WPT For Vehicular Applications-Overview and Challenges

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION, VOL. 4, NO.
1, MARCH 2018 3
Wireless Power Transfer for Vehicular Applications:

Overview and Challenges
Devendra Patil , Student Member, IEEE, Matthew K. Mcdonough, Member, IEEE,
John M. Miller, Life Fellow, IEEE, Babak Fahimi, Fellow, IEEE,
and Poras T. Balsara, Fellow, IEEE
Abstract— More than a century-old gasoline internal com- lifetime [8]. Today, EV batteries rely on lithium-ion chem-
bustion engine is a major contributor to greenhouse gases. istry using a scarce and moderately costly material, lithium
Electric vehicles (EVs) have the potential to achieve eco-friendly (U.S. $20/kg) [9]. In addition, batteries take a long time to
transportation. However, the major limitation in achieving this
vision is the battery technology. It suffers from drawbacks such charge (slow charger takes 6–8 h). Some researchers reported
as high cost, rare material, low energy density, and large weight. fast battery charging techniques to reduce the charging time
The problems related to battery technology can be addressed to 20–30 min [8], [10]. However, the peak power and cost
by dynamically charging the EV while on the move. In-motion of fast charging systems are high even if energy storage with
charging can reduce the battery storage requirement, which future advanced charging methods are used. Still, the charging
could significantly extend the driving range of an EV. This
paper reviews recent advances in stationary and dynamic wireless time is long compared to refueling a car with gasoline. Another
charging of EVs. A comprehensive review of charging pad, power solution proposed by better place is “hot swapping” technique,
electronics configurations, compensation networks, controls, and in which the batteries are replaced at charging station with
standards is presented. fully charged batteries, a concept adopted and then dropped
Index Terms— Coils, compensation, electric vehicle (EV), by Tesla [10].
inductive dynamic charging, shielding, standards, stationary The current charging technology for EV consists of plug-
charging, wireless power transfer (WPT). ging the cable from ac utility to charge the onboard batteries
using an onboard charger [3]. The problem with the conductive
I. I NTRODUCTION charging of EV is that it requires heavy gauge cables to
connect to EV which are difficult to handle, has tripping
I N THE United States transportation industry consumed
nearly 28% of energy in 2014 [1], predominantly using
gasoline. Gasoline accounts for 56% of total U.S. trans-
hazards, and are prone to vandalism [7], [8]. An alternative
technology to charge an EV, referred to as wireless power
portation energy use in 2014 [1]. Extensive use of gasoline transfer (WPT), or inductive power transfer (IPT) has been
leads to the emission of harmful gases into an environment investigated [11]–[14]. The advantages of wireless charg-
already suffering from the emission of greenhouse gases. ing are aesthetics, safety, convenience, and fully automated
Therefore, to alleviate dependence on conventional energy charging process [6]. Wireless charging can be classified into
source and to minimize its harmful effects on the environment, stationary, quasi-stationary, and dynamic: stationary wireless
there is a need for alternative solutions such as electric charging is suitable for public charging stations, homes, and
vehicles (EVs or battery EVs) and plug-in hybrid electric workplace. Quasi-stationary charging is an extension of sta-
vehicles (PHEVs) [1]–[4]. The total number of EVs sold from tionary charging, but the primary pads may be located at traffic
1999 to 2015 is approximately ∼2.1 million [4]–[6], with a lights, layby’s, and rest areas along highways. The range anx-
projected growth of 6 million by 2020 [5], [6]. The biggest iety problem of a BEV can be solved with dynamic wireless
impediment to the commercialization of battery EV (BEV) charging (DWC) [7], [13], [15]. Theoretically, DWC does not
is the energy storage system, which should be sufficient for have any battery on EV instead they have Ultracapacitor; the
the driving range of an EV and possess sufficient power for power required for EV is transferred to it through a power rail
grading, passing, and maneuvering of EVs [2]. in the road [16]–[19].
Typically, batteries are bulky, heavy, and low in energy History of WPT extends from the pioneering work of Hertz
density, require long charging time and have a short to present time. Fig. 1 shows the historical development for
WPT. In the late eighteenth century, Prof. Heinrich Hertz
Manuscript received July 16, 2017; revised October 16, 2017; accepted
November 19, 2017. Date of publication December 6, 2017; date of current demonstrated electromagnetic wave propagation in free space
version February 5, 2018. (Corresponding author: Devendra Patil.) with a spark gap to generate high-frequency power and to
D. Patil, B. Fahimi, and P. T. Balsara are with the Erik Jonsson School of detect it at the receiving end [20]. In 1890, Nikola Tesla
Engineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080 USA
(e-mail: drp140230@utdallas.edu). conducted his experiments on the transmission of power by
M. K. Mcdonough is with the Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, radio waves. His first effort to transmit power was at Colorado
NM 87185 USA. Springs, CO, USA, in 1899 [20]. He built a massive coil in
J. M. Miller is with J-N-J Miller Design Services PLLC, Longview,
TX 75601 USA (e-mail: jmmiller35@aol.com). his laboratory having a copper ball positioned on a tower.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TTE.2017.2780627 The Tesla coil was resonated at a frequency of 150 kHz when
2332-7782 © 2017 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
Authorized licensed use limited to: Indian Institute of Information Technology Design & Manufacturing. Downloaded on April 08,2020 at 12:07:52 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
4 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION, VOL. 4, NO. 1, MARCH 2018
Fig. 1. Timeline diagram of development of the WPT.
supplied with 300 kW [21]. However, there is no evidence of Overall WPT can be applied in various applications and
its successful demonstration. In the 1960s, William C. Brown the frequency of operation for different methods of power
demonstrated a far-field (radiative) method of WPT [22]. The transfer over a wide range. Fig. 2 gives an overview of
development of klystron and magnetron tubes and parabolic different techniques for WPT depending on the frequency of
antennas made possible to demonstrate microwave technol- operation.
ogy [23]. Further, in 1964 using the invention of the rectenna, Recent advances in technology have made stationary charg-
which could efficiently convert microwaves to dc power, with ing commercially feasible. The history of stationary charging
its demonstration of microwave beaming, a helicopter was started in 1997/1998 when IPT—Charge Technology—
powered wirelessly from the ground [22], [23]. In the 1970s, demonstrated an EV with wireless charging at Rotorua
concept of solar power satellite to harvest energy from sunlight Geothermal Park in New Zealand and the first bus charged
using the solar cells in space, then beaming it down to earth wirelessly at bus stops in Genoa and Turin in 2002. The
using microwaves to rectenna, was conceived by Glaser [24]. major companies working on stationary WPT are WiTricity,
Later, in 1975, Brown demonstrated short-range transmis- Qualcomm, Conductix-Wampfler, Momentum Dynamics, and
sion of 475 W of microwaves at 54% dc-to-dc efficiency. Bombardier [26]–[31]. WiTricity is a spin-off from the MIT.
Following this, Brown and Robert Dickinson at the NASA’s They have developed transmitter and receiver that oper-
Jet Propulsion Laboratory transmitted 30-kW dc output power ate on strongly coupled magnetic resonance [27]. WiTricity
over a distance of 1.5 km using 2.38-GHz microwaves from has reported system efficiency of around 90% for 3.3-kW
a 26-m dish to a 7.3 m × 3.5 m rectenna array with 80% power rating operating at 145 kHz with lateral misalignment
efficiency [22], [23]. In 2007, a group of researchers from of ±20- and ±10-cm bumper to bumper [27].
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) repeated Tesla’s Qualcomm’s Halo collaborated with the University of
experiment based on coupled-mode theory using magnetic Auckland to patent “Double D” polarized magnetic pads
resonance with an efficiency of 40% over a distance of capable of delivering twice the power rating with a higher
2 m using coupling coils with a radius of 30 cm [25]. efficiency as compared to circular pads operating at 20-kHz
PATIL et al.: WPT FOR VEHICULAR APPLICATIONS: OVERVIEW AND CHALLENGES 5
Fig. 2. Review of different technologies in WPT.
TABLE I German IPT Company, Conductix (now IPT Technology)

C OMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE S TATIONARY C HARGING along with the University of Auckland tested the stationary
charging of electric buses [13]. The developed technology was
capable of charging an EV bus when it is parked or at a stop.
The prototype was designed with a power rating of 60 kW,
operating frequency of 15–20 kHz, working air gap of 40 mm,
and a reported efficiency of 90% [30]. Because the system
was designed for such a small air-gap length, the secondary
coil was required to be mechanically lowered during charging.
Another research team from Korea’s Advanced Institute for
Science and Technology (KAIST), in 2009 built a 3-kW
frequency [28], [29]. Conductix-Wampflers has implemented Online EV (OLEV) with a mechanically controlled pickup, for
stationary charging for the electric bus in Turin, Italy. They an air gap of 10 mm, and efficiency of 80% when operating
tune the resonant frequency of each system to achieve 90% at 20-kHz frequency [30], [33], [34]. Later, in the same year,
efficiency at the separation distance of 40 mm for 60-kW a 60-kW OLEV for bus was developed. The system was
power transfer [13]. designed for an air gap of 170 mm with a maximum achievable
Momentum Dynamics has developed stationary WPT sys- efficiency of 72%, without mechanically moving the pickup.
tem for an air gap of 24 in at 3.3 kW with power transfer Other researchers have refined these designs and reported
efficiency of 92%. Further, the charger can be upgraded on increased power output, reduced weight of the pickup
to 7.2 and 10 kW, which can charge the Chevy Volt in and smaller size of power supply rail with minimized stray
approximately 1 h [26]. Momentum Dynamics WPT system electromagnetic field (EMF). In 2016, Oak Ridge National
is currently being implemented in select FedEx trucks from Laboratory (ORNL) extended the power of their earlier
Smith EVs [15], [30]. HEVO Power Company is working on 10-kW WPT to 20 kW for demonstration on a passenger car,
implementing static charging for EV [26]. Table I summarize a Toyota RAV4 with a 10-kWh battery storage [13], [14], [35].
the commercially available stationary wireless charging sys- Utah State University startup wireless advanced vehicle elec-
tems for EV [26]–[31]. trification developed a 50-kW WPT system for an electric
Dynamic WPT (DWPT) application covers passenger cars, bus. Their system was capable of transferring 50 kW of
taxi, trams, train, trucks, and bus. DWPT is not commer- power over an air gap of 15–30 cm at 20-kHz operating
cially available due to formidable challenges, including the frequency with a reported system efficiency of 90%. Bom-
need for highly efficient transfer of power and extensive bardier Primov has developed several IPT systems for sta-
infrastructure modification resulting in disruption of current tionary and dynamic charging applications. For the dynamic
services [14], [31]–[33]. The history of DWPT for EV charging application a 250-kW system was developed for
begins in 1976 at the Lawrence Berkley National Labora- Primove Trams in Augsburg, Germany. In their system an
tory where the technical feasibility of DWPT was evalu- E-type power rail is employed with F-type pickup. The air
ated [30]. In 1979, the Santa Barbara Electric Bus project gap between primary and secondary is 60 mm and tolerates a
commenced with a 4.3-m length of track, pickup of 1-m few millimeter of lateral misalignment [30], [36]. Momentum
width and using switched capacitor tuning control for power Dynamics has developed the WPT system for powers up
regulation [30]–[32]. In 1992, partners for advanced transit to 200 kW, with reported efficiency of 92% for 610-mm air
and highway (PATH) installed an IPT station for electric gap [17], [18]. They have successfully implemented WPT
bus with power supply rails constructed along a roadway system for delivery trucks using dock or roadway embedded-
for evaluation of the environmental and economic impacts stationary charging installations. Recently, Utah State Univer-
it would entail. The PATH team demonstrated 60-kW power sity has demonstrated 25-kW DWPT with circular primary coil
transfer with 60% efficiency across a 7.6-cm air gap [30], [32]. for use in bus in 2016. The system was capable of delivering
However, it was not commercialized due to high cost, heavy 25 kW for lateral misalignment of ±15 cm [37]. A detailed
coils, low efficiency, insufficient air gap for bus ground comparison of different IPT technology developments is
clearance and low frequency of operation [30]. Later in 1996, provided in Table II.
TABLE II
D IFFERENT WPT T ECHNOLOGIES FOR DWPT [12]–[38]
Li and Mi [39] and Musavi and Eberle [40] report the

review of WPT for EV in stationary and dynamic WPT.
However, the report only provides a brief overview of var-
ious topics for the WPT system. The recent topics such as
foreign object detection (FOD), recent standards, and power
electronics architectures for dynamic and stationary charging
are not reported. Choi et al. [34] report overview of various
subsystems for road-powered EV and its fundamental princi-
ples of operation. However, it is predominantly focused on
one technology and lacks extensive comparison of various
subsystems such as couplers, power electronics architectures,
communication methods, and shielding. Mi et al. [35] offer
Fig. 3. Fundamental principle of WPT.
an overview of various technologies for DWPT. However,
the review is limited in terms of the current status of research
current and permeability of free space [41]
and lacks details of implementation issues.

