
radiation entering the room by long Reduced U-values
wave radiation and convection from The U-value of glazing may be
the glass. There is a framing effect reduced by using low emissivity
and it is a property of the window. coatings, TN 48.

Design objectives Selectivity

Solar control Unlike most shading devices

The aim when selecting solar control environmental control glasses can be
glasses is to reduce the transmitted made to be spectrally selective. That
short-wave infrared without is they restrict only part of the solar
necessarily reducing the transmitted spectrum.
visible light. Selectivity is a measure of the efficacy
of a control glass and may be defined
as:

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Environmental control glasses TN 51

τ LT glasses. It can be seen that the

selectiviy = v
or greatest selectivity is 1.85 and that
g g
very low values of solar factor are
Figure 5 shows values of light associated with low light
transmission (LT) and solar factor (g) transmittance.
for one manufacturers range of

Figure 5 Selectivity of control glasses

Body-tinted glasses Body tinted glasses were widely used

prior to the development of coated
Body tinted glasses are produced by glasses. Today body tinted glasses
adding metal oxides to the molten may still used for solar control and
glass at the time of manufacture. allow designers to add colour to the
Different colours can be achieved glazing. If combined with reflective
including grey, bronze, green and coatings they can achieve higher
blue. performance and better selectivity.

Body tinting glass does not increase

its reflectance and uncoated body Coated glasses
tinted glasses rely on their high
absorptance to reduce solar Coating technology
transmittance. As a result they: Glass coatings used for solar control
rely upon two physical phenomena to
• Get hotter than some reflective produce their performance:
coated glasses
• Are not advantageously The first is the absorption and
spectrally selective and restrict transmittance characteristics of
the transmission of visible light particular materials.
• Colour the transmitted and
reflected daylight The second are interference effects
that result from the interaction of
Body tinting glass changes its transmitted and reflected rays from
selectivity properties. Green and blue thin layers of material. These layers
glasses are more selective than grey may have thicknesses of only fractions
or bronze glasses. of a wavelength.

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Environmental control glasses TN 51

Particular materials may need hard coatings and most cannot be left
substrate layers to ensure adhesion to exposed to the atmosphere. These
a surface and protective layers to have to be incorporated into an IGU
prevent chemical reactions with air or immediately after coating and the
gas filling. coating always has to face the glazing
cavity.
The coatings are of metal or metal
oxide. Coating materials include; Soft coatings can be applied one on
silver, nickel chrome, silicone nitride top of the other to produce high
and titanium dioxide. performance products. When used to
create low emissivity surfaces
Higher performance coated glasses emissivity as low as ε=0.025 can be
have multiple coatings of different achieved.
thickness, absorptance and refractive
index. These give a much sharper Solar control laminates
cut-off between wavelengths that are Polyester interlayers in laminated
reflected and those that are not. glass may be tinted to reduce solar
radiation transmission and appear
Coatings may be applied by: similar to body tinted glass although
the colour, unlike body tinted glass, is
• Deposition from solutions not related to thickness. Like body
• Chemical Vapour deposition tinted glass they can also be coated
• Ion implantation with hard or soft coatings to give
• Vapour deposition higher performance.
• Magnetron sputtering
• Pulsed cathodic sputtering
Solar control films
Polyester films may be applied to the
Hard coatings glass to reduce solar transmission
Also known as pyrolitic coatings, hard and/or reduce the emissivity. Films
coatings are applied to the glass when are applied to the internal or external
it is hot during primary production, on- surface of the glass or glazing unit.
line coating. They are less durable than plain or
hard-coated glass and are typically
Hard coatings are fused to the surface used as a retro-fit.
of the glass. They are highly durable
and most hard coated glasses may be
used with the coating exposed to the Performance of coated glasses
internal environment and some with it
exposed to the external surface of a Coated glasses are selected to
glazing unit. They are the only distinguish between short-wave
satisfactory way of coating glass for radiation and long-wave infrared,
use as single glazing. Figure 6.

