1.

Physical Quantities, Units & Measurement

Chapter 1 – Physical Quantities, Units & Measurement

Objectives:

 state what is meant by scalar and vector quantities and give common examples of each
 add two vectors to determine a resultant by a graphical method
 describe how to measure a variety of lengths with appropriate accuracy by means of
tapes, rules, micrometers and calipers, using a vernier scale as necessary
 describe how to measure a short interval of time including the period of a simple
pendulum with appropriate accuracy using stopwatches or appropriate instruments
Scalars vs. Vectors
 Scalars: Magnitude only, No direction
 Vectors: Has both Magnitude + Direction
 7 BASIC/FUNDAMENTAL UNITS

Measuring lengths with appropriate accuracy

Tools available:
 Micrometer Screw Gauge
Structure of Micrometer Screw Gauge

Micrometer Screw Gauge consists of a main scale and a thimble scale.

It is used to measure diameter of hair or anything less than 1 cm.

 Top of Page

How to use?

Step 1: Check for zero error. This will be covered in more details later. Here, we assume there is
no zero error.
Step 2: Place the object between anvil and spindle, and turn the thimble until the anvil and
spindle grip the object. Then turn the ratchet until it starts to click for careful tightening as
shown in the above diagram.

Step 3: Read the main scale reading at the edge of the thimble. In this case, the reading on the
main scale is 4.5 mm.

Take note that when taking reading, if you cannot see the vertical line marking that below the
datum line at the edge of the thimble, then the reading on the main scale is 4.0 mm refer to
Fig.2.

Step 4: Read the thimble scale mark that coincides with the datum line of the main scale. In
this case, it is 0.22 mm.
 Step 5: The actual measurement is then the sum of main scale reading and thimble scale
reading, i.e. 4.5 + 0.22 = 4.72 mm
Zero Error

When using Micrometer Screw Gauge, we have to first check for zero error. This is to check
whether zero mark on thimble scale coincides with datum line on the main scale and reading
on main scale is 0 when we are not measuring anything (anvil is in contact with spindle). For
reading on zero error, we have to read it from thimble scale.
EXPERIMENT: TO CALCULATE THE CROSS-SECTION AREA OF A THICK METAL WIRE USING A
MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE.

OBSERVATIONS: Least Count of Micrometer = 0.01mm

S.No Main Scale Reading (mm Circular Scale Reading Total
Circular Divisions D D x 0.01mm
1.
2.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Determining the Resultant of Two Vectors at Rightrstanding Vectors
 Vectors are quantities that have both magnitude (size) and direction.
 Examples: Force, velocity, acceleration.
 When two vectors are combined, their resultant vector is the single vector that has the same
effect as the two original vectors acting together.
Resultant of Two Vectors at Right Angle
 When two vectors are at right angles (90 degrees) to each other, the resultant vector can be
determined using either calculation or graphical methods.
Graphical Method

To determine the resultant vector graphically:

1. Draw the Vectors:

o We draw vector A using a scale 1 N= 1 cm to represent its magnitude and direction.
o From the head (tip) of vector A, draw vector B perpendicular to A, again using the same scale to
represent its magnitude.
2. Complete the Right Triangle:
o Draw the resultant vector R as the hypotenuse of the right triangle formed by vectors A and B.
3. Measure the Resultant:
o Use a ruler to measure the length of R and then convert it back to the vector's magnitude using
the scale.
4. Determine the Angle:
o Use a protractor to measure the angle θ between the resultant vector R and vector A.

Practice Problem:
A boat sails in still water with a velocity of 20 km/h from South to North in a
river, If the velocity of water current is 10 km/h from West to East
perpendicular to the velocity of boat, What will be the resultant velocity of
the boat with the current,
Physics Notes: Acceleration and Graphs

Uniform Acceleration:

 Definition: Uniform acceleration occurs when an object’s velocity changes at a constant rate. This means that
the same amount of velocity is added or subtracted in equal intervals of time.

 Example:

o A car moving in a straight line increases its speed by 2 m/s every second. This is uniform acceleration, as
the speed increases by the same amount each second.

Non-Uniform Acceleration:

 Definition: Non-uniform acceleration happens when the velocity of an object changes at a varying rate over
time. This means that the speed change differs for different time intervals.

 Example:

o A car moving in traffic speeds up rapidly and then slows down unpredictably. The rate of change of
velocity is not constant, indicating non-uniform acceleration.
Deceleration (Negative Acceleration):

 Definition: Deceleration is when the velocity of an object decreases over time. It is referred to as negative
acceleration because the object’s speed is decreasing.