This paper reviews the current status, technology, and BT l = μ O I N1 . (1)
implementation issues of WPT charging for EVs. This paper
is organized as follows. Section II discusses the fundamental 2) Faraday’s Law: If a time-varying magnetic flux links
principles of WPT and its architectural elements required a conductor, it induces a voltage in the conductor. The
for practical implementation. Section III reviews different value is proportional to the rate of change in magnetic
magnetic couplers needed to transfer power efficiently with flux and the number of turns in the conductor [41]
minimum leakage flux and high tolerance for misalignment. dφ B
Section IV presents an overview of various compensation e = −N2 (2)
dt
networks. Section V covers the necessary power electronics
required to implement high-power stationary and dynamic where BT is the magnetic flux density in Tesla, l is the unit
WPT. In Section VI, enabling control techniques to provide length of the conductor in meters, N1 is the number of primary
efficient power transfer are investigated. Section VII reviews turns, N2 is the number of secondary turns, I is the current
different impedance matching techniques. in primary conductor in amperes, and φ B is the flux in the
magnetic path in weber.
As depicted in Fig. 3, WPT has two coils separated by a
II. F UNDAMENTALS OF W IRELESS P OWER T RANSFER
large air gap. The coils are placed around a magnetic mate-
The WPT working principle is governed by Ampere and rial to improve coupling and to minimize proximity losses.
Faraday’s laws. Briefly, the laws are explained as follows: The primary coil is energized by high-frequency ac current
1) Ampere’s Law: When electric current flows through a which generates a time-varying magnetic field in accordance
conductor in free space, it generates a magnetic field. with Ampere’s law. A portion of the generated time-varying
The resulting magnetic field is proportional to electric magnetic field is linked with secondary coil depending on the
Fig. 4. Block Diagram of a typical wireless charging system for EVs.
coefficient of coupling, k, to induce a voltage according to TABLE III

the Faraday’s law in the secondary [42]. Due to the large J2954/1 P ROPOSED WPT P OWER C LASS [7], [42], [43]
air gap, the circuit is inductive. Therefore, a large current
(i.e., magnetomotive force) is required to produce sufficient
magnetic field to link secondary coils. In practical WPT
systems, it is necessary to cancel the inductive component in
the circuit using a capacitor connected such that it resonates
with the primary inductance to reduce the Volt–Amp (VA)
rating of the inverter. The secondary side is also tuned to
approximately the same resonant frequency to cancel the
secondary leakage inductance and to maximize the power
transfer efficiency. To provide high-frequency ac current to
excite the primary coil, a high-frequency switching inverter is
employed. On the secondary side, the induced voltage in the
dc level. Various standards for wireless charging of an EV have
coil is rectified and fed to a load [34], [35], [37].
been published, such as SAE J2954/1 charging standard for
A WPT system can operate at resonance or above resonance.
light-duty vehicles for which five levels of charging according
Typically, if the power transferred is small then the voltage
to power levels are categorized [42], [43]. WPT1 is for
drop of the leakage inductance of the coil will be smaller
a household with a maximum power capacity of 3.7 kVA
even with large current. Generally, the switching frequency of
from single phase 120-V ac supply. WPT2 is for the higher
the inverter is higher to achieve zero voltage switching and
power of 7.7 kW from 240-Vac mains, WPT3 upgrades this
to improve efficiency [34], [43]. At high power, the voltage
to 11.1 kW, and WPT4 to 22 kW input from a 240-V
drop at a higher frequency across leakage inductance will be
three-phase ac supply outlet. SAE J2954/2 is under develop-
higher making it difficult to force a large amount of power
ment for WPT charging of heavy-duty EVs such as a bus
without increasing the input current. The increase in input
where the power rating is >22–150 kW and higher from a
current will cause significant conduction losses in the system.
208-Vac three phase, 480-Vac three phase, or medium voltage
In addition, reactive power additionally required will increase
supply. At either level of charging, the efficiency of the system
the VA rating of the inverter [39], [44], [45].
must be greater than 85% for a matched system at rated power
and >80% for interoperable systems [42], [43]. Table III
A. WPT for EV summarizes the J2594 standard requirements for WPT sys-
The overall WPT architecture for EVs is shown in Fig. 4. tems. The second stage in Fig. 4 is a full-bridge inverter
It consists of front-end ac–dc converter to correct the power which converts dc voltage into high-frequency ac voltage.
factor (PF) and convert ac supply from utility to an adjustable The high-frequency ac is transferred through the compensating
TABLE IV TABLE V
J2954 S PECIFICATION OF THE Z-C LASSES [42] J2954 S PECIFICATION OF THE M ISALIGNMENT D ISTANCE [42]
mounted WPT receiver coil does not reduce the vehicle ground
clearance so that obstacles or road debris do not inadver-
tently damage the coil. The primary or ground assembly coil
may be surface mounted as shown in Fig. 5 for residential
garages, but should be embedded in public spaces or on
highways [42]. SAE J2954/1 system specifies the nominal
frequency of 85 kHz. While the system can employ fre-
quency tuning to the range of 81.38–90 kHz, the available
spectrum space internationally agreed upon and one having
minimal coexistence issues with other services [42]. SAE
J2954/1 standard also reports on the interoperability per-
Fig. 5. Definition of ground clearance as specified in [41]. formance requirements such as compatible communication
method, FOD, living object detection (LOD), compliance
with electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) requirements, and
network to compensate the reactive power requirement of the EMF protection requirements [42]. The communication can
coupler coils. Coupler secondary voltage is passed through the be dedicated short-range communications (DSRC), or other
compensation network and rectified by the secondary rectifier. private and secure communications including near-field com-
The compensation network is designed to resonate within the munications. Initial positioning of the vehicle may be a mag-
allocated frequency band (81.38–90 kHz), generally at its netic beacon or radio frequency identification. Furthermore,
center around 85 kHz and to have coupling coefficient and the leakage EMF must comply with International Commission
loading variability adjustment to improve the power transfer on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) 2010 as stated
efficiency [42]. The control is achieved by primary side in SAE J2954/1 while the IEEE C95.1-2345-2014 [42]–[51]
control or secondary side control [37]. offers more insights into physiological effects such as nerve
excitation (<100 kHz) and tissue heating (>100 kHz).
Practical high PFC circuits for low THD rely on accurate
B. Design Considerations for WPT
zero-crossing detection methods and high-frequency operation
The recently published SAE J2954/1 standard reports dif- (70–115 kHz). Most commonly used PFC configuration is
ferent requirements of the WPT for EVs [42]. Fig. 4 shows the interleaved boost PFC circuit for EV chargers [8]. ORNL
various components of a wireless charging system for an reported on a silicon carbide-based full bridge ac–dc converter
EV and the corresponding standard for each section. The for PFC [48]. Bosshard et al. [49] evaluated different coil
front-end PF correction (PFC) should have PF greater than structures to demonstrate that the main factor necessary for
0.95 (PF > 0.95), and the total harmonic distortion (THD) high magnetic coupling is the large coil area [45], [46].
should be less than 5% [8], [42]. These levels were formerly Furthermore, they assessed different coil geometries, conclud-
specified in SAE J2894/1 Power Quality Requirements for ing that circular coil geometry has higher coupling coefficient
Plug-in EV Chargers but transferred to J2954/1 by agreement k than square or rectangular geometries. For high quality factor
with SAE for WPT chargers. The WPT charger should be Q and coupling coefficient, closely spaced coils with an inner
able to match the battery charging requirement of different radius of at least half of the outer coil radius is preferred.
EVs such as sedans, SUVs, and pickups. Transmitter and A η-α-Pareto optimization considering the losses in different
receiver coils should be compatible with various charging components of the system was performed, to achieve effi-
power levels through sensing electronics and appropriate con- ciency of ∼96.5% at 52-mm air gap with 100-kHz switching
trols. The distance between the primary coil and a secondary frequency [49], [50].
coil, the magnetic gap, is classified into three Z-classes with
values reported in Table IV and the definition of coil ground
clearance in Fig. 5 [42]. SAE J2954/1 also reports the mis- C. International Standard
alignment tolerance for various directions and positions, and Currently, there exist many standards related to WPT
the details are given in Table V. Vehicle ground clearances are implementation. SAE J2954/1,/2 addresses issues related to
load dependent, and range from 16 cm for small passenger alignment method, interoperability, the frequency of opera-
vehicles to >20 cm for SUVs. It is important that the vehicle tion and power level. Aspects of safety, obstacle detection,
TABLE VI
EMF E XPOSURE S TANDARD L EVEL [42]
Fig. 6. J2954 Vehicle alignment concept [42].
TABLE VII
M AJOR S TANDARDS FOR WPT [42], [51]–[54]
Fig. 7. (a) EMF region top view and (b) EMF region front view [42].
magnetic field levels, contact current, communication,

maximum temperature, and electric shock are discussed
in [42] and [43].
Fig. 6 shows the vehicle alignment as defined in
SAEJ2954/1,/2. Further, it reports two alignment methods. communication, safety, and interoperability requirements are
1) A small magnetic field is generated by the ground reported in Table VII.
assembly coil. The magnetic field is detected by vehicle
assembly coil. However, the range of this method is D. Generalized Mathematical Analysis for WP
limited to ∼1 m. In this section generalized approach to model compen-
2) Magnetic signal is transmitted from vehicle assembly sation network is reviewed. An efficient compensation is
using the auxiliary coil. The ground assembly coil necessary to transfer the maximum possible power with
receives the signal and responds to vehicle assembly the lowest possible reactive power supplied from the source.
position via the communication interface; the range of Tavakoli and Pantic [38] reported a generalized approach for
this method is around ∼5 m [42], [43]. mathematical analysis based on active and reactive power.
Wireless charging of the EV has the presence of The approach can be applied to WPT system operating at
high-frequency magnetic field between transmitter and any frequency. However, application of this general approach
receiver. ICNIRP specifies the guidelines for limiting the time- to various compensation networks was not reported. In the
varying magnetic field, electric field, and EMF [42], [43], [51]. literature, many papers have reported maximum efficiency for
SAE J2954/1,/2 reported that electric and magnetic fields basic compensation network. Fig. 8 shows the generalized
and contact current in the regions 2a, 2b, and 3 shown WPT system with compensation network. Primary side is
in Fig. 7 have to comply with ICNIRP 2010. Table VI energized by a high frequency supply. To simplify, the analysis
summarizes the EMF exposure limit from ICNIRP 2010 [51]. semiconductor switches and diodes are not included. The com-
The contact current limit applies to the current between two pensation network on the primary and secondary can be con-
conductive sections of a vehicle when a person comes in nected in series, parallel, or other compensation configurations
contact with both these sections. Other standards related to such as LCC and LCL [39]. In [55], a generalized approach
where ωn is the normalized angular frequency, ω2 is the

secondary resonant angular frequency, Q 1 and Q 2 are the
quality factors of coils, and Q L P and Q L S are the load-side
quality factors. These terms are defined as follows [55]:
ω 1 ωL 1 ωL 2
ωn = , ω2 = √ , Q1 = , Q2 =
ω2 L 2 C2 R P1 R P2
ωL 2 RL
QLS = and Q L P =
RL ωL 2
b1 = Q L P /Q 2 , b2 = Q 2L P (Q L P + 2/Q 2 )
4

k2 Q1
a3 = (Q L P + 1/Q 2 ), b4 = 1 + Q 4L P
Q2

b5 = k 2 Q 1 a2 + Q 2L P 2 − 2Q 2L P + Q 2L P /Q 22
2
Fig. 8. (a) General WPT system with compensation network. (b) General b6 = k 2 Q 1 a3 +2Q 2L P (Q L P +1/Q 2 )/Q 2 + 1 − Q 2L P
WPT system with T equivalent circuit.
1 2
and b7 = QL P + .
Q2
is reported which will be summarized here. Fig. 8(b) shows The maximum efficiency of the WPT system can be found by
the WPT system with T equivalent circuit. The real powers differentiating (7a) and (7b) with respect to ωn . The maximum
at various stages are illustrated in Fig. 8(b). PS , P1 P , Pm1 P , efficiency is expressed as [55]
Pm2S , P2S , and PL are the real power at input of compensation,
primary input power, medium left power, medium right power, dη S
=0
secondary output power, and load power [55]. dωn
The efficiency of the WPT system is expressed as ω2
ωη Sm = (8)
η = ηcp η p ηs ηcs (3) 1 − 1/(2(Q 2 //Q L S )2 )
dη P
where ηcp is the compensation network efficiency, η p is the =0
dωn
primary-side efficiency, ηs is the efficiency of the secondary
side, and ηcs is the secondary-side compensation network 1 + 1/(Q 2 Q L P )
ωη Pm = ω2 . (9)
efficiency [55]. The overall efficiency is given by 1 + k 2 Q 1 /Q 2
Pm1 P P2S Re(Z m1 ) Re(Z 2 )
η= = (4)
P1 P Pm2S R P1 + Re(Z m1 ) R2 + Re(Z 2 )
III. C OUPLING PAD
where
The coupler is the most important part of WPT system.
j ωM It consists of transmitter and receiver coils separated by an air
Z m1 = .
j ω(L 2 − M) + R2 + Z 2 gap. The desired characteristics for coupling pads are the high
Z 2 is either series impedance Z 2s or parallel impedance Z 2 P coefficient of coupling k quality factor Q and high misalign-
and is given by ment tolerance [44], [45]. Many researchers have proposed
different coil structures to improve the coefficient of coupling
1 and to maintain a high quality factor [49], [46], [56]–[71].
Z 2s = R L + (5)
j ωC2 To increase the coupling coefficient, ferrite bars, or ferrite
1 plates are used including an insulating material between ferrite
Z2P = R L // . (6)
j ωC2 and the coil conductors. The increase in ferrite bars can
improve self-inductance, quality factor, and mutual inductance
Substituting (5) and (6) in (4) and simplifying the equation
of the coupling pad. However, the addition of ferrite bar
gives the efficiency with secondary series compensation (η S )
increases both, the core losses in a system as well as copper
and the efficiency of parallel compensation scheme (η P ) [55]
losses due to field modification in the conductors [50].
Q 1 (Q 2 //Q L S )k 2 ωn2 Efficiency of coupled inductors in a WPT system is affected
ηS = 2 by the product kQ, the product of magnetic coefficients of
1 + Q 1 (Q 2 //Q L S )k 2 ωn2 + (Q 2 //Q L S )2 ωn − 1
ωn coupling, and the quality factor of the inductors [44], [45],
1 [49], [50]. The geometry, core material, and the distance
× QLS
(7a) between the inductors determine these factors. The inductor
1+ Q2
quality factor, Q, is the geometric mean of primary and
k 2 ωn2 Q 1 b1 ωn4 + b2 ωn2 + b3 1 secondary quality factor, which is given by
ηP =
b4 ωn6 + b5 ωn4 + b6 ωn2 + b7 1 + 1
+
Q L P ωn2
Q2 Q L P Q2 ωL 1 ωL 2
Q= Q 1 Q 2 , where Q 1 = and Q2 = . (10)
(7b) R1 R2
To attain a high Q, inductors must be designed to have high

self-inductance and low series resistance at high operating
frequency. However, the maximum operating frequency is
limited to approximately 85 ± 3.7 kHz considering SAE
J2594/1 [42], [45]. Therefore, to increase the Q, resistance
of the coil must be decreased. Self-inductance of the coil is
proportional to the square of the number of turns, the per-
meability of the used magnetic material, and geometry of the
magnetic flux path having cross-sectional area A and mean
path length of l
μN 2 A
L= (11)
l
where μ is the magnetic permeability of the flux path, N is
the number of turns, A is the area of the conductor, and l is
the length.
Inductance of a coil is proportional to the square of the Fig. 9. (a) Circular pad. (b) Flux lines of circular pad side view and front
number of turns whereas, effective series resistance (ESR) view [59].
is directly proportional to the number of turns. Therefore,
an increase in the number of turns will increase inductance
greater than ESR. One should consider the spatial distribution
of current (i.e., proximity effect) within neighboring wires at
high frequencies as well. Hence, overall Q of the coil increases
with increase in a number of turns [49], [50]. Thus, a balance
must be found between wire diameter and number of turns
to yield an optimum self-inductance. Another option is to add
ferrite bars on the coil to increase self-inductance. The purpose
of ferrite bars is to guide the flux so that leakage flux can be
reduced and high coefficient of coupling can be realized. ESR
Fig. 10. Flux pipe [60].
of the coil consists of dc resistance and ac resistance. The dc
resistance of a coil is reduced by increasing the area of the
conductor. To reduce ac resistance, litz wire is adopted, which gave a very good assessment of WPT for automotive applica-
is suitable for the operating frequency range [46]. tions, and Covic and Boys [56] provided an excellent treatment
Different coupler designs are reported in the litera- of circular pad sizing and the main performance factors for EV
ture. Traditionally lumped WPT uses a coupler design chargers. The circular coil and its close variants (i.e., square
based on magnetic core topologies such as Pot-, U-, and and rectangular designs) are commonly used in WPT because
E-cores [59], [60]. Problems associated with the conventional of the single-sided magnetic field that enters and leaves the
coupler are: large size for higher power rating and lower coil from the front of the coil, as shown in Fig. 9 [59]. The
efficiency during misalignment [65]. magnetic field is single sided, and fountain field shaped like
the coil sits above the ferrite and the later channels most of
A. Circular Pad the flux beneath the coil and away from rebar and pipes in
floor concrete. The single-sided nature of flux pattern helps
Most commonly reported coil structure is a circular pad in reducing leakage flux. Also, aluminum shielding helps to
as shown in Fig. 9(a). Circular coils are well reported minimize the leakage flux when it is properly designed so that
and optimized in [46], [49], [50], [57], [58]. A η-Pareto efficiency of the system is not affected [58].
optimization and guidelines for designing circular coil with
respect to efficiency and area-related power density are
reported in [49] and [50]. With η-Pareto optimization, B. Flux Pipe
Bosshard et al. [49], [50] demonstrated dc–dc efficiency of To improve the coupling, different coil shapes are proposed
96.5% with a 210-mm coil diameter and 52-mm air gap. The in the literature, including the rectangular ferrite bar with a
circular coil coefficient of coupling is of the order of 0.2 when coil wounded along its length shown in Fig. 10 [59], [60].
the distance between the coils is a quarter of the diameter. This solenoidal field design exhibits good lateral misalignment
For example, to keep coefficient of coupling in the range tolerance plus the fact that it increases the flux path in ferrite
0.15–0.2 when the distance between coils is 150–200 mm the to localize it at the ends of the coils [59], [60]. The benefit of
diameter of the coils should be 600–800 mm [59]. In [46], flux pipe design is that the fundamental flux path height is half
it was reported that WPT coils should operate at current den- of the length of receiver pad. Moreover, horizontal (lateral)
sities less than 3–5 A/mm2 in the litz wire or similar cable to misalignment tolerance is high, and coefficient of coupling is
achieve acceptable thermal performance. Miller and Daga [46] comparable to a circular pad [59]. The shortcoming of this
Fig. 12. Tripolar pad [67], [68].
D. Multicoil Polarized Coupler

Multiple coil couplers with different coils either on the pri-
mary side or on the secondary side are reported in [59]–[65].
Multicoil polarised couplers are derived from DD coil and
circular coil. These coils have the advantage of capturing
sinusoidal flux components and therefore the quadrature com-
ponent of the flux [59]. The main advantages are tolerance to
misalignment and small variation in air gap spacing.
1) DDQ Coil: double D quadrature (DDQ) coil is derived
from DD coil by adding the quadrature coil as shown in
Fig. 11(b) [59]. The position of the coil is at the center of
DD coil. The coils are placed such that DD coils capture the
d-axis flux, and Q coil captures the q-axis flux. Therefore, this
coil structure compensates the misalignment to a great extent.
However, the size of the coils increases approximately three
times with respect to the circular pad or the square coils [59].
2) Bipolar Pad: The bipolar pad (BP) is a multicoil coupler
with two coils placed on the ferrite bar with an overlap as
shown in Fig. 11(c) [62], [63]. BP consists of two identical,
partially overlapped, and mutually decoupled coils as shown
in Fig. 11(c). The BP has high misalignment tolerance and
high coefficient of coupling similar to DDQ pad. The main
Fig. 11. Different coil structures [62], [63]. (a) DD coil. (b) DDQ coil. advantage of BP is that it requires 25% to 30% less copper as
(c) BP. compared to DDQ pad [63].
3) Tripolar Pad: Tripolar pad (TPP) is a three-coil coupler
coil design is that it is solenoidal, therefore, when aluminum arranged in such a way that they are mutually decoupled
shielding is used, its proximity to one side of the coil winding as shown in Fig. 12 [67], [68]. This type of assembly
will result in intercepting flux and hence reducing the quality permits high rotational misalignment tolerance of a nonpo-
factor. This loss of quality factor lowers the efficiency of EV larized pad [67], [68]. The three mutually decoupled coils
charging [59], [60]. are driven independently to achieve highest coupling factor.
Kim et al. [67], [68] demonstrated an increase in effective
C. DD Coil coefficient of coupling with bipolar and circular pad as the
Budhia et al. [59] proposed a polarized single-sided flux secondary coil. This was accomplished by controlling voltage
coupler that combines the advantage of both flux pipe and magnitude and phase of the transmitter coil currents. The
circular pad design, as shown in Fig. 11(a). The middle portion apparent power demand is reduced by 45% compared to
of the double D (DD) coil is similar to flux pipe as the coils the circular pad for an air gap of 150 mm. The leakage
are connected in series magnetically [59], [60]. The coils are magnetic field reported is also less than the one specified in
placed on the top of ferrite; this allows aluminum shielding ICNIRP [51]. However, the need for three separate inverters
to be placed under the ferrite without loss in quality factor. to drive three mutually decoupled coils adds to its cost and
The main features of DD coil are single-sided flux paths, flux increases complexity of control [67], [68].
path height that is proportional to half of the length of the 4) Miscellaneous Couplers: Other multiple coil couplers
pad, resulting in a higher coefficient of coupling, lower losses are reported in the literature specifically to improve efficiency
in the aluminum shielding, and low leakage flux from the and tolerance to variation in load resistance [69]–[75]. In the
back of the coil. In addition, the no-load quality factor Q three-coil coupling pad shown in Fig. 13(a), an additional
is improved [61], [62]. coil is added to the transmitter or receiver in the same plane
Fig. 14. Integrated inductor DD coil [72]–[74]. (a) Primary coil.

(b) Secondary coil [71].
Further, the primary inductor has an angle with respect to

secondary inductor as shown in Fig. 14 [72]–[74].The angle
Fig. 13. (a) Three-coil WPT [69], [70]. (b) Four coil [70]. (c) Four-coil
between secondary inductor and primary coil is adjusted to
WPT Asymmetric four coil WPT [71]. be 90Â°. In the case of misalignment, the secondary inductor
can induce some voltage to compensate for misalignment [74].
as transmitter or receiver structure. The third coil improves E. Performance Comparison of Couplers
the efficiency of the system, the energy efficiency resilience Different coil structures shown in Fig. 15 were simulated
to load variations, and reduces EMF emissions due to coil in ANSYS and compared to assess the relative benefits of the
misalignments [69]. However, if the source coil is placed close geometry. For a fair comparison among various coil structures,
to the transmitter coil, the efficiency of the system degrades the diameter of circular coil and the diagonal length of the
slowly when the load resistance diverges from optimal load rectangular coil were kept the same. The simulated coils
resistance. Moreover, the coefficient of coupling is improved were compared for coefficient of coupling for variation in
by the addition of a coil on the receiver side referred to as an misalignment, as shown in Fig. 16(a). From the simulation
intermediate coil. The advantages are an increase in power results and the stated coil dimensions in Fig. 16, it can be
transfer distance and an overall increase in efficiency. The concluded that BP has the highest coefficient of coupling and
addition of a coil induces bifurcation phenomenon, therefore misalignment tolerance. However, the coefficient of coupling
a complicated design procedure must be followed to avoid decreases with the addition of aluminum shielding, as depicted
bifurcation. In addition, for a wide variation in load resistance, in Fig. 16(b).
bifurcation can lead to instability in the system [70]. In [70], From the above comparison of couplers, it can be concluded
the four-coil method as shown in Fig. 13(b), transmitter and that circular coil has a better performance with shielding as
receiver each have additional coils referred to as source and its coefficient of coupling is not affected much since the flux
load coils. The addition of coils improves the coefficient pattern is single sided. For a double-sided flux pattern such
of coupling compared to three-coil configuration. In [71], as the BP shielding has adverse effects. Shielding blocks
two coils are added on the primary-side coil as shown in the path of the flux on one side, which leads to losses in
Fig. 13(c) to boost the coefficient of coupling even further shielding. It also results in a subsequent decrease in the
where this double boosting effect improves performance over coefficient of coupling (Table VIII). Table VIII summarizes
the conventional four-coil method. Zhang et al. [72] proposed the comparisons of magnetic couplers for various parameters.
an integrated magnetic inductor in DD coil to form magnetic Out of many couplers BP and circular pad are the most popular
integrated compensation circuit. The proposed structure has choices [49], [50]. Circular pad has high coupling coef-
the advantage of compactness as the inductor is integrated. ficient with shielding due to single sided flux and ease
Fig. 15. Simulated coils in ANSYS Maxwell.
Fig. 16. Comparison of different coils for misalignment. (a) Without shielding. (b) With aluminum shielding.
of implementation. However, BP benefits from high However, the segmented structure has issues regarding con-
misalignment tolerance as compared to circular with high cou- trol complexity, complex power supply architecture and high
pling coefficient. Furthermore, EMF exposure is also less [61]. maintenance cost, especially when embedded in a roadway.
In 2011, ORNL commenced work on a segmented DWPT that
F. Power Rail and Pickup for DWPT employed many circular coils in a series track having a pitch
The charging of EV on the move is referred to variously factor of 0.7 [36]. ORNL integrated their WPT system into
as DWPT, Road-powered transmitter implementation as seg- different commercial EVs including Chevy Volt, Toyota Prius
mented IPT tracks or long power rail [34], [35]. The segmented plug-in, Scion IQ, and Toyota RAV4 with maximum power
IPT has a short power pad with individual power supply output of 6.6 kW with 85% efficiency at 162-mm air gap [36].
for each pad. These power pads are energized only when a Further development led to increased system power to 20 kW
WPT-compliant EV is moving over the top of it [34], [56]. for the same ground clearance of 162-mm air gap with an
Researchers from Auckland University are working on the efficiency of 92%–93% [36].
segmented IPT system [82]. Multiple ground pads are laid Another implementation, and one pioneered by KAIST was
on the road at a specified distance; the particular pad is turned to lay a long power supply rail on the roadway [34], [35]. The
ON as EV is passing over. This method has the advantage power rail is energized full time during operation irrespective
of low weight, low EMF and compact structure from an of the presence of the EV. The basic power rail consisted of
implementation point of view [82]. The magnetic coupler for two wires without any magnetic material. Due to the absence
stationary charging can also be used for dynamic charging. of magnetic material, the lateral misalignment tolerance of the
TABLE VIII
C OMPARISON OF D IFFERENT PAD S TRUCTURES [49], [50], [46], [56]–[68]
Fig. 17. Different types of power rail. (a) E-type. (b) U-type. (c) I–type. (d) S-type. (e) Ultraslim S–type. (f) Cross-segmented (X-rail) [34], [35], [82]–[84].
system is poor [34], [35]. The performance of the power rail is W-type power rail, and I type pick-up coil. The W-type power
increased by adding magnetic material with different shapes, supply rail had many W-shaped magnetic core structures
i.e., E-type, W-type, U-type, I-type, S-type, ultraslim S-type arranged at particular intervals. W shape has an advantage
and cross-segment (X) type [34], [35]. In 2009, KAIST tested compared to U-shape regarding reduced magnetic resistance
its first generation prototype of OLEV with E-shaped magnetic by a factor of three compared to U-shaped [34], [35].
structure with the power rail for a golf cart application, Therefore, the power output of a system for each pickup is
as shown in Fig. 17(a) [35]. The first generation OLEV had improved from 6 to 15 kW. Other advantages include high
mechanically controlled the pickup to align to power supply coefficient of coupling, no aluminum shielding requirement,
rail with an air gap of 1 cm. The second generation (2G) and reduced width of the power supply rail to 70 cm. The
OLEV employed U-shaped power rail configuration, as shown overall efficiency of the system is improved to 83% at 20-cm
in Fig. 17(b). The air gap of 2G OLEV was 17 cm with an air gap. In order to reduce the cost and time of manufacturing
efficiency of 72%. The advantages of U-shaped power rail for the power supply rail, modular I type magnetic core struc-
are higher efficiency for larger air gap, lower EMF due to ture [Fig. 17(c)] for power supply rail is employed [34], [35].
return path for power supply rail being close to the sending The main advantage of I types structure is reduced the cost
rail [34], [35], [83]. The third-generation (3G) OLEV adopted of the system by 20% as compared to W-type power rail.
TABLE IX TABLE X
C OMPARISON OF D IFFERENT P OWER R AIL S UMMARY OF P OWER R AIL FOR DWPT [34], [35], [82]–[84]
C ONFIGURATIONS [34], [35], [82]–[84]
Furthermore, power rail is arranged to alternate its positions

Fig. 18 illustrates various pick-up systems reported in the
to form alternate magnetic poles along the road to reduce the
literature. The most commonly reported pick-up systems are
EMF. Also, the width of the power rail is reduced to 10 cm
E- and U-types, which due to the readily available structure of
for an increase in power output per pickup to 25 kW. Further,
magnetic core are relatively inexpensive to fabricate [85]–[87].
to reduce the cost, ultra slim S type rail is proposed [34], [35].
To improve the power density, an S-type pickup is proposed
The structure of S-type power rail is illustrated in Fig. 17(d).
in [86] that the authors claim has two times higher power
As compared to S-type, the width of the magnetic core is
transfer capability as the U- or E-types for the same ferrite con-
reduced from 10 to 4 cm, and the leakage EMF is also smaller
tent [86]. Still, the S-type pickup is not yet widely employed
due to reduced width [34], [35]. Ultraslim S-type has multiple
due to its complicated magnetic structure and because it
turns wound to set the power level by changing a number of
requires significant modification in the supporting infrastruc-
turns and current through coil [34], [35].
ture [82]. For the previously mentioned pick-up systems,
In an effort to reduce the waste of energy and leakage EMF,
lateral misalignment can lead to reduced or no power output
the segmented power rail is proposed [34], [35], [82]–[84].
leading Raabe et al. [87] to propose a quadrature pickup. In a
It consists of many sub rails, which can be activated or deac-
quadrature pick-up system, a standard E-type pickup having an
tivated through a switch box. However, several power cables
additional coil as shown in Fig. 18(e) and (f) is employed [87].
are required from the centralized power supply to sub-
The additional coil is mounted in such a way to capture
rails. To reduce the cable harness, the distributed switching
the flux during misalignment. The output of the additional
power supply rail was proposed [82]. It consists of mul-
coil is connected to the rectifier and wired-OR to the main
tiple power supplies distributed along the line. With the
output. The quadrature pickup is more effective for lateral
distributed switching of the power rail the cable losses are
misalignment, however, for longitudinal or for simultaneous
reduced over the entire length. Even so, it requires a common
lateral and longitudinal misalignment it is not as effective [87].
power supply cable which increases the cost of construction.
Cross-segmented power supply rail is proposed to eliminate
the common power supply cable, as illustrated in Fig. 17(f). G. Shielding
It consists of a centralized power supply feeding the seg- The most significant problem in WPT is the leakage field
mented power rails, each being separated by a compensation and its adverse effect on the surrounding material and human
switch box that controls the activation or bypass of each exposure. The WPT system should be compliant with different
rail. Consequently, the cost of cable is reduced by half electromagnetic interference (EMI) and EMC standards [51].
compared to a distributed power supply rail [82]. Detailed Also, time-varying magnetic field induces eddy currents in
performance comparisons of different power supply rails are the metal object which is located on or in the vicinity of the
shown in Table IX. As a conclusion to this section, a summary transmitter coil, leading to additional losses and possible object
of main characteristics of reviewed power rail is summarized heating [88]. Shielding measures that redirect or absorb the
in Table X. It is evident that cross-segmented (X) type power magnetic field incur losses and reduce the efficiency of the
rail has high efficiency and smaller leakage EMF with reduced WPT system. A proven method is to add aluminum shielding
cost of cabling. Future research in this area is to reduce the to the backside of the ferrite and coil. Fig. 19 shows the
cost and leakage EMF further without affecting efficiency. circular coil with aluminum shielding (ferrite flux guides
Fig. 18. (a) E-type pickup. (b) U-type pickup. (c) S-type pickup. (d) Flat pickup wound on flat E-core. (e) Quadrature pick-up design 1. (f) Quadrature
pick-up design [63], [83], [85], [86].
Fig. 19. Circular coil with shielding.
are not illustrated). The presence of shielding affects the

performance of the system by reducing coil inductance and Fig. 20. Reactive power shielding as in [90].
increasing losses which requires further capacitance compen-
sation to achieve resonance condition [88]–[90]. Shielding can
reduce the efficiency of a system by 1%–2% [88]. Typically,
aluminum or copper is employed as a shielding material, as In DWPT applications, the leakage field generated may
both of the material are highly conductive such that eddy be considerably higher than a comparable stationary charging
currents induced in the material counteract the incident flux system because the power rating will be higher by necessity
but also lead to losses in the shielding. To reduce losses in and because of large k variation due to motion of receiver rel-
the shielding ferrite flux, guides with high permeability and ative to transmitter coils [89]–[94]. Researchers from KAIST
high resistivity are used to divert the magnetic field into the investigated a passive shielding method for DWPT [91]–[94].
coupling pad active zone, thereby minimizing flux entry into KAIST team proposed a metal plate at the bottom of EV to
the shield [91], [92]. Passive shielding is necessary in all WPT protect the passenger from high EMF [91]. These researchers
charging systems including stationary, quasi-stationary, and also included a vertical shielding plate on the side of the
dynamic WPT for EV charging to take advantage of simplicity, transmitting power lines to suppress lateral leakage fields.
robustness and inexpensive implementation. Kim et al. [90] Furthermore, to decrease EMF, a number of the metallic
reported resonant reactive shielding method without consum- brushes are mounted on EV in such a way that it makes soft
ing any additional power. It consists of an additional coil contact with vertical metallic plates. With the increase in the
with LC resonant circuit connected to it, as shown in Fig. 20. metallic brush volume from 2 to 8, a reduction of 144–35-mG
The reactive shielding induces a canceling magnetic field that EMF level is achieved [93], [94]. However, passive shielding
attenuates the leakage magnetic field by 64% compared to a reduces the system efficiency, especially in DWPT application
conductive shield of the same size. Passive shielding can also where the losses can be in kilowatt range. Also, other problems
be designed to reduce the leakage E-field in proximity to the associated are mechanical losses, contact potential, and high
vehicle undergoing charging [90]. initial cost [93], [94].
TABLE XI
C OMPARISON OF VARIOUS S HIELDING M ETHODS [34], [35], [88]–[94]
is simple and effective and can be applied to multiple primary

and secondary coils. ISEC method cannot cancel EMF for a
wide operation that total magnetic flux, Bt is less than primary
magnetic plus cancellation field flux Bm1 + BC1 in 3-DEC
method [93].
Fig. 21(c) shows the LFEC method for EMF cancellation.
In this method, primary and secondary coils are combined
with their canceling coil, respectively. However, the coupling
between primary and secondary coil is reduced. Therefore, this
method should be avoided [93].
Ahn et al. [92] reported active shielding method for DWPT
application without affecting the efficiency. In active shielding,
a wire is laid in parallel with power rail. The active shield
wire carries a current with the same frequency as the pri-
Fig. 21. (a) Principle of active EMF cancellation. (b) ISEC method for EMF
cancellation. (c) LFEC method for EMF cancellation [90]. mary coil current but out of phase. KAIST team reported
62.5-mG EMF level for 60 kW with 80% efficiency [93].
As a conclusion to this section Table XI compares various
Fig. 21(a) shows the general principle of active shielding. shielding methods reported in the literature. For stationary
It consists of compensated primary, compensated secondary WPT, passive shielding is a most common method to reduce
coil, and EMF cancel coil. Either one or two canceling coils the leakage EMF due to simple, robust and inexpensive
are employed. To cancel leakage EMF, current through the implementation [88], [89]. Active shielding method is a most
canceling coil should be antiphase with main coil current. promising method to reduce the leakage EMF for DWPT, as it
Choi et al. [34], [94] and Park et al. [93] demonstrated can actively cancel the leakage EMF and is suitable for high-
the implementation of active shielding for DWPT. Three power applications [90], [94].
general design methods and implementation issues for U-type,
W-type, and I-type are discussed. Furthermore, Park et al. [93] IV. C OMPENSATION N ETWORK FOR
proposed three active EMF cancellation methods: independent W IRELESS P OWER T RANSFER
self EMF cancel (ISEC) method, 3-dB dominant EMF cancel The high leakage inductance and magnetizing inductance of
(3-DEC) method, and Linkage-free EMF cancel (LFEC) the primary and secondary coils requires a high VA rating of
method. the input source to transfer active power to the load. Also, sys-
In ISEC method, the EMF is reduced by providing the tem losses increase due to high reactive current. To avoid this
counter magnetic field BC1 for primary coil due to canceling circulation of high reactive current compensation capacitors
coil 1 and BC2 for secondary coil from canceling coil 2, are connected either in parallel or series to cancel the leakage
as illustrated in Fig. 21(b) [93]. The current for each canceling inductance [95], [96]. Requirements for compensation network
coil is fed from primary coil and secondary coil. This method are as follows [95]:
Fig. 22. Basic compensation network. (a) Current source S–S compensation. (b) Current source S–P compensation. (c) Current source P–S compensation.
(d) Current source P–P compensation. (e) Voltage source S–S compensation. (f) Voltage source S–P compensation. (g) Voltage source P–S compensation.
(h) Voltage source P–P compensation [55], [101].
1)maximize the power transfer; in increased semiconductor losses and conduction losses, espe-
2)minimize VA rating of power supply; cially in the inverter diodes. Generally, the primary resonance
3)minimize VA rating of power supply; cancels the primary leakage inductance, thereby increasing PF
4)constant voltage (CV) or constant current (CC) output, to near unity, with the secondary coil also operated at or near
depending on the application; the same resonant frequency [104].
5) high efficiency; Wireless charging in EVs is subject to various parameter
6) bifurcation tolerant; changes such as those caused by air gap variation, mis-
7) high misalignment tolerant. alignment, and load resistance [55]. To maximize power
The basic requirement of a compensation network is to transfer, different compensation networks are selected to
minimize the (VA rating of the power supply by provid- match voltage or current source of the primary to volt-
ing the reactive power required to establish and sustain the age or current source of the secondary loading according
magnetic field [95], [97]. To maximize the power received to the type of output filter. It is also intended to keep the
on the secondary side, leakage inductance is canceled on output voltage constant or output current constant to satisfy
both primary and secondary sides to attain maximum power battery charging needs [95], [98]. In most cases, the end
transfer [97]–[104]. Typically, compensation components such load for WPT is a battery, which requires charging current
as metalized film capacitors have very low dissipation and to be constant at low states of charge (SOCs) until SOC
introduce minimal impact on the efficiency of the system. reaches approximately 85% and then switches to constant
However, inadequate or mistuned compensation results in a voltage charging [99], [102], [103]. Other consideration for
higher reactive current that leads to increased VA rating of the choosing compensation network is that it should be bifur-
power supply [97]–[104]. The flow of reactive current results cation tolerant. Bifurcation depends on load quality factor,
TABLE XII
D IFFERENT M ATHEMATICAL E QUATIONS FOR BASIC C OMPENSATION [95], [99], [104]
compensation network, and the compensation capacitor.

Therefore, the compensation network must be designed for sin-
gle zero phase angle, and ensure system stability for variable
frequency control under different loading conditions [95], [96].
Various compensation networks are reported in [95]–[105].
Fig. 22 illustrates that primary series compensation is neces-
sary for voltage source while parallel compensation of primary
is required for current source drive. Section IV-A discusses
four basic compensation networks.
A. Series–Series (S–S)
Fig. 22 shows the series–series (S–S) compensation net-
work. The main advantage of the S–S configuration is that
the value of primary capacitance does not depend on the
variation of coupling coefficient [99], [103]. This property
of series compensation is especially useful in segmented
DWPT applications, where the coupling coefficient varies
with movement of the EV. The major drawback occurs at
light load condition, and when the receiver is not present
and the equivalent impedance seen is zero at the primary
resonance frequency with only the parasitic impedance of the
capacitor and inductor limiting the current [101], [103], [104].
Therefore, the voltage transferred to the secondary is very
high. This makes the terminal voltage across the load very
high, leading to an unsafe condition. The desired requirements
for a compensation network are high efficiency and high PF.
These two variables are of particular importance to study
because of the fact that they can potentially fluctuate with
the coupling coefficient and load variation [95]. The PF for a
compensation network is defined as the ratio of active power to
apparent power supplied by a voltage source. The PF is unity
(at resonance frequency) for S–S compensation, as shown Fig. 23. (a) Effect of misalignment on efficiency. (b) Effect of load resistance
in Fig. 23(b). The efficiency of S–S is high, even for a low on PF.
coupling coefficient, as shown in Fig. 23(a).
at the resonance frequency [99], [103]. Therefore, a current
B. Series–Parallel (S–P) limiting control must still be performed on the primary side.
From the transferred impedance (Table XII), it can be In addition, the transferred impedance to the primary is
concluded that regardless of the load, there will be some proportional to the square of the mutual inductance. Therefore,
impedance transferred to the primary. If the receiver or load with variation in mutual inductance, the PF of the converter
is not present, the primary side will still have a short circuit and the dynamics of the system will change. This makes
Fig. 24. (a) Series–parallel–series compensation. (b) LCL with partial series compensation. (c) LCL compensation. (d) LCC-series compensation.
(e) LCC–LCC compensation [74], [107], [108].
TABLE XIII TABLE XIV

C OMPARISON OF BASIC C OMPENSATION N ETWORK C OMPARISON OF F OUR BASIC C OMPENSATION N ETWORKS [106]
FOR 200-kW S YSTEM [97], [103]
power transfer DWPT more challenging [99]. For higher load,

the efficiency and PF get better as illustrated in Fig. 24(b).
In addition, with an increase in the mutual inductance, the effi-
ciency of the system increases as illustrated in Fig. 24(a). From
primary capacitance equation (Table XII), it is evident that
the value of capacitance changes with mutual inductance, and
therefore, the resonant frequency also changes.
C. Parallel–Series (P–S)
The transferred impedance in P–S and S–S configuration
This configuration suffers from the low PF, a high load voltage
is the same [99]. The main advantages are high efficiency
of the parallel secondary and large current source requirements
and high PF at relatively low mutual inductance and a rel-
of the parallel primary [95], [104]. This configuration is not
atively large range of variation of load and mutual induc-
widely studied because of these disadvantages [103], [104].
tance [90], [94], [99]. The PF in P–S is not at unity under
Sallan et al. [97] reported a detailed optimal sizing of
low mutual inductance as it appears in Fig. 23(b). One major
200-kW IPT for different compensation networks. Table XIII
drawback is it requires current source input to avoid any
summarizes the performance comparison for basic compen-
instantaneous change in voltage [99]. To solve this problem,
sation networks. S–S compensation requires the least amount
an inductor is added to create LCL resonant tank. This
of copper among all [103]. This is a direct saving in cost
configuration is called the P–S compensating technique and
for the system. S–S and S–P compensations are suitable for
is the focus of some researchers [99].
high power from an economic point of view. P–S or P–P
compensations are typically used for high-power current
D. Parallel–Parallel (P–P) source driven cables that run over a long distance [105].
In a P–P compensation, the transferred impedance to Table XIII summarize the comparisons of basic compensation
the primary side is the same as in S–P compensation. network.
TABLE XV
C OMPARISON OF E IGHT BASIC C OMPENSATION S CHEMES IN T ERMS OF F IVE C RITERIA [55]
E. Discussion of zero or weak coupling coefficient on the voltage and

current stress. The absence of the magnetic coupling happens
In [55], four basic compensations are compared with a
when there is a misalignment or secondary coil. In this case,
constant voltage source and constant current source input for
the compensation network should guarantee safe operation
different criteria, as reported in Table XIV. The maximum
of WPT system. To allow zero or weak coupling condition,
efficiency condition for all eight compensation is achieved at
the input impedance of the system should be infinite for
secondary resonant frequency (ω2 ) regardless of the quality
current source input and zero for voltage source input [55].
factor of the coil [55]. Sohn et al. [55] calculated opti-
Sohn et al. [55] calculated input impedance for I-SS and V-SS
mum angular frequency to achieve the maximum load power
to conclude I-SS allows k = 0 condition, whereas V-SS does
transfer. In case of current source input the angular frequency
not allow.
for maximum efficiency condition is same as maximum load
power condition. However, with constant voltage input the F. Additional Compensation Network
maximum efficiency occurs at secondary resonance frequency 1) Series–Parallel Combination: For implementation pur-
whereas maximum power condition occurs at different angular poses, series compensation requires higher voltage and current
frequencies [55]. The angular frequency at which maximum than parallel compensation [107]. Therefore, the S–P com-
efficiency occurs for series compensation is completely inde- bination is required to obtain the required capacitance in
pendent of equation in Table XV, whereas for parallel com- order to achieve the desired voltage and current ratings. IPT
pensation, the maximum efficiency depends on the coupling system requires perfect alignment of coils to transfer power
coefficient. From the comparison in Table XV, it can be with high efficiency. To tackle the issue of misalignment,
concluded that I-SS, I-PS, V-SS, and V-PS are independent a combination of series–parallel–series topology is proposed,
of the coupling coefficient [55]. The other criteria are effect as shown in Fig. 24(a) [107]. The benefit of this compensation
Fig. 25. Power electronics for a WPT system.
scheme is that output power can be maintained constant for In the literature, double-sided LCC compensation is most
high misalignment. popular as it can reduce the current stress in the inverter;
2) LCL Compensation: An LCL compensation network it has high misalignment tolerance and load independence
with an additional inductor and capacitor is illustrated characteristics [74], [109].
in Fig. 24(b). This configuration is formed by the addition
of inductor to parallel resonance network [102]. This con- V. P OWER E LECTRONICS FOR WPT
figuration has a current source input, which can be easily Power electronics plays a critical role in the wireless charg-
controlled by a full-bridge converter for variations in the ing systems for EVs. Performance of the power converter is
coupling coefficient and load conditions [102]. Also, the VA crucial for maximizing the system efficiency. Fig. 25 illustrates
rating is reduced. The secondary side of LCL compensation various power electronic stages for a wireless charging of
can be either a parallel compensation or series compensation. an EV. A typical WPT system includes a front-end ac–dc
Parallel compensation is widely used due to its robustness converter to correct the PF at the utility connection of the
to load variation [74], [108]. The drawback of the parallel system in order to meet low THD as specified by the
tuned system is in the transferred impedance on the primary IEEE-1547, the IEC1000-3-2, and the U.S. National Electric
side which consists of both real and imaginary parts of the Code 625 and 626 [110], [111]. The second stage is a full-
load. Due to this, there is some additional current flowthrough bridge inverter to convert a constant dc voltage into high-
primary without contributing to real part of the load. Also, frequency bipolar voltage pulses with adjustable duty cycle
a large dc inductor is required to ensure continuous conduction to the compensation circuit. The secondary side consists of a
through the rectifier. This increases the cost and loss in compensating network and rectifier to convert high-frequency
the system [109]. Series-tuned pickup requires large bridge ac voltage into dc voltage. Different compensation networks
rectifier capacitor to ensure continuous conduction and the can be used, depending on the application, to keep either
pick-up voltage increases to a high value at large power output current or output voltage constant. After rectification
levels [109]. an optional dc–dc converter may be employed for additional
The configuration in Fig. 24(c) is the LCL resonant network, voltage regulation. The primary function is to charge the
which overcomes the problems associated with S–P compen- battery under CV or CC control and as noted earlier, while
sation [108]. The advantages are lower losses in the rectifier, the secondary function is to match the load impedance with
pickup winding; efficiency of the system is high as compared source impedance for optimum power transfer [114], [115].
to parallel pickup. Further, to compensate the nonlinear effect The full bridge inverter may be voltage-fed or current-fed
of the rectifier, a series capacitor is added which ensures soft depending on the application and the input source. Some
switching of the rectifier diodes. researchers are working on current-fed converter for WPT
3) LCC Compensation: LCL compensation requires two application [116]–[119]. A typical current-fed converter for
identical inductors. Therefore, the size of the inductor is WPT application is shown in Fig. 26. A parallel resonance
large; in order to reduce the size and cost of the sys- is employed for a transmitter with the advantage of lower
tem, LCC compensation networks are reported in [74], circulating current from the power electronics circuit, as par-
[108], and [109]. Moreover, by tuning LCC compensa- allel capacitor forms a low impedance path for the circulating
tion, zero current switching (ZCS) can be achieved. Also, current. However, the voltage stress on the switches increases
LCC pickup can compensate the reactive power at the with power [116]–[119]. The WPT architecture cited in [116]
secondary side to form a unity PF pickup. Other advan- is a current-fed design. A CCL transmitter and LC receiver are
tages are: independence of the coupling coefficient and load employed for compensation. In general, current-fed inverters
conditions, with ensured zero voltage switching (ZVS) for have advantages such as lower current stress, short circuit
MOSFETs [74], [109]. protection, and higher reliability [120]. However, a large dc
Fig. 26. Current-fed converter as in [116].
Fig. 29. Modular WPT [125].
Fig. 27. Matrix converter WPT system [121].
Fig. 30. Parallel LCL-T topology for high-power IPT system as in [129].
parallel inverter legs. The coupling coils on both transmitter

Fig. 28. Multiphase wireless converter [123]. and receiver are connected via an S–S compensation. Although
the converter can be employed for high power application
the need for additional components adds to its cost. A mod-
inductor is required, which increases the size and cost of the ular high-power IPT system is shown in Fig. 29 [125] that
system. Depending on the power flow direction the charger can integrates multiple low-power IPT systems, to increase power
be categorized as unidirectional or bidirectional [116], [120]. level [126]. Multiple primary and secondary coils are con-
nected in series with an LCL resonant circuit. Some
A. Unidirectional Inductive Charger researchers paralleled various low power modules to increase
The unidirectional charger transfers the power from Grid to power, as shown in Fig. 30 [129] in order to realize advan-
Vehicle (G2V). In the literature, different configurations are tages of low cost, minimization of uneven power-sharing due
reported for the unidirectional converter, with basic H-bridge to components tolerance, and fault-tolerant operation with
being most common. The matrix converter is reported in the increased reliability of the system. Multilevel converters can
literature to reduce the number of conversion stages without be utilized to increase the power capacity of wireless charging
the need for a dc link [121], [122]. Fig. 27 shows a low power systems. They allow the use of lower rating devices and
matrix converter developed for WPT system [121] that has are suitable for WPT2 and WPT3 levels [41], [121], [124],
advantages of a reduced number of semiconductor devices for [126], [128]. The cascaded multilevel converter in Fig. 31 is
the facile conversion of direct current to the high-frequency adopted to increase power capacity in WPT [129]. The phase
current supplied to the transmitter coil. The system efficiency shift pulsewidth modulation method is employed to control
is high. However, the power rating of the system is low output power and to eliminate selected harmonics. While the
due to high stress across the power semiconductor devices. cascaded converters are suitable for high power applications,
Therefore, it may not be the best option for high power they require multiple power supplies to increase voltage levels
applications. A multiphase inverter for interfacing the utility to resulting in a reduction of efficiency and an increase in the
transmitter coil is reported in [123] and [124] to increase the number of switching devices, which increases the cost [129].
power rating. Fig. 28 illustrates such a three-phase wireless
EV battery charger for high-power applications [123], [124]. B. Bidirectional Inductive Charger (V2G)
The charger has three phases wherein each phase is connected A typical bidirectional inductive charger has two stages: the
to two interphase transformers to share the current between front-end bidirectional ac–dc converter and the bidirectional
Fig. 34. Bidirectional cascaded modular converter [133].
power switches. Another cascaded multilevel converter suit-

able for high-power IPT system is shown in Fig. 34 [133].
Fig. 31. Cascaded multilevel inverter as in [130]. The output of the converter comprised multiple voltage levels
generated by the isolated power supply. Advantages of this
system include high-power scalability, lower switching losses,
and simple control. The downside of the system is that it
requires multiple isolated dc voltage sources and the switch
count is high. Table XVI summarizes the advantages and
disadvantages of the unidirectional and bidirectional converters
for WPT system. Conventional H-bridge inverters are suitable
for stationary charging with lower power application for both
unidirectional and bidirectional power flow as it has features
such as less count of power devices, high system efficiency
Fig. 32. Bidirectional IPT presented in [131]. and simple control [49], [50]. For high power application mul-
tilevel converters are more suitable as they reduce the device
stress, and a modular structure can be implemented [130].
C. Power Supply Architecture for Dynamic

Wireless Charging
DWC or in-motion WPT refers to the ability to charge an
electric vehicle while it is moving. DWC enables reduction of
battery size, and hence, lowers cost, and increases the overall
range of EVs [34], [35]. One challenge of DWC is the short
interacting time of an in-motion receiver coil with a sequence
Fig. 33. Multilevel bidirectional IPT as in [132]. of roadway transmitter coils that leads to a need for high-
power rating electronics and high misalignment tolerance to
facilitate high system efficiency. DWC can be implemented in
dc–dc converter. The ac–dc converter corrects the PF in the either of two distinct methods: the first uses a single long track
G2V case and supplies power to grid in the context of vehicle- transmitter cable and second a track consisting of multiple,
to-grid (V2G) dynamic energy resource (DER). Optionally, small segmented coils [14], [34]. An implementation challenge
there is a bidirectional dc–dc converter to regulate the bat- of coil segmentation is selecting the proper pitch for the
tery current and to minimize over depletion of the battery coils, that is, the ratio of coil length to segment span [134].
when used as DER. The architecture is shown in Fig. 32 is In general, DWC consists of a large power rating supply with
a bidirectional WPT system with many EVs connected to compensation circuit to supply power to a long cable (100s
a single primary coil [131]. However, the power level of of meters) or segmented track of fractional meter length coils.
the system is limited due to the full-bridge converter and EV with chassis mounted pickup coil is employed to capture
complicated control as a number of pick-up coil increases. the high-frequency ac signal from the primary coils [134]. The
A bidirectional multilevel converter for WPT is presented received signal after rectification is smooth dc voltage for the
in Fig. 33 [132] consisting of a multilevel converter at both long cable but pulsating dc for a segmented track. In either
transmitter and receiver ends that is suitable for high-voltage approach the rectified dc voltage is fed to a dc–dc converter,
and high-power application. Furthermore, high efficiency is which controls the charging requirement of the batteries. In a
claimed with optimized phase shift control with the caveat long track system, a single power source drives the complete
that unbalanced voltage across input capacitor and output track while maintaining a constant current, as shown in Fig. 35
capacitor can lead to uneven stress distribution across the [34], [135], [136]. The segmented DWC consists of multiple
TABLE XVI
U NIDIRECTIONAL AND B IDIRECTIONAL WPT S YSTEM AND I TS M AIN F EATURES [102], [116]–[138]
Fig. 36. Central power supply with extended connections to ground

pads [136].
Fig. 35. Long track supplied by centralized power supply [136].
ground pads supplied by the full bridge inverter. The ground

pad can be connected through individual H-bridge converter
for each ground pad. Another approach is to connect a single
high-power inverter supplying multiple ground pad, and each
coil is turned ON and OFF through a switch box, as shown
in Fig. 36 [135], [136].
The centralized power supply system approach has the
problem of requiring high power rating components; the entire
rail is activated, and that incurs large power loss, diminishes Fig. 37. Segmented WPT as presented in [136].
reliability and efficiency [81], [136]. Furthermore, it will
be sensitive to parameter variation and requires a motion- parameter variation. Problems associated with this scheme are
inclusive control scheme. In the segmented rail, different higher maintenance, high initial cost, and complex control.
segments are turned ON at different times as the vehicle to A combination of segmented rail and centralized power supply
be charged passes over. Therefore, power loss is reduced, and scheme is shown in Fig. 37 [83], [136]. The scheme has a
the converter can be of lower power ratings. Reliability is central power supply feeding a power rail, and the ground pads
improved because even if one segment breaks down, another are turned ON and OFF through a switch box. This scheme has
segment can supply power, and it has lower sensitivity to the advantage of fewer power electronics components, reduced
Fig. 40. Three-phase inductive power transfer system for roadway-powered

Fig. 38. Series connected to ground pads with switch boxes as in [136]. vehicles [137].
Fig. 41. Two-phase IPT system [138].
neously while on the move and to also provide high misalign-

ment tolerance [102], [138]. Fig. 40 shows a representative
three-phase IPT system having multiple vehicles charging
side by side while on the move [102]. Other advantages
Fig. 39. Double-coupled system as presented in [136]. include short power boost that can be given to charging
vehicles during steep slopes and high misalignment tolerance.
Two-phase IPT system shown in Fig. 41 was reported to reduce
cost of installation and low power loss as each segment the cost without affecting misalignment tolerance [138]. As a
is turned on at different times [136]. This scheme has the conclusion to this section Table XVII summarizes the vari-
disadvantage of lower reliability and high loss in the power ous power supply architectures for DWPT. Work on power
cable connecting the segments. A variation of centralized supply scheme for DWPT is still in progress, and the further
power supply with series connected ground pad with switch research focus would be handling power pulsation, reducing
box is illustrated in Fig. 38. Fig. 39 shows the double-couple the cost of implementation and improving the reliability of the
scheme capable of reducing the losses in the power rail [136]. system [82], [102], [135]–[138].
It consists of a high-frequency power rail embedded under
the road to supply power to the intermediate coupler at a VI. M ISALIGNMENT T OLERANCE
selected location. The output of the intermediate coupler is Typically, WPT transmitter coils are placed flush or beneath
connected to a controlled rectifier to convert high-frequency the ground and in some installations, depending on regula-
ac voltage into dc voltage. The rectified dc voltage is fed to tions may be surface mounted, provided a strict height limit
an H-bridge which controls the ground pad.The individual is maintained [42]. To charge the battery at high transfer
charging controller controls selected ground pads according efficiency requires good alignment of the transmitter and
to vehicle presence. This system resolves the limitation of receiver coils. Typically in stationary or dynamic charging
the abovementioned power supply architecture [83], [136]. of EV, it is difficult to align transmitter and receiver as it
The advantages are isolation between ground pad and power depends on the driver, the vehicle, and the environment. SAE
supply, power supply rail is operated at a lower frequency, J2594/1 mandates an overall efficiency of no less than 80%
and the ground pad operates at a higher frequency to improve during misalignment [42]. According to SAE J2594/1, a WPT
the efficiency of the system. However, the problems include system must be misalignment tolerant in x- and y-directions,
the high cost of power electronics and lower reliability due to and also capable of z-direction variability due to vehicle
central power supply unit for the entire system [136]. ground clearance and loading. In addition, it also specifies
Conventional single phase IPT systems employ a single tolerance in tilt and rotation misalignment (yaw) the detailed
transmitter coil, which is energized with a constant current. requirements of which are given in Tables IV and V. Various
Repetitive misalignment due to vehicle motion reduces effi- researchers have discussed and proposed solutions for the
ciency and requires a larger pick-up coil. An alternative aforementioned problems [102], [136]–[144].
reported by some researchers is the use of a multiphase long Some solutions focus on the coil design to improve the
track system that permits multiple vehicles to charge simulta- misalignment tolerance [59], [61], [143], [144], whereas
TABLE XVII
C OMPARISON OF VARIOUS DWPT P OWER S UPPLY A RCHITECTURES [81], [102], [135]–[138]
Fig. 42. Power electronics implementation of DDQ as in [64].
some favor control techniques such as changing the resonant

frequency, to improve the efficiency of the system [115].
Other researchers have focused on higher order compensation Fig. 43. (a) PPS compensation [144]. (b) LCC compensation [147].
techniques such as LCC and LCL resonant compensation
networks [103]. Performance comparison of S–S, S–P, P–S, and P–P for
As a general rule, the primary coil diameter should be equal misalignment was reported in [103] and discussed
to or only slightly larger than that of the secondary for good in Section IV. S–S and P–S circuit compensation technique
coefficient of coupling when the magnetic gaps are equal to have very low sensitivity to misalignment. It is well
half of the transmitter coil diameter. The size of the coils understood that efficiency of a network degrades with
becomes very large if we follow this guideline [143], [144], misalignment. To improve the misalignment performance,
which led many researchers to employ the modular approach Fotopoulou and Flynn [144] proposed a compensation circuit
discussed in Section V-A. A polarized flux pipe was reported that adds a series capacitor to parallel resonant circuit,
in [59] that has better misalignment tolerance than a circular as shown in Fig. 43(a). Kissin et al. [140] claimed to achieve
coil. A DDQ coil was proposed in [64] to improve the increases in power transfer efficiency of 15% for horizontal
misalignment tolerance of the system. It contains three coils, misalignment of 100 mm compared to P–P network. The PF
two of which are mounted along the d-axis direction and was also improved from PF = 0.3 to 0.4. The designed system
the third coil is mounted along the quadrature q-axis. In the includes the variation of coefficient of coupling to ensure
case of misalignment, the quadrature axis coils pick up the minimum frequency and phase shift. An alternate approach
flux along the q-axis and compensates for misalignment to to improve efficiency in misalignment is to optimize the
a greater extent. The output of the q-axis coil is added compensation capacitor. An efficiency improvement of 38.3%
to the d-axis, as shown in Fig. 42. A BP with reduced is reported for a four coil WPT system [147]. The scheme
copper requirements was reported in [64]. It has the same in Fig. 43(b) is a double-sided LCC compensation network.
misalignment characteristics as the DDQ coil. Zhu et al. [147] and Li et al. [108] report a high misalignment
TABLE XVIII
C OMPARISON OF D IFFERENT C ONTROL T ECHNIQUES FOR DWPT [85], [148]–[161]
tolerance of up to 310 mm at a coefficient of coupling The basic control strategies to control the H-bridge inverter
of 0.18 with just ∼1% drop in efficiency. In addition to are phase shift control and frequency control. In phase shift
misalignment tolerance, the ZVS of the full bridge is ensured control, the phase shift of the leg of full-bridge converter is
by tuning the parameters of compensation network. A control controlled to vary the voltage applied to the coupling coil
technique to improve the efficiency of the WPT system by with a constant frequency. However, inductive operation of
5%–7% via searching for the optimal value of switching the circuit requires judicious selection of switching frequency
frequency and phase shift was reported in [115]. Overall for relative to the loaded resonant point due to pole splitting [85],
high-power application, double-sided LCC compensation is [152], [153]. Soft switching remains an option but may have
network is reported to have tolerance to misalignment. Also additional concerns [85]. A 6-kW WPT system with phase
it does not require additional power electronics or auxiliary controlled full bridge is reported in [45]. The control provides
coils [147], [108]. For somewhat lower power application, flexibility for the selection of operating frequency and benefits
misalignment compensation by changing frequency and phase from its resemblance to a power transmission network. How-
shift is very effective method, as it does not requires any ever, control is complicated and the conduction angle must
additional components [115]. be calculated offline and stored in the controller for operation
at different power levels. In frequency control, the switching
VII. C ONTROL OF WPT frequency of the full-bridge converter is varied above the
Different techniques are reported in the literature to con- resonance frequency, in the inductive region of operation.
trol the power flow and to maintain the SOC of the If the switching frequency is increased, the input impedance of
battery [148]–[150]. These techniques can be classified as the compensating circuit increases [152], [153]. This leads to
primary-side control, secondary-side control or dual-sided con- a decrease in the input current and output power. The problem
trol [45]. In primary-side control, the battery SOC information with variable frequency controller is uncertainty in behav-
is transmitted from the secondary side to the primary side by ior self-sustained oscillating control, the switching frequency
a communication link [45]. Secondary-side control requires and over bifurcation region when present [108], [148]–[152].
active rectification and is used in an application where multiple In phase shift of the full-bridge converter are changed simul-
pick-up coils are connected. In dual-sided control, full-bridge taneously to control the output power [108], [148], [153].
and active rectifiers are both controlled simultaneously to In this control, zero crossing of primary coil current is
control the power flow to the load [148]. A phasor modeling sensed to trigger the gating signal for a full-bridge converter.
concept was developed in [45] to have a resemblance of a The advantages of dual control are its ZCS turn-ON and
power transmission line. The control technique was able to ZVS turn-OFF. Inductive operation is ensured for all oper-
control reactive power using a voltage control method. This ating frequencies [108], [148]. Phase shift control can be
control method does not require any active control on the categorized into symmetric voltage cancellation (SVC), asym-
secondary side. However, control is complicated and needs a metric duty cycle (ADC), and asymmetric voltage cancella-
lookup table to implement [45]. Typically, primary-side control tion (AVC) [157]. An ADC method was proposed to improve
has the advantage of minimum interaction with secondary- the ZVS range for a wide load range. The problem with ADC
side electronics. Therefore, a vehicle will only have lower is that it generates higher THD in the primary track current
power electronics, which has cost benefits. Miller et al. [151] and higher EMI, as compared to SVC. AVC methods, which
investigated a grid side power regulation method to reduce have the advantages of wide ZVS range for load and reduced
the complexity of control on the primary and secondary sides EMI, are reported in [157]–[161]. The detailed comparison of
power electronics. However, at no-load and in the absence of the various control techniques is compiled in Table XVIII. For
the secondary coil, the current in the primary coil increases to stationary WPT, dual-side control with closed-loop communi-
a very large value. cation is the most popular control method. However, some
Fig. 44. Variation in terminal resistance with output for different battery
Fig. 45. (a) First approach, (b) second approach, (c) third approach,
voltages. (d) preregulation approach.
of issues such as wireless communication security and delay TABLE XIX

in communication are the bottlenecks which require further I NPUT R ESISTANCE OF D IFFERENT C ONVERTERS [114]
research [85], [148]–[161]. For DWPT, ideally independent
control of primary and secondary is the most suitable form
of control. However, conflict between primary and secondary
control can cause stability. Dual-side control with closed-loop
communication is most stable control method but for DWPT
the communication latency can cause delay in control and
stability issue. Overall communication methods require more
research to reduce the latency [85], [148]–[161].
Note that the phase shift of secondary switches must be
VIII. I MPEDANCE M ATCHING FOR M AXIMUM
calculated offline to match the optimal value of the impedance.
E FFICIENCY T RACKING
Fig. 45(b) shows the second approach in which dc–dc con-
In the literature, it is well reported that the optimal value verter is inserted after the rectifier. The input resistance of
of load resistance depends on the operating frequency and the dc–dc converter is modulated by changing the duty cycle
the mutual inductance between the coils, and other constant of the converter [164]. Table XIX gives the relationship of
parameters [135]. Miller et al. [135] reported variation in input resistance with duty cycle for various converters [114].
efficiency with variation in operating frequency for vari- The third approach consisting of a full-bridge inverter and a
ous load resistance and mutual inductance. Typically, for battery charger is shown in Fig. 45(c). The full-bridge inverter
the EV applications, battery is connected as a load; hence, having switching frequency and phase shift control is used
the equivalent resistance seen by a wireless system is Rac = to maximize the efficiency of the system. An online effi-
8R B /π 2 , where R B = V B /I B , V B is the battery terminal ciency optimization algorithm, which increases the efficiency
voltage, and I B is the charging current. The optimal resistance of the system by 5%–7% for alignment and misalignment,
varies over a wide range for the variation in coupling factor. is reported in [110]. Pantic et al. [114] proposed a parallel-
Generally, for EVs, the battery voltage ranges from 300 to compensated WPT with a tristate boost converter presented
400 V [36], [158], [159]. in Fig. 46. The tristate boost converter has an additional
Because of this high battery voltage, the variation in load degree of freedom to shape the discontinuous input current
resistance seen from the terminal is very high for lower power such that the input impedance can be varied in order to obtain
rating as compared to a higher power as shown in Fig. 44. the optimal impedance. Last, a preregulation-based approach
To achieve high efficiency, optimal load resistance has to to achieve optimal impedance is shown in Fig. 45(d) [114].
be connected to load [163]. That is, the load resistance has In this method, dc–dc converter is connected to the full-bridge
to match with the input impedance of WPT, which is also inverter to vary the input voltage of the inverter and hence the
referred to as an optimal matching condition in [163]. In order input impedance of the system.
to achieve optimal matching in WPT, four approaches are
reported in [114], [163]–[166] and are depicted in Fig. 45. IX. F OREIGN O BJECT D ETECTION
The first approach for optimal matching depicted in Fig. 45(a) AND V EHICLE D ETECTION
consists of secondary-side active rectifier whose phase shift An essential necessity for commercialization of WPT
is controlled to obtain optimal impedance [163] given that in stationary and DWC is FOD and vehicle detec-
secondary-side diodes are replaced with controlled switches. tion [42], [167], [169]. In the absence of a vehicle, the primary
TABLE XX
E CONOMIC D ATA FOR W IRELESS C HARGING [167], [179], [180]
Fig. 46. Tristate boost converter with parallel-compensated pickup

as in [114].
over it. This voltage is processed to detect the presence of

EV and accordingly turns-ON and turns-OFF the primary coil.
However, the detection system electronics and coils structure
is difficult to implement, and have issues with detuning and
magnetic interference. In addition, it cannot detect EV coming
from side lane instead of same lane [176]. Deng et al. [177]
reported a sensorless alternative to detect the position of an
EV by measuring the phase angle between current and voltage
which reflects the edge position of the vehicle. Hasan et al.
reported a sensorless position method based on the control
Fig. 47. Three-coil detection system as in [175]. algorithm [178]. The control algorithm regulates the power
transfer by measuring the input dc power in standby case,
coils should automatically turn-OFF and prevent conductive and if this input power is above a certain value, the primary
object heating due to eddy current losses. To prevent the coil starts delivering the full power to the load. However,
heating of metallic object, several FOD methods have been the primary coil has to be always energized which increases
reported in [168]. WiTricity has developed an overlapped the standby losses in this system.
coil structure to detect the FOD. It has coils mounted in
a particular manner on the transmitter; FOD is detected by X. C HALLENGES
measuring the voltage, current, phase, power, and frequency
of the resonator with and without conductive objects [168]. A. Economics
In [169], power loss with and without a conductive object The economics aspect of WPT depends on charging
is compared to find the foreign object. This method is easy infrastructure and battery storage. In stationary WPT charg-
to implement, simple in operation and does not require any ing, the cost of the magnetic coupler and power electron-
additional hardware. However, for high power, the power loss ics are additional compared to a wired charging. However,
in the conductive object is small compared to the power the increased cost is acceptable considering the gains in
transferred. Jeong et al. [170] report an FOD method based on terms of convenience, battery size reduction and levelized cost
the measurement of quality factor (Q), metallic object tends reduction over the lifetime of the system [167], [179]. Wireless
to decrease in Q. This method is easy to implement, however, charging for the electric bus can sustainably reduce the fuel
in the case of misalignment or if the pick-up coil moves, cost by as much as 80% when as compared to diesel bus [180].
the quality factor of the coil also changes. Despite the low dependence on battery storage system, lack
In the literature, several papers have reported vehicle detec- of charging infrastructure is currently the main impediment
tion system [171]–[177]. Communications is the key method to DWPT. It requires efforts from the private sector and also
to detect a vehicle. However, for DWPT, high-speed communi- from the government. DWPT can mitigate the high cost of
cations with minimum latency is essential [176]. Other method EVs by substantially reducing the onboard battery size [96].
to detect the position of EV is the use of sensors. However, Some of the reported cost data for wireless charging from the
the overall cost of the system increases due to sensors and literature are summarized in Table XX [167], [179], [180].
are difficult to implement in a multilane highway [175]. In [34], economic feasibility of the OLEV with conventional
Jang et al. [171] reported a detection method which uses electric vehicles, PHEV, internal combustion engine (ICE),
multiple coils mounted on the primary and secondary sides and BEV for Seoul, South Korea, was analyzed as reported
to detect the position of an EV, as shown in Fig. 47. The in Table XXI. The traveled distance of a vehicle is assumed to
coil mounted on the secondary is energized by high-frequency be 20 000 km/year. The initial cost of infrastructure for OLEV
current which induces a voltage in secondary when EV travels is about U.S. $0.48B, which is much lower than other options.
TABLE XXI TABLE XXII

C OMPARISON OF C OST FOR D IFFERENT V EHICLES [34] C OMPARISON OF W IRELESS T ECHNOLOGIES FOR DYNAMIC WPT [181]
to electric and magnetic fields below 100 kHz, surface electric

discharge, induction in the retina of phosphenes, heating in
human tissue, heating in implanted medical devices and metals
are discussed in [51] and [167]. The human body is a decent
conductor of electricity. An external electric field surrounding
it induces an electric field inside the body. ICNIRP has set
a limit to the electric field and magnetic field for human
tissues. The set internal electric field limit is 1.35 × 10−4 f ,
where f is the frequency of the electric field and the limit
for general public is 83 V/m. A similar ICNIRP limit for
the magnetic field is 27 μT [42], [51], [167]. Shielding
can efficiently block the EMF exposure from the affecting
passengers by utilizing aluminum plates in the back of the
charging pad [167]. However, further research is required to
Fig. 48. Total cost versus number of cars deployed in Seoul [34]. ensure health and safety of dynamic charging systems in open
space on the road. Also, research with various conditions such
Further, the authors compared the overall cost of vehicles, as varying speed of vehicle, accidental leakage exposure, and
including operation and infrastructure cost for 10 years as people with implanted medical device, LOD, FOD need to be
shown in Fig. 48. OLEV is about 4–24 times cheaper com- investigated thoroughly [167], [180]–[183].
pared to other vehicles. This is due to the relatively lower cost
of operation [34]. XI. C ONCLUSION
WPT applications for EVs can reduce national reliance
B. Communication on fossil fuels and minimize emission of greenhouse gases.
Communication plays an important role in DWPT to ensure A major hurdle in mass deployment of EVs is the lim-
a timely power transfer to battery charging system otherwise ited battery capacity and its high cost. This problem can
the charging system is likely to fail. Therefore, the data be mitigated to a great extent with an electrified road for
exchange between the transmitter and EV has to be done in in-motion charging. Consequently, the range of EVs can be
real time [181]. Ideally, a real-time control system is designed increased and the fear of “range anxiety” alleviated. This paper
for the execution of the control loop of a battery charging presented a review of current status of wireless charging for
system. However, successful performance of this control in EV applications. The development history of WPT and neces-
a DWPT system strongly depends on the delay introduced sary components were discussed along with a comprehensive
by wireless communications. The main criteria to select com- review of the design of coupling pads, power electronics,
munications method are: 1) low latency; 2) ability to support various compensation circuits, misalignment tolerance, control
multiple vehicles simultaneously; and 3) medium range cover- techniques, and impedance matching circuits. Further, recent
age [180]. Table XXII gives a comparison of different wireless standards governing the WPT system for an EV were explored.
communication methods for DWPT. DSRC offers the lowest The major limiting factors in the implementation of DWPT are
latency. However, its range is less. Future research direction the absence of adequate communication network, the human
would have to focus on finding communication architectures exposure (EMF), and the cost of implementation.
with minimum latency and longer range [182].
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A. E. Umenei, “Development of a foreign object detection and analysis received the B.S.E.E. degree from the University
method for wireless power systems,” in Proc. IEEE Symp. Product of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA, the M.S.E.E.
Compliance Eng., San Diego, CA, USA, Oct. 2011, pp. 1–6. degree from Southern Methodist University, Dallas,
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“Interoperable EV detection for dynamic wireless charging with exist- automotive, aerospace, white goods, and electrical
ing hardware and free resonance,” IEEE Trans. Transport. Electrific., practice. He held various senior management and
vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 370–379, Jun. 2017. engineering positions at Maxwell Technologies, San
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power transfer systems,” in Proc. IEEE Energy Convers. Congr. Expo. of the DOE Vehicular Technologies subprogram APEEM. He is the Owner
(ECCE), Montreal, QC, Canada, Sep. 2015, pp. 586–593. and the Founder of J-N-J Miller Design Services PLLC, Longview, TX,
[179] J. R. Bailey and M. E. Hairr, “Wayside charging and hydro- USA, which was established in 2002 to provide professional consulting
gen hybrid bus: Extending the range of electric shuttle buses,” to industry. He joined Momentum Dynamics Technical Advisory Board in
Dept. Transp., Federal Transit Admin., Washington, DC, USA, FTA 2014 as a Senior Scientist, focusing on wireless power transfer for heavy-duty
Rep. 0028, 2012. [Online]. Available: https://www.transit.dot.gov/ vehicles. He is an Industry Consultant on electric traction drive and energy
sites/fta.dot.gov/files/FTA0028_Research_Report_Summary.pdf storage systems for an electric vehicle manufacturer. He has authored or co-
[180] P. T. Jones and O. Onar, “Impact of wireless power transfer in trans- authored several books related to wireless charging, ultracapacitor applications
portation: Future transportation enabler, or near term distraction,” in (translated to Chinese in 2015), propulsion systems for hybrid vehicles
Proc. IEEE Int. Electr. Vehicle Conf. (IEVC), Florence, Italy, Dec. 2014, (translated to Chinese in 2016), automotive power electronics, and vehicular
pp. 1–7. electric power systems.
[181] A. Gil, P. Sauras-Perez, and J. Taiber, “Communication requirements Dr. Miller is a fellow of the SAE, and was a Registered Professional
for dynamic wireless power transfer for battery electric vehicles,” in Engineer in Michigan in 1980 and in Texas in 2014.
Proc. IEEE Int. Electr. Vehicle Conf. (IEVC), Florence, Italy, Dec. 2014,
pp. 1–7.
[182] A. Echols, S. Mukherjee, M. Mickelsen, and Z. Pantic, “Communica-
tion infrastructure for dynamic wireless charging of electric vehicles,”
in Proc. IEEE Wireless Commun. Netw. Conf. (WCNC), San Francisco,
CA, USA, Mar. 2017, pp. 1–6.
[183] S. Y. R. Hui, W. Zhong, and C. K. Lee, “A critical review of recent Babak Fahimi (S’96–M’99–SM’03–F’15) received
progress in mid-range wireless power transfer,” IEEE Trans. Power the B.S. and M.S. degrees in electrical engineering
Electron., vol. 29, no. 9, pp. 4500–4511, Sep. 2014. with the highest distinction from the University of
Tehran, Tehran, Iran, in 1991 and 1993, respectively,
and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from
Devendra Patil (S’10) received the bachelor’s Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA,
degree in electrical engineering from Mumbai Uni- in 1999.
versity, Mumbai, India, in 2009, and the master’s He is currently a Distinguished Chair in engineer-
degree in power electronics and power system from ing and the Director of the Renewable Energy and
IIT Bombay, Mumbai, in 2013. He is currently Vehicular Technology with the University of Texas
pursuing the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA. He has co-authored
at the Department of Electrical Engineering, The more than 300 scientific articles, 15 book chapters, and several technical
University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA, reports in the general area of adjustable speed motor drives and power
with a focus on power electronics. electronics. He holds 18 U.S. patents and has six more pending.
From 2009 to 2010, he was a Design Engineer Dr. Fahimi was a recipient of the DAAD scholarship from 1993 to 1995,
with Tata Power SED, Mumbai. From 2013 to 2014, the IEEE R.M. Bass Power Electronics Young Investigator Award in 2003,
he was a Research Engineer with the National University of Singapore, the SAE Ralph Teetor Educational Award in 2008, the Fulbright scholarship
Singapore. He joined Apple Inc., Cuppertino, CA, USA, as an intern in 2017. in 2010, and the IEEE Cyril Veinott Electromechanical Energy Conversion
His current research interests include soft-switched converters, renewable Award in 2015. He has supervised 26 Ph.D. (four tenured/tenure-track
energy sources, wireless power transfer, and electric machine design and professors) and 20 M.S. students.
drive.
Mr. Patil was a recipient of the first prize in the IEEE IAS 2015 Master
graduate thesis award.
Poras T. Balsara (F’14) received the L.E.E.

Matthew K. McDonough (S’10–M’15) received Diploma degree in electronics from The Victoria
the B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from the Jubilee Technical Institute, Mumbai, India, in 1980,
University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, the B.E. (electrical) degree from the University of
USA, in 2010, and the Ph.D. degree from the Uni- Bombay, Mumbai, India, in 1983, and the M.S. and
versity of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA, Ph.D. degrees from the Penn State University, State
in 2014 with a dissertation focusing on multiport College, PA, USA, in 1985 and 1989, respectively.
power electronics and wireless power transfer. In 1989, he joined the faculty of the Erik Jons-
He joined the Renewable Energy and Vehicular son School of Engineering and Computer Science,
Technology Laboratory, The University of Texas at The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX,
Dallas, in 2010. He is currently a Senior Member USA, where he is currently a Professor of electrical
of Technical Staff with the Sandia National Lab- engineering and the Associate Dean for Academic Affairs. He has authored
oratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA. His current research interests include several journal and conference publications and has coauthored a book in
the application of renewable energy resources, specifically microgrids, dc–dc the following research areas. His current research interests include very large
converters, integration of wide band-gap devices, dc–ac and ac–dc converters, scale integration design, power electronics, design of energy efficient digital
multiport converters, and transportation technology. circuits and systems, and digitally assisted mixed-signal design.

WPT For Vehicular Applications-Overview and Challenges

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION, VOL. 4, NO.

Wireless Power Transfer for Vehicular Applications:

Fig. 1. Timeline diagram of development of the WPT.

Fig. 2. Review of different technologies in WPT.

TABLE I German IPT Company, Conductix (now IPT Technology)

Li and Mi [39] and Musavi and Eberle [40] report the

Fig. 4. Block Diagram of a typical wireless charging system for EVs.

coefficient of coupling, k, to induce a voltage according to TABLE III

Fig. 6. J2954 Vehicle alignment concept [42].

magnetic field levels, contact current, communication,

where ωn is the normalized angular frequency, ω2 is the

To attain a high Q, inductors must be designed to have high

Fig. 12. Tripolar pad [67], [68].

D. Multicoil Polarized Coupler

Fig. 14. Integrated inductor DD coil [72]–[74]. (a) Primary coil.

Further, the primary inductor has an angle with respect to

Fig. 15. Simulated coils in ANSYS Maxwell.

Furthermore, power rail is arranged to alternate its positions

Fig. 19. Circular coil with shielding.

are not illustrated). The presence of shielding affects the

is simple and effective and can be applied to multiple primary

compensation network, and the compensation capacitor.

TABLE XIII TABLE XIV

power transfer DWPT more challenging [99]. For higher load,

E. Discussion of zero or weak coupling coefficient on the voltage and

Fig. 25. Power electronics for a WPT system.

Fig. 26. Current-fed converter as in [116].

Fig. 29. Modular WPT [125].

Fig. 27. Matrix converter WPT system [121].

parallel inverter legs. The coupling coils on both transmitter

Fig. 34. Bidirectional cascaded modular converter [133].

power switches. Another cascaded multilevel converter suit-

C. Power Supply Architecture for Dynamic

Fig. 36. Central power supply with extended connections to ground

ground pads supplied by the full bridge inverter. The ground

Fig. 40. Three-phase inductive power transfer system for roadway-powered

Fig. 41. Two-phase IPT system [138].

neously while on the move and to also provide high misalign-

Fig. 42. Power electronics implementation of DDQ as in [64].

some favor control techniques such as changing the resonant

of issues such as wireless communication security and delay TABLE XIX

Fig. 46. Tristate boost converter with parallel-compensated pickup

over it. This voltage is processed to detect the presence of

TABLE XXI TABLE XXII

to electric and magnetic fields below 100 kHz, surface electric

[174] N. Kuyvenhoven, C. Dean, J. Melton, J. Schwannecke, and John M. Miller (S’82–M’83–SM’94–F’99–LF’16)

Poras T. Balsara (F’14) received the L.E.E.

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