Hard coatings generally achieve lower Figure 7 shows the reflectance and
performance than multiple soft transmission characteristics of a hard-
coatings. They are used to produce coat low emissivity glass. The
low emissivity glasses but can only reflectance and transmission are
achieve emissivity down to ε=0.15. coupled and one is approximately the
compliment of the other at most
Soft coatings wavelengths.
Soft coatings are applied to the glass
as a secondary process, off-line
coating. They are less durable than

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Environmental control glasses TN 51

radiation is transmitted is much

narrower and centred on the visible
part of the spectrum. This higher
performance glass has a much greater
selectivity and has lower transmittance
of short-wave infrared radiation.

Figure 9 shows the reflectance and

transmission characteristics of
Figure 6 Long-wave and short-wave ordinary glass with high absorptance
radiation of long-wave radiation.

Glazing configuration and

orientation

Glazing performance depends on the

glazing configuration and orientation of
the coated surfaces. Most glass
manufacturers provide software to
calculate u-values and g-values for
different glazing configurations.
Figure 7 Hard-coat low emissivity The guidance below applies to the
glass selection of glass combinations. The
glass surfaces are numbered
sequentially from the outside with the
odd numbered surfaces facing
outwards and the even number
surfaces facing inwards.

Soft coatings
Soft coatings have to be protected
within the glazing cavity. In a double
glazed unit they should be placed on
surface 2 or 3.
Figure 8 Soft-coated glass Low emissivity coatings
Low emissivity coatings are effective
whether they are placed on the
emitting surface or receiving surface.
They can generally be used on either
surface 2 or 3 to reduce radiation
across the glazing cavity.

However, when mid-plane blinds are

used the low-emissivity coating should
be placed on surface 3 to reduce
radiation heat transfer from the blind to
Figure 9 Ordinary glass with high
the inner pane.
absorptance of long wave
infrared.
Use of a double low emissivity coating,
Figure 8 shows the same coatings on surfaces 2 and 3, will give
characteristics for a soft-coated glass. only marginal improvement over a
The band in which short-wave single coating.

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Environmental control glasses TN 51

High absorptance glass panes strengthened after coating. However,

Tinted glasses and high absorptance some coatings have to be applied after
coatings will get warm and should be toughening or heat strengthening.
used as the outer panes. A low
emissivity coating may then be used It can be more difficult to toughen
on surface 3 to reduce re-radiation of glass once it has been coated.
absorbed energy into the building. Toughening ovens that use radiation
to heat the glass take longer to heat
Reflective coatings reflective glasses. Toughening ovens
Have to be orientated to reflect solar that incorporate convective heating are
radiation outwards. Reflected solar more effective.
radiation will cause glasses to become
hotter if it passes through the glass as Bending
both incident and reflected radiation. To bend glass it has to be heated to
The use of a low emissivity coating on 630oC or more. As with toughening
surface 3 will reduce the amount of not all coated glasses can be bent.
energy radiated inwards from the outer Furthermore, glass may not fit in to the
pane. coating plant after bending.

Multiple glazing Edge bonding

Multiple glazings comprise more Most soft-coatings have to be stripped
panes and surfaces but similar from the margins of a pane before it is
considerations apply as for double- assembled in to an IGU as edge seals
glazing. do not bond adequately to soft
coatings.

Construction with coated glasses The coating deleted at the edge of the
glass should be just enough to ensure
The use of coated glass has several the sealant bonds to the glass
implications for construction. substrate. To wide a deletion or
inadequate coverage of the glass edge
Delivery times by the glazing system may leave a
Whilst glass suppliers hold some hard- margin of deleted coating that is visible
coated glasses as stock sheets most around the edge of the unit.
coated glasses are made to order. Tolerances on edge deletion should be
This is particularly the case for soft- discussed with the IGU manufacturer.
coated glasses that have to be cut to
size prior to coating and assembled in Thermal fracture
to IGUs immediately after coating. Thermal fracturing of annealed glass
Additionally the glass often has to be may occur if a sufficiently high
toughened. These additional temperature differential is created
manufacturing requirements mean that across the glass (TN 13).
high performance glasses may take
longer to procure and the suppliers The greater the absorptance of the
should be consulted to determine the glass the hotter it is likely to become.
current delivery times when planning Coatings and films also increase the
projects. temperature of the glass if they:

Toughening and heat strengthening • Reduce heat loss by reducing

Glass is heated to approximately radiation from the surface.
630 oC during the toughening or heat
strengthening processes. All hard • Reflect radiation back thorough the
coated glasses may be toughened or glass, Figure 10. In this case both
heat strengthened. Some soft-coated the incident and reflected rays
glasses can be toughened or heat

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Environmental control glasses TN 51

pass through the glass and are determined by measurement.

absorbed. BS EN 410 gives guidance on
assessing colour rendering.
Reflected heat
Heat reflected from the façade is not Where judgement of surface colour is
simply lost but is reflected down on to critical such as art galleries and
the street and on to adjacent buildings. hospitals the Specifier may state a
required minimum colour rendering
When designing a large expanse of index. This is not a common
glazing consideration should be given requirement but the glass
to the effects of any reflected heat on manufacturer should be able to
the comfort levels and cooling loads in provide the required information.
adjacent buildings.
When using replacement glass for
repairs it may not be possible to
achieve the same consistency of
appearance achievable with all new
glass.

Low light transmission glasses may be

used to reduce discomfort glare from
overcast skies. However, these will
not be able to eliminate direct solar
glare and may increase the need for
artificial lighting at other times.

Patternation (non-uniform colouration)

can arise as a result of two physical
phenomena; iridescence and
anisotropy. These are features of the
glass and can only be avoided by
Figure 10 Absorptance of reflected
radiation giving up the advantages of using
environmental control glasses and
toughened glass.
Appearance
Iridescence is associated with thin
The use of environmental control films and is most commonly seen in an
glasses affects the appearance of a oil film on water. The appearance of
façade. The principal effects are any iridescence on glass is generally
associated with colour, patternation less apparent and depends on the
and reflectance of the glass. lighting conditions; it may not be
visible in all lighting conditions.
Some glasses are intended to be
coloured and give a hue to both Anisotropy is a feature of all
reflected and transmitted light. toughened or heat strengthened glass,
However, all glasses will exhibit a which may be required to prevent
limited amount of colouration. The thermal cracking. It occurs as a result
human eye is generally able to adapt of variations in the surface
to different uniform colour tinting of compressive stress and is visible in
transmitted light. People are more reflected polarised light most
aware of differences in colour where commonly in the evening.
variations occur. Although perceived
colour variation is real to the observer Toughened and heat strengthened
it is subjective and can only be glasses also have an inherent lack of
flatness, TN 35.

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Environmental control glasses TN 51

A further source of patternation arises Class A and B glasses are hard-

from unevenness of the coatings. A coated but Class B products are not
coating that is intended to reflect suitable for use with the coated
infrared will reflect radiation of shorter surface exposed to the external
wavelength where it is thinner than environment.
intended. This is known to cause pink
bands with some hard-coatings where Class C and D glasses are soft-coated
the coating thickness applied on the and have to be used in IGUs with the
float line is not accurately controlled, coating facing in to the glazing cavity.
Figure 11. Soft coatings are generally Class D glasses have to have their
of much more uniform thickness. coatings protected from the
atmosphere immediately after the
coatings are applied.

Class S applies to hard-coated

glasses used in shopfronts.

Specification

Environmental control glasses may be

specified by product name or by
performance specification.

Product selection
Products are usually described in the
form:

ACME Glass Co, Blue shiny xx/yy

Figure 11 Colouration of hard coatings Where:

Blue shiny is the brand name

Standards xx is the visible light transmission (%)
yy is the total solar transmission (%)
The reflectance, absorption, and
transmission characteristics and g- The xx and yy quoted are
value should be determined in approximations to the light and solar
accordance with BS EN 410, transmission and only indicative of
performance. Precise performance
The three parts of BS EN 1096 cover figures should be taken from the
the quality of coated glasses including Manufacturer’s declaration to
durability, appearance and defects. BS EN 410 for the solar characteristic
Soft-coated glasses are subjected to and BS EN 673 for the thermal
an ultra-violet exposure test to ensure transmittance (U-values).
that they do not degrade in sunlight.
Hard-coated glasses are subject to the Performance specification
following tests to ensure they are A performance specification should
durable: include:

• Condensation resistance • Visible light transmittance

• Acid resistance • g-value
• Neutral salt spay • Colour
• Abrasion resistance • Reflectance

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Environmental control glasses TN 51

Single values should not be used as a Glossary

set of three values will probably define
a unique product, which should be Absorptance - the proportion of
selected as described above. Visible incident solar radiation absorbed by
light transmittance should be specified the glass.
as the minimum acceptable level. The
g-value should be specified as the Absorption- another term for
maximum acceptable level. Colour in absorptance.
transmittance/reflectance should be
specified as a range although the Hard-coating - A durable coating that
Architect will probably wish to agree a may be exposed to the atmosphere.
specimen. The colour will depend on
the colour of incident light or sky IGU - Insulated glazing unit
condition and specimens may be used
latter as part of a quality control Off-line coating - A coating applied to
procedure. Where appearance is glass at low temperature after primary
critical, then the effect of viewing production.
conditions should be taken into
account. On-line coating - A coating applied to
glass at elevated temperature as part
Building energy modelling of the glass manufacturing process.
Visible light transmittance and g-value
are inputs required by building energy Reflectance - the proportion of
models along with the areas of glass. incident solar radiation reflected by the
The glass used on the building should glass.
be as good as or better than that
assumed in the model. Soft-coating - A coating that is not
durable unless protected within a
Building Regulations glazing cavity.
Part L 2A of the Building Regulations
requires that a building energy model Total solar energy transmission –
be run to show acceptably low carbon The proportion of solar radiation
emissions. This is done at the design energy transmitted through the glass
stage and repeated post construction including secondary heat transfer by
using the actual values applicable to convection and re-radiation.
the as constructed building, in the
case of environmental control glasses; Transmittance - the proportion of
the visible light transmission and g- solar radiation, which goes straight
value. through the glass without being
reflected or absorbed.
Part L 1A of the Building Regulations
makes no specific requirement Transmission – another term for
regarding cooling energy but requires transmittance.
that buildings should not overheat.
Again use of glazing with a suitably
low g-value may be helpful.

Selection of an appropriate glass

requires consideration of both the
g-value and the U-value. Note that the
U-value depends on the size of the
window and the framing systems as
well as the glass.

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Environmental control glasses TN 51

References

BS EN 410: 1998
Glass in Building – Determination of
luminous and solar characteristics of
glazing

BS EN 1096-1
Coated glass - Definitions and
classification

BS EN 1096-2
Coated glass - Requirements and test
methods for class A, B and S coatings

BS EN 1096-3
Coated glass - Requirements and test
methods for class C and D coatings

BS EN 1096-4
Coated glass - Evaluation of
conformity/Product Standard

CWCT TN 11
Glass types

CWCT TN 13
Glass breakage

CWCT TN 35
Assessing the appearance of glass

CWCT TN 48
U-values of windows

CWCT TN50
Solar gain and shading

Bibliography

CIBSE, TM35 Environmental Performance

Toolkit for Glazed Facades, CIBSE, 2004,
ISBN 1 90328 753 7

Littlefair, P. J., Site layout planning for

daylight and sunlight - A guide to good
practice, BR 209, Building Research
Establishment, 1991, ISBN 1 86081 041 1

Littlefair, P. J., Solar shading of buildings, © CWCT 2007

BR 364, Building Research Establishment,
1999, ISBN 1 86081 275 9 CWCT
University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath,
Muneer, T., Abodahab, N., Weir, G. and BA2 7AY
Kubie, J., Windows in buildings - Thermal, Tel: 01225 386541; Fax: 01225 386556
acoustic, visual and solar performance, Email: cwct@bath.ac.uk;
Architectural press, 2000, Website: www.cwct.co.uk
ISBN 0 7506 4209 2

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