The Angkor Wat Erection

Complexities

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1. Great structures built to honour the gods 32. Ghost Temple:
2. Hindu Cosmology 33. In 2016 CE, a New York
3. Architectural Plan of Angkor Wat Times article
4. The height of Angkor Wat 34. History
5. The overall profile imitates a lotus bud 35. Architecture and
6. Scale of the ambition determined the structure Construction
of the Angkor. 36. classical style of Angkorian
7. Several years must have gone into the planning architecture:
as such. 37. Built on rising ground and
8. The perspective surrounded by an artificial
9. Scholarly vision moat,
10. Angkor Wat is a miniature replica of the universe 38. Sculpture
as a cosmic world. 39. The massive sandstone
11. The central tower mountain, Its 5 towers bricks
correspond to peaks of Meru. 40. Architectural
i. Planning Features
ii. The explaination and concurrence 41. Construction techniques
from the Monarch 42. Materials;
iii. The Model 43. Bricks
iv. Schedule 44. Sandstone
v. Approvals 45. Laterite
vi. The site 46. Central sanctuary
vii. The water source 47. The central prang of
viii. The material sources Angkor Wat temple
ix. The manpower symbolizes the mount
x. Assorted materials Meru.
xi. Skill and unskilled labour 48. legendary home of
xii. Logistics the Hindu gods.
xiii. manpower planning 49. Prang
xiv. Lodging abd boarding of workers 50. Khmer temples
xv. Material Storage and facilitation 51. Thai temples
xvi. Training & development of workers 52. Enclosure
12. Urban planning 53. Gallery
54. Gopura
55. Hall of Dancers
13. 72 major temples 56. dancing.
14. How is Angkor Wat characterized on elements of 57. House of Fire
style? 58. Library
15. What was the cultural significance of Angkor 59. Srah and baray
Wat? 60. Temple mountain
16. What is unique about where Angkor Wat is built? 61. Bas-relief
17. Site and plan 62. Colonette
18. temple mountain and concentric galleries 63. Corbelling
19. The Angkor Wat temple's main tower aligns to 64. List of Khmer lintel styles
the morning sun 65. Stairs
20. Rose Bud shape 66. MOTIFS
21. Ogival 67. Apsara and devata
22. The principal temple of the Angkorian 68. Dvarapala
region, Angkor Wat 69. Gajasimha & Reachisey
23. Vaishnavism 70. Garuda
24. Furthermore, the turn to Vaishnavism 71. THE MANY GODS of
25. Vishnu-Suman ANGKOR
26. Mahayana Buddhism 72. Indra
27. Khmer architecture (also known as Angkorian 73. Kala
architecture 74. Krishna
28. Many temples had been built before Cambodia:[ 75. linga
29. The temple itself consists of two of the primary 76. Makara
elements 77. Nāga
78. Quincunx
30. In Ancient Angkor Michael Freeman; and 79. Shiva
Claude Jacques 80. The.Australian

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31. Religious Background archaeologist Damian
Evans.
83.Rervelation painting
81. Secret Paintings

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 I
Angkor Wat Architectural Features

Great structures built to honur the gods, have led to groundbreaking

construction techniques, and pushed the limits of engineering. No expense
was spared in the ancient world, as temples were built over decades or even
centuries. But one stands out from the rest. Hidden deep in the Cambodian
jungle lies a temple that eclipses all others- Angkor Wat is a 900-year-old
complex covering more than 400 acres across a monsoon-plagued
swampland. The largest religious monument in the world by land area. Its
endless hallways and colossal structures exhibit precision stonemasonry.
While some of the great medieval cathedrals took over a century to build,
Angkor Wat was completed in just 30 years. A masterpiece of craftsmanship,
sculptural decoration and engineering. But how did an early society with little
technology build this vast monument? It is one of the most important
pilgrimage sites for Buddhists in Cambodia and around the world. It has
become a symbol of Cambodia, appearing on its national flag, and it is the
country's main tourist attraction. Angkor Wat played a major role in
converting Cambodia into a Buddhist nation and the one and only source of
income for Cambodia today.