 Example 1:

o A cyclist applies the brakes and slows down from 10 m/s to 4 m/s in 3 seconds. The deceleration can be
calculated using the formula for acceleration but will yield a negative value. Solve and write your answer.

(4 – 10)/3 = -6/2 = =2 m/s2

 Calculation Example problem:

If a car slows from 20 m/s to 10 m/s in 5 seconds: a=(Final velocity−Initial velocity) / Time

=(10−20)/5=−2 m/s2 The negative sign shows deceleration.

Distance-Time Graphs:

 Sketch and Interpretation:

o A straight line with a positive slope on a distance-time graph represents constant speed.

o A curved line shows acceleration or deceleration. If the curve steepens, the object is accelerating; if it
flattens, the object is decelerating.

Speed-Time Graphs:

 Sketch and Interpretation:

o A straight horizontal line indicates constant speed.

o A straight line with a positive slope indicates uniform acceleration.

o A straight line with a negative slope represents uniform deceleration.

o The area under a speed-time graph gives the total distance traveled.

Summary:

 Uniform acceleration: Constant rate of velocity change.

 Non-uniform acceleration: Varying rate of velocity change.

 Deceleration: Negative acceleration, object slows down.

 Graphs: Distance-time graphs show speed; speed-time graphs show acceleration and deceleration.

These concepts are key to understanding motion in physics

O LEVEL PHYSICS – KINEMATICS
SKETCH THE GRAPHS
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. It is measured in meters per second square
(m/s^2).
It is vector quantity.

acceleration = change in velocity / time taken

There are two types of acceleration:

 uniform acceleration
 non-uniform acceleration

Uniform acceleration
Uniform acceleration is when the rate of change of velocity remains constant.
Another name for uniform acceleration is constant acceleration. Constant acceleration means
that the acceleration does not change but remains constant. It does not increase or decrease
with time.
It means that for an object traveling with acceleration of 5m/s/s every one second, it's velocity
increases 5m/s each second. This means every one second, the object's speed changes like this
5m/s, 10m/s, 15m/s and so on. Thus the velocity changes by 5m/s each second (or each unit
time).

It forms a straight line on a velocity-time graph.

Thus a formal definition would be...

Uniform acceleration is when the velocity changes at a steady rate.

Non-uniform acceleration
Non-uniform acceleration is when the velocity does not change at steady rate.

For example, an object's velocity changes like this each second: 2m/s, 3m/s, 5m/s, 10m/s,
19m/s and so on. the velocity changes by the fixed, same unit every second. (In the example
of uniform acceleration, it was changing by 5m/s each second).

Remember,
Uniform means NOT CHANGING, non-uniform means CHANGING.

Note that these do not hold the same meaning as acceleration and deceleration.

Acceleration is also known as positive acceleration. When an object speeds up it is called

positive acceleration.
When an object speeds up with time it is called positive acceleration.
An upward sloping graph represents positive acceleration in a velocity time graph.

Deceleration as negative acceleration. When an object slows down it is called deceleration or

negative acceleration.
When an object slows down with time it is called deceleration.
A negative slope represents deceleration in a velocity time graph.

Note that this just a simple representation of the concept using straight lines. These could be curves as well. What is
important to notice over here is the slope of the graph which shows acceleration and deceleration.

Distance-time Graphs
Gradient = y-axis/x-axis

The gradient of a distance-time graph is speed.

The gradient of a velocity-time graph is acceleration.

The unit of the speed/velocity shown on the gradient can be found from the x and y axes of the gradient. Generally it is
either m/s or km/h.

Note that since distance is a scalar quantity, a distance-time graph only goes in one direction. But change of direction can
be shown in displacement-time graph.
If you have any other queries about speed time graphs, just write it in the comments section below.

Velocity-time Graphs
The gradient of a velocity-time graph is Acceleration.

The area under a velocity-time graph gives the distance traveled.

We know that the steeper a graph, the greater the gradient. Thus a steeper v-t graph means higher acceleration.
We also know that the area under a v-t graph gives the distance traveled. Review these things when you study.
FREE FALL, (Acceleration due to gravity)

Free-fall acceleration
The acceleration caused by the pull of Earth's gravity is constant near the Earth's
surface and is approximately 10m/s2. This is called acceleration of free fall and is
denoted by g.

g=10m/s2

Motion of bodies with constant weight falling with and without air resistance
(This section requires knowledge from the chapter Newtonian Mechanics).

Falling without air resistance

To observe the effect of falling body without air resistance, we carry it out in a vacuum
container. In a vacuum container, air resistance does not act on a falling object.

When the object falls, the only force acting on the object is gravity. Thus the object
accelerates until it hits the ground. This is called free-fall acceleration.
Because the earth's pull on every object is the same, objects hit the ground at the
same time in a vacuum tube. For example, a feather and a coin will hit the ground with
the same speed and at the same time. (They both accelerate at 10m/s2).

Falling with air resistance

An object falling near the earth's surface experiences a force called air resistance. Air
resistance is force that acts in the opposite directing of a falling object (it acts upwards)
and tries to slow the object down. Air resistance increases as the speed of the falling
object increases.

TRMINAL VELOCITY

An object initially falls with uniform, free-fall acceleration that is 10m/s/s. As the
object falls, it's speed increases and hence, air resistance increases. This happens
until the the air resistance is equal to the weight of the falling object. The object
then starts to travel with a uniform velocity called terminal velocity until it hits the
ground.
 Free Fall and Air Resistance
In a previous unit, it was stated that all objects (regardless of their mass) free fall with the same acceleration - 9.8 m/s/s.
This particular acceleration value is so important in physics that it has its own peculiar name - the acceleration of
gravity - and its own peculiar symbol - g. But why do all objects free fall at the same rate of acceleration regardless of
their mass? Is it because they all weigh the same? ... because they all have the same gravity? ... because the air
resistance is the same for each? Why? These questions will be explored in this section of Lesson 3.

In addition to an exploration of free fall, the motion of objects that encounter air resistance will also be analyzed. In
particular, two questions will be explored:

 Why do objects that encounter air resistance ultimately reach a terminal

velocity?
 In situations in which there is air resistance, why do more massive objects fall
faster than less massive objects?
To answer the above questions, Newton's second law of motion (Fnet = m•a) will be applied to analyze the motion of
objects that are falling under the sole influence of gravity (free fall) and under the dual influence of gravity and air
resistance.

Free Fall Motion

As learned in an earlier unit, free fall is a special type of motion in which

the only force acting upon an object is gravity. Under such conditions, all
objects will fall with the same rate of acceleration, regardless of their
mass.
But why? Consider the free-falling motion of a 1000-kg baby elephant and
a 1-kg overgrown mouse.
 If Newton's second law were applied to their falling motion, and if a free-body
diagram were constructed, then it would be seen that the 1000-kg baby elephant would
experiences a greater force of gravity. This greater force of gravity would have a direct effect
upon the elephant's acceleration; thus, based on force alone, it might be thought that the
1000-kg baby elephant would accelerate faster. But acceleration depends upon two factors:
force and mass. The 1000-kg baby elephant obviously has more mass (or inertia). This
increased mass has an inverse effect upon the elephant's acceleration. And thus, the direct
effect of greater force on the 1000-kg elephant is offset by the inverse effect of the greater
mass of the 1000-kg elephant; and so each object accelerates at the same rate -
approximately 10 m/s/s. The ratio of force to mass (Fnet/m) is the same for the elephant and
the mouse under situations involving free fall.

This ratio (Fnet/m) is sometimes called the gravitational field strength and is expressed as 9.8
N/kg (for a location upon Earth's surface). The gravitational field strength is a property of the location within Earth's
gravitational field and not a property of the baby elephant nor the mouse. All objects placed upon Earth's surface will
experience this amount of force (9.8 N) upon every 1 kilogram of mass within the object. Being a property of the location
within Earth's gravitational field and not a property of the free falling object itself, all objects on Earth's surface will
experience this amount of force per mass. As such, all objects free fall at the same rate regardless of their mass. Because
the 9.8 N/kg gravitational field at Earth's surface causes a 9.8 m/s/s acceleration of any object placed there, we often call
this ratio the acceleration of gravity. (Gravitational forces will be discussed in greater detail in a later unit of The Physics
Classroom tutorial.)

Look It Up!

The value of the gravitational field strength (g) is different in different gravitational environments. Use the Value of
g widget below to look up the the gravitational field strength on other planets. Select a location from the pull-down

Value of g

What is the acceleration of gravity on moonMercuryVenusEarthMarsJupiterSaturnUranusNeptune (in m/s/s)?

Submit
 See http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/u6l3e.cfm.

Falling with Air Resistance

As an object falls through air, it usually encounters some degree of air resistance. Air resistance is the result of collisions
of the object's leading surface with air molecules. The actual amount of air resistance encountered by the object is
dependent upon a variety of factors. To keep the topic simple, it can be said that the two most common factors that have
a direct effect upon the amount of air resistance are the speed of the object and the cross-sectional area of the object.
Increased speeds result in an increased amount of air resistance. Increased cross-sectional areas result in an increased
amount of air resistance.

Why does an object that encounters air resistance eventually reach a terminal velocity? To
answer this questions, Newton's second law will be applied to the motion of a falling skydiver.

In the diagrams below, free-body diagrams showing the forces acting upon an 85-kg
skydiver (equipment included) are shown. For each case, use the diagrams to determine
the net force and acceleration of the skydiver at each instant in time. Then use the button to
view the answers.
 See Answer to A

See Answer to B

See Answer to C

See Answer to D

The diagrams above illustrate a key principle. As an object falls, it picks up speed. The increase in speed leads to an
increase in the amount of air resistance. Eventually, the force of air resistance becomes large enough to balances the
force of gravity. At this instant in time, the net force is 0 Newton; the object will stop accelerating. The object is said to
have reached a terminal velocity. The change in velocity terminates as a result of the balance of forces. The velocity at
which this happens is called the terminal velocity.

In situations in which there is air resistance, more massive objects fall faster than less massive objects. But why? To
answer the why question, it is necessary to consider the free-body diagrams for objects of different mass. Consider the
falling motion of two skydivers: one with a mass of 100 kg (skydiver plus parachute) and the other with a mass of 150 kg
(skydiver plus parachute). The free-body diagrams are shown below for the instant in time in which they have reached
terminal velocity.

As learned above, the amount of air resistance depends upon the speed of the object. A falling object will continue to
accelerate to higher speeds until they encounter an amount of air resistance that is equal to their weight. Since the 150-
kg skydiver weighs more (experiences a greater force of gravity), it will accelerate to higher speeds before reaching
a terminal velocity. Thus, more massive objects fall faster than less massive objects because they are acted upon by a
larger force of gravity; for this reason, they accelerate to higher speeds until the air resistance force equals the gravity
force.
 Investigate!

The amount of air resistance an object experiences depends on its speed, its cross-sectional area, its shape and the
density of the air. Air densities vary with altitude, temperature and humidity. Nonetheless, 1.29 kg/m 3 is a very
reasonable value. The shape of an object affects the drag coefficient (Cd). Values for various shapes can be found here.
Use the What a Drag! widget below to explore the dependence of the air resistance force upon these four variables.

What a Drag!

Enter values of mass density, object speed, drag coefficient and

cross-sectional area. Then click on Determine Drag Force button.

Mass Density (kg/m^3)

Object Speed (m/s)

Drag Coefficient

X-sectional Area (m^2)

We Would Like to Suggest ...

Example-1: Compute the height of the body if it has a mass of 2 Kg and

touches the ground after 5 seconds?

Solution:

Given parameters are:

Time t = 5 sec
 We have to compute the height. So, we can apply the first equation as given
above.
i.e. h= 1/2gt2
Substituting the values,

h= 1/2gt2
h= 12×9.8×52
h= 4.9 × 25

h = 122.5 m

Therefore height as required will be 122.5 meter.

Problem 1: Calculate the height of an object released from a certain

height, if it has a mass of 2 kg and after 7 seconds it reaches the ground?

Answer:

Given: Height h =?
Time t = 7s
We all are acquainted with the fact that free fall is independent of mass.

Hence, it is given as

h=12gt2

h = 0.5 × 9.8 × (7)2

h = 240.1 m

Problem 2: The cotton falls after 3 s and iron falls after 5 s. Which is
moving with higher velocity?
Answer:

The Velocity in free fall is autonomous of mass.

V (Velocity of iron) = gt = 9.8 m/s2 × 5s = 49 m/s

V (Velocity of cotton) = gt = 9.8 m/s2 × 3s = 29.4 m/s.

The Velocity of iron is more than cotton.

Problem:
A ball is launched directly upward from ground level with an initial speed of 22 m/s. Air resistance
is negligible, and the acceleration due to gravity g is 9.81 m/s.
i) How long is the ball in the air?
ii) What is the greatest height (maximum height) reached by the ball?
iii) How many seconds t after launch is the ball 9 m above the release point?