Angkor Wat Architectural Features

HINDU.COSMOLOGY: According to Stuart-Fox, Martin ,

and Paul Reeve,“Symbolism in City Planning in Cambodia from Angkor to
Phnom Penh.” (Journal of the Siam Society 99: 105–38. . 2011) Khmer Kings
never decided arbitrarily or at their whim the location of cities, their
orientation and their layout. The plan of the ideal Khmer city was inspired
by the model of the Khmer temples, which were based on Hindu cosmology.
It should have a perfect quadrangular shape, walls with four gates in the
middle of each side and an organised internal layout resembling a mandala,
with the city temple in the centre and its main sanctuary inside it, with a
tower shape which represents the mythological Mount Meru, the sacred axis
mundi, separated by successive concentric walls.

At the same time, this concrete representation of cosmology in city planning

was based on the religious and political idea of the “god-king” (devaraja),
which considers monarchs as incarnations on the Earth (avatars) of Shiva,
Vishnu or Buddha.’ ( “Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast
Asia.” Chihara, Daigoro . 1996. Studies in Asian Art and
Archaeology 19. Leiden: Brill.)

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Cosmos: At a paper presented at Vaastu Kaushal: International Symposium
on Science and Technology in Ancient Indian Monuments, New Delhi,
November 16-17, 2002. Subhash Kak presenting the paper- Space and
Cosmology in the Hindu Temple pointed out that according to the Sthapatya
Veda (the Indian tradition of architecture), the temple and the town should
mirror the cosmos. The temple architecture and the city plan are, therefore,
related in their conception.
“ Angkor Wat is the supreme masterpiece of Khmer art. The descriptions of
the temple fall far short of communicating the great size, the perfect
proportions, and the astoundingly beautiful sculpture that everywhere
presents itself to the viewer. Its architecture is majestic and its
representation of form and movement from Indian mythology has
astonishing grace and power.”
Angkor Wat occupies a rectangular area of about 208 hectares (500 acres)
defined by a laetrile wall. The first evidence of the site is a moat with a
long sandstone causeway (length 250 meters, 820 feet; width 12 meters,
39 feet) crossing it and serving as the main access to the monument. The
moat is 200 meters (656 feel) wide with a perimeter of 5.5 kilometers (3.4
miles).

Angkor Wat is influenced by the Hindu temple architecture of southern

India, which combines harmony and symmetry with a high degree of outer
adornment. The five beehive-shaped domes that rise impressively from the
center of the temple are adorned with rows of lotuses and are designed to
look like lotus buds. The temple is conceived so that all five domes are
visible when the temple is viewed from certain angles.

The largest dome sits over the main sanctuary. Four slightly smaller
domes are organized in a square plan around the central dome. The five
domes represent the five peaks of Mt. Meru, arranged in the shape of a
lotus blossom. What makes the towers and Angkor Wat as a whole so
beautiful are the way the small details harmonize and mix with the
massive architecture. The dome-topped main sanctuary is surrounded by
halls, arranged together in a square plan, with lower walls and ceilings,
and smaller temples on their corners that represent the mountains on the
edge of the world. The galleries, corridors and halls are aligned with
directions of the compass.

The wall that surrounds Angkor Wat is 5/8th of a mile long on each side;
the central tower is eight stories (213 feet) high; the square moat around
the compound is three miles long; and the causeway that leads across the
moat to the temple is 1,500 feet long. The sandstone blocks at Angkor Wat
were quarried from at least 50 different quarries at the foot of Mt. Kulen 32
kilometers to the northeast. They are believed to have been transported
by canals visible today with satellite imagery.

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 Architectural Plan of Angkor Wat

Angkor Wat is a miniature replica of the universe in stone and represents an

earthly model of the cosmic world. The central tower rises from the center of
the monument symbolizing the mythical mountain, Meru, situated at the
center of the universe. Its five towers correspond to the peaks of Meru. The
outer wall corresponds to the mountains at the edge of the world, and the
surrounding moat the oceans beyond.

The plan of Angkor Wat is difficult to grasp when walking through the
monument because of the vastness. Its complexity and beauty both attract
and distract one's attention. From a distance Angkor Wat appears to be a
colossal mass of stone on one level with a long causeway leading to the
center but close up it is a series of elevated towers, covered galleries,
chambers, porches and courtyards on different levels linked by stairways.

The height of Angkor Wat from the ground to the top of the central
tower is greater than it might appear: 213 meters (699 feet), achieved with
three rectangular or square levels (1-3) Each one is progressively smaller
and higher than the one below starting from the outer limits of the temple.

Covered galleries with columns define the boundaries of the first and
second levels. The third level supports five towers –four in the corners and
one in the middle and these is the most prominent architectural feature of
Angkor Wat. This arrangement is sometimes called a quincunx. Graduated
tiers, one rising above the other, give the towers a conical shape and, near
the top, rows of lotuses taper to a point.

The overall profile imitates a lotus bud, Several architectural lines

stand out in the profile of the monument. The eye is drawn left and right to
the horizontal aspect of the levels and upward to the soaring height of the
towers. The ingenious plan of Angkor Wat only allows a view of all five
towers from certain angles. They are not visible, for example, from the
entrance. Many of the structures and courtyards are in the shape of a
cross. The. Visitor should study the plan on page 86 and become familiar
with this dominant layout. A curved sloping roof on galleries, chambers
and aisles is a hallmark of Angkor Wat. From a distance it looks like a
series of long narrow ridges but close up from identifies itself. It is a roof
made of gracefully arched stone rectangles placed end to end. Each row of
tiles is capped with an end tile at right angles the ridge of the roof.

The scheme culminates in decorated tympanums with elaborate frames.

Steps provide access to the various levels. Helen Churchill Candee, who
visited Angkor in the 1920s, thought their usefulness surpassed their
architectural purpose. The steps to Angkor Wat are made to force a halt at
beauteous obstruction that the mind may be prepared for the atmosphere
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of sanctity, she wrote In order to become familiar with the composition of
Angkor Wat the visitor should learn to recognize the repetitive elements in
the architecture. Galleries with columns, towers, curved roofs, tympanums,
steps and the cross-shaped plan occur again and again.

It was by combining two or more of these aspects that a sense of height

was achieved. This arrangement was used to link one part of the
monument to another. Roofs were frequently layered to add height,
length or dimension. A smaller replica of the central towers was repeated
at the limits of two prominent areas-the galleries and the entry pavilions.
The long causeway at the entrance reappears on the other side of the
entry pavilion.

1. Scale of the ambition determined the structure of the Angkor. Several

years must have gone into the planning as such.
2. The perspective
3. Scholarly vision
4. Angkor Wat is a miniature replica of the universe in stone and
represents an earthly model of the cosmic world.
5. The central tower rises from the center of the monument symbolizing
the mythical mountain, Meru, situated at the center of the universe.
6. Its five towers correspond to the peaks of Meru.
7. Planning
8. The explaination and concurrence from the Monarch
9. The Model
10. Schedule
11. Approvals
12. The site
13. The water source
14. The material sources
15. The manpower
16. Assorted materials
17. Skill and unskilled labour
18. Logistics
19. manpower planning
20. Lodging abd boarding of workers
21. Material Storage and facilitation
22. Training & development of workers

Urban planning

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This, perhaps, was the first low-density city – a phenomenon normally
associated with the railway age, the car and the spread of suburbia – a vast-
reaching conurbation, its parts linked by an ambitious network of roads and
canals, reservoirs and dams carved from the forest. Khmer cities were
connected to one another, by roads and waterways- so the “built-up” area of
Angkor seems to have been bigger than anyone today, much less barefoot
16th Century Portuguese friars, has been able to figure. An enormous and
intricate irrigation system mapped today lidar and other tech provided
Angkor with food – rice for the main part – and yet the ever-increasing scale
of this engineered and well populated landscape was, it seems, its undoing.

The top of the central tower, the highest part of the entire temple complex,
is a dizzying 700 feet above the ground. As you get into the temple and start
exploring, you would find that the Angkor Wat layout and plan consists
of numerous courtyards, chambers, porches, galleries, and stairways.
According to Maurice Glaize, a mid-20th-century conservator of Angkor, the
temple "attains a classic perfection by the restrained monumentality of its
finely balanced elements and the precise arrangement of its proportions. It is
a work of power, unity and style." It was originally built in the first half of the
12th century as a Hindu temple. Spread across more than 400 acres, Angkor
Wat is said to be the largest religious monument in the world. ... Originally
dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu, Angkor Wat became a Buddhist temple
by the end of the 12th century.

How is Angkor characterized based on elements of style?It is a work of

power, unity, and style.” Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the
style include: the ogival, redented towers shaped like lotus buds; half-
galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and
the cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple. How
many temples are in Angkor Wat?

Some 72 major temples or other buildings are found within this area, and
the remains of several hundred additional minor temple sites are scattered
throughout the landscape beyond.

How is Angkor Wat characterized on elements of style?

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It is a work of power, unity, and style.” Architecturally, the elements
characteristic of the style include: the ogival, redented towers shaped like
lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting
enclosures; and the cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of
the temple.

What was the cultural significance of Angkor Wat?

Although Angkor Wat was no longer a site of political, cultural or commercial
significance by the 13th century, it remained an important monument for the
Buddhist religion into the 1800s. Indeed, unlike many historical sites, Angkor
Wat was never truly abandoned. Rather, it fell gradually into disuse and
disrepair.

What is unique about where Angkor Wat is built?

Also unusual for the time of construction, Angkor Wat was dedicated to
Vishnu, a Hindu deity, rather than the current king. The original outer wall at
Angkor Wat once enclosed the temple proper, city, and royal palace,
occupying a space of 203 acres (820,000 square meters). Nothing remains of
the wall today.

This phenomenal city was established in the late 9th century, when it
became the home of Khmer King Yashovarman I. At that stage it was a small,
modest settlement. Over the following 500 years a huge amount of power
became concentrated in Angkor. It was the heart of the Khmer Empire, which
grew and grew and grew. From this central base at Angkor, the empire’s
territory eventually stretched as far north as China, as far south as what as
what is now southern Thailand, as far west as Myanmar and as far east as
Vietnam.

The empire accumulated so much wealth and boasted such a vast workforce
that it had the means to turn Angkor into a jaw-dropping city, a symbol of
Khmer supremacy. Not only was its architecture remarkable, but the concept
behind the city’s layout was incredibly complex. Angkor was intended to
represent a universe from Hindu cosmology. Anchoring the city was its only
natural hill, Phnom Bakheng, with each of Angkor’s temples then positioned
in “orbit” around this hill, while the city’s outer walls symbolized the edge of
the cosmos and its irrigation system represented the rivers of this universe.
It was in Sukhothai in the 13th century that Thailand is widely considered to
have been born and, over that century and the next, the Thais began to take
control of vast areas of what had been Khmer territory. Many historians have
long claimed this rivalry reached a head in 1431. They believe Angkor was
captured and looted by the Ayutthaya Kingdom, which was essentially the
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Thai successor to the Sukhothai Kingdom. It has been widely stated that
Angkor was deserted as a result of this raid. Now a new tale has emerged.

II
Site and plan-Plan of Angkor Wat

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An aerial view of Angkor Wat ////A detailed plan of the central structure

Angkor Wat is a unique combination of the temple mountain (the

standard design for the empire's state temples) and the later plan
of concentric galleries, most of which were derived from religious beliefs
of Hinduism originally. The construction of Angkor Wat also suggests that
there was a celestial significance with certain features of the temple. This is
observed in the temple's east–west orientation, and lines of sight from
terraces within the temple that show specific towers to be at the precise
location of the sunrise on a solstice. The temple is a representation of Mount
Meru, the home of the gods according to Hindu mythology: the
central quincunx of towers symbolises the five peaks of the mountain, and
the walls and moat symbolize the surrounding mountain ranges and ocean.
Access to the upper areas of the temple was progressively more exclusive,
with the laity being admitted only to the lowest level.
The Angkor Wat temple's main tower aligns to the morning sun of
the spring equinox. Unlike most Khmer temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to
the west rather than the east. This has led many (including Maurice
Glaize and George Coedès) to conclude that Suryavarman intended it to
serve as his funerary temple. Further evidence for this view is provided by
the bas-reliefs, which proceed in a counter-clockwise direction—
prasavya in Hindu terminology—as this is the reverse of the normal order.
Rituals take place in reverse order during Brahminic funeral services.
Archaeologist Charles Higham also describes a container which may have
been a funerary jar which was recovered from the central tower. It has been
nominated by some as the greatest expenditure of energy on the disposal of
a corpse. Freeman and Jacques, however, note that several other temples
of Angkor depart from the typical eastern orientation, and suggest that
Angkor Wat's alignment was due to its dedication to Vishnu, who was
associated with the west.
Drawing on the temple's alignment and dimensions, and on the content and
arrangement of the bas-reliefs, researcher Eleanor Mannikka argues that the
structure represents a claimed new era of peace under King Suryavarman II:
"as the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the
sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to
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consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power
and to honour and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above."
Mannikka's suggestions have been received with a mixture of interest and
scepticism in academic circlesShe distances herself from the speculations of
others, such as Graham Hancock, that Angkor Wat is part of a representation
of the constellation Draco. a constellation in the far northern sky. Its name
is Latin for dragon. It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd
century astronomer Ptolemy, and remains one of the 88 modern
constellations today. The north pole of the ecliptic is in Draco. Draco
is circumpolar (that is, never setting), and can be seen all year from northern
latitudes.
Rose Bud shape: Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include:
the ogival, redented towers shaped like lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden
passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the cruciform terraces which
appear along the main axis of the temple. Typical decorative elements are devatas (or
apsaras), bas-reliefs, and on pediments extensive garlands and narrative scenes. The
statuary of Angkor Wat is considered conservative, being more static and less graceful
than earlier work. Other elements of the design have been destroyed by looting and the
passage of time, including gilded stucco on the towers, gilding on some figures on the
bas-reliefs, and wooden ceiling panels and doors. One of the defining characteristics
of Gothic architecture is the pointed arch.
the pointed arch may have originated as in Sitamarhi caves in 3rd century BCE. The
free-standing temple of Trivikrama at Ter in Maharashtra India dated to Satavahana
period also contains ogive arch but it is constructed using principles of corbel.
Archaeological excavation conducted by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
at Kausambi revealed a palace with its foundations going back to 8th century BCE until
2nd century CE and built in six phases. The last phase dated to 1st–2nd century CE,
featured an extensive structure which features four centered pointed arches which were
used to span narrow passageways and segmental arches for wider areas. [3] Pointed
arches as load bearing function were also employed in Gandhara. Two pointed arch
vault system was built inside the Bhitargaon temple as noted by Alexander
Cunningham, which is dated to early Gupta period of 4th–5th century CE.[4] Pointed
arches also appeared in Mahabodhi temple with relieving arches and vaults between 6–
7th century CE.
Ogival: The pointed arch as an architectonic principle in the Middle East, is said by
several scholars to have first been established in Islamic architecture during
the Abbasid Caliphate in the middle of the 8th century CE, and in Gothic architecture in
the 11th century CE. Some scholars have refused to accept Indian origin of pointed arch
including Hill (1993), some scholars have argued that pointed arches were used in
the Near East in pre-Islamic architecturebut others have stated that these arches were,
in fact, parabolic and not pointed arches.
In Gothic architecture, ogives are the intersecting transverse ribs of arches which
establish the surface of a Gothic vault. An ogive or ogival arch is a pointed, "Gothic"
arch, drawn with compasses as outlined above, or with arcs of an ellipse as described. A
very narrow, steeply pointed ogive arch is sometimes called a "lancet arch". The most
common form is an equilateral arch, where the radius is the same as the width. In the
later Flamboyant Gothic style, an "ogee arch", an arch with a pointed head, like S-
shaped curves, became prevalent.

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the-ogival-redented-tower-shaped-like-lotus-bud-of-angkor-wat-and-the-very-steep-stairways-
representing-the-difficulty-of-ascending-to-the-kingdom RIGHT Cathedral in Rome showing the ogival
that also lay a role of bolstering support to the roof

The principal temple of the Angkorian region, Angkor Wat, was built
between 1113 and 1150 by King Suryavarman II. Suryavarman ascended to
the throne after prevailing in a battle with a rival prince. An inscription says
that, in the course of combat, Suryavarman leapt onto his rival's war
elephant and killed him, just as the mythical bird-man Garuda slays a
serpent.
After consolidating his political position through military campaigns,
diplomacy, and a firm domestic administration, Suryavarman launched into
the construction of Angkor Wat as his personal temple mausoleum. Breaking
with the tradition of the Khmer kings, and influenced perhaps by the
concurrent rise of Vaisnavism in India, he dedicated the temple

15
to Vishnu rather than to Siva. With walls nearly half a mile long on each side,
Angkor Wat grandly portrays the Hindu cosmology, with the central towers
representing Mount Meru, home of the gods; the outer walls, the mountains
enclosing the world; and the moat, the oceans beyond.
The traditional theme of identifying the Khmer devaraja with the gods, and
his residence with that of the celestials, is very much in evidence. The
measurements themselves of the temple and its parts in relation to one
another have cosmological significance. Suryavarman had the walls of the
temple decorated with bas reliefs depicting not only scenes from mythology,
but also from the life of his own imperial court. In one of the scenes, the king
himself is portrayed as larger in size than his subjects, sitting cross-legged
on an elevated throne and holding court, while a bevy of attendants make
him comfortable with the aid of parasols and fans.

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Vaishnavism
In the early days of Angkor, the worship of Vishnu was secondary to that
of Shiva. The relationship seems to have changed with the construction
of Angkor Wat by King Suryavarman II as his personal mausoleum at the
beginning of the 12th century. The central religious image of Angkor Wat
was an image of Vishnu, and an inscription identifies Suryavarman as
"Paramavishnuloka," or "he who enters the heavenly world of Vishnu."
Religious syncretism, however, remained thoroughgoing in Khmer society:
the state religion of Shaivism was not necessarily abrogated by
Suryavarman's turn to Vishnu, and the temple may well have housed a royal
lingam.
Furthermore, the turn to Vaishnavism did not abrogate the royal
personality cult of Angkor. by which the reigning king was identified with the
deity. According to Angkor scholar Georges Coedès, "Angkor Wat is, if you
like, a vaishnavite sanctuary, but the Vishnu venerated there was not the
ancient Hindu deity nor even one of the deity's traditional incarnations, but
the king Suryavarman II posthumously identified with Vishnu, consubstantial
with him, residing in a mausoleum decorated with the graceful figures of
apsaras just like Vishnu in his celestial palace." [Suryavarman proclaimed his
identity with Vishnu, just as his predecessors had claimed consubstantiation
with Shiva.
Vishnu-Suman
Angkorian representations of Vishnu include anthropomorphic
representations of the god himself, as well as representations of his
incarnations or Avatars, especially Krishna and Rama. Depictions of Vishnu
are prominent at Angkor Wat, the 12th-century temple that was originally
dedicated to Vishnu. Bas reliefs depict Vishna battling with
against asura opponents, or riding on the shoulders of his vahana or mount,

17
the gigantic bird-man Garuda. Vishnu's attributes include the discus, the
conch shell, the baton, and the orb.

Face towers of the Bayon represent the king as the Bodhisattva Lokesvara.

Mahayana Buddhism
In the last quarter of the 12th century, King Jayavarman VII departed
radically from the tradition of his predecessors when he
adopted Mahayana Buddhism as his personal faith. Jayavarman also made
Buddhism the state religion of his kingdom when he constructed the
Buddhist temple known as the Bayon at the heart of his new capital city of
Angkor Thom. In the famous face towers of the Bayon, the king represented
himself as the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara moved by compassion for his
subjects.[63] Thus, Jayavarman was able to perpetuate the royal personality
cult of Angkor, while identifying the divine component of the cult with the
bodhisattva rather than with Shiva
The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples, particularly the sculptures,
were widely adopted in South Indian, and Indianised architecture
of Cambodian (Khmer), Annamese and Javanese temples (of the Greater
India). In any study of Angkorian architecture, the emphasis is necessarily on
religious architecture, since all the remaining Angkorian buildings are
religious in nature. During the period of Angkor, only temples and other
religious buildings were constructed of stone.
Non-religious buildings such as dwellings were constructed of perishable
materials such as wood, and so have not survived. The religious architecture
of Angkor has characteristic structures, elements, and motifs, which are
identified in the glossary below. Since a number of different architectural
styles succeeded one another during the Angkorean period, not all of these
features were equally in evidence throughout the period. Indeed, scholars
have referred to the presence or absence of such features as one source of
evidence for dating the remains.

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Khmer architecture (also known as Angkorian architecture , is the
architecture produced by the Khmers during the Angkor period of the Khmer
Empire from approximately the later half of the 8th century CE to the first
half of the 15th century CE.
The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples, particularly the sculptures,
were widely adopted in South Indian, and Indianised architecture
of Cambodian (Khmer), Annamese and Javanese temples (of the Greater
India). In any study of Angkorian architecture, the emphasis is necessarily on
religious architecture, since all the remaining Angkorian buildings are
religious in nature. During the period of Angkor, only temples and other
religious buildings were constructed of stone.
Non-religious buildings such as dwellings were constructed of perishable
materials such as wood, and so have not survived. The religious architecture
of Angkor has characteristic structures, elements, and motifs, which are
identified in the glossary below. Since a number of different architectural
styles succeeded one another during the Angkorean period, not all of these
features were equally in evidence throughout the period. Indeed, scholars
have referred to the presence or absence of such features as one source of
evidence for dating the remains.

1. Sambor Prei Kuk

2. Pre Rup
3. Banteay Srei
4. Bayon

Many temples had been built before Cambodia became a powerful

Kingdom of Khmer Empire which dominated most of the Indochina region. At
that time, Cambodia was known as Chenla kingdom, the predecessor state of
Khmer empire. There are three pre-Angkorean architectural styles :[

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 The temple itself consists of two of the primary elements of Khmer
architecture: the pyramid, and concentric galleries. The pyramid takes the
form of three stepped terraces, with each step bordered on all sides by
covered galleries. At each level gateways in the galleries indicate the
pathway to the central shrine, and towers punctuate the corners. The
pyramid culminates in five towers–an indication of the temple's central
shrine.
A substance known as laterite was formed to support the emerging temple
which was then encased in sandstone. The sandstone blocks used in
construction were quarried from a site known as the Kulen Hills, 18 miles
north, and floated to the construction site through a series of canals. It is
unknown how long construction took to complete and, according to some
interpretations, it was never fully completed.

The building was purposefully situated, and paths created in the jungle, so
that visitors could only enter from the west, a direction traditionally
associated with the land of the dead but also with Vishnu, to experience
spiritual renewal as they drew closer to the divine energies of the temple.
The design, and imposing height, was intended to draw the eye upwards to
read the great stories of the gods, heroes, and ancestors carved in stone
across the walls and up the columns of the great temple. All around the
complex, homes and workshops were built, markets and other businesses
were opened, and a network of roads created.
Dimensions and Building elements: Suryavarman II & Construction

In Ancient Angkor Michael Freeman; and Claude Jacques say thet “The
entire complex symbolizes the Hindu beliefs enshrined within. As Freeman
and Jacques describe, “It is, above all else, a microcosm of the Hindu
universe. The moat represents the mythical oceans surrounding the earth
and the succession of concentric galleries represent the mountain ranges
that surround Mount Meru, the home of the gods. The towers represent the
mountain’s peaks, and the experience of the ascent to the central shrine is,
maybe intentionally, a fairly convincing imitation of climbing a real
mountain.”

The dimensions and building elements at Angkor Wat correspond to

“calendrically and cosmologically significant totals”
Suryavarman II is considered one of the greatest monarchs of the Khmer
Empire (802-1431 CE) for his creation of a strong central government that
united the land. Suryavarman II also sent numerous military expeditions
against the kingdom of Dai Viet in modern-day Vietnam and the neighboring
Champa kingdoms, but these were largely unsuccessful. His greatest
successes were in diplomacy, not war, as he successfully opened relations
with China which increased trade and stimulated the economy.

20
Although he is remembered as a great ruler, Suryavarman II was a usurper,
who assassinated his great uncle Dharanindravarman I (r. 1107-1113 CE) to
take the throne. He is said to have compared the coup to destroying a
serpent but what this alludes to, or what his motivation was, is unclear. He
then legitimized his rule through personal accomplishments and
immortalized it through the construction of the grand complex of Angkor
Wat, dedicated to his personal protector-god Vishnu, most likely in gratitude
for his victory. He had amassed considerable wealth through trade and taxes
and spared no expense in the creation of his temple. Scholar Christopher
Scarre notes:

The Khmer's unique form of kingship produced, instead of an

austere civilization like that of the Indus, a society that carried the cult of
wealth, luxury, and divine monarchy to amazing lengths. This cult reached it
apogee in the reign of Suryavarman II who built the temple of Angkor Wat.

The building was purposefully situated, and paths created in the jungle, so
that visitors could only enter from the west, a direction traditionally
associated with the land of the dead but also with Vishnu, to experience
spiritual renewal as they drew closer to the divine energies of the temple.
The design, and imposing height, was intended to draw the eye upwards to
read the great stories of the gods, heroes, and ancestors carved in stone
across the walls and up the columns of the great temple. All around the
complex, homes and workshops were built, markets and other businesses
were opened, and a network of roads created.

Angkor Wat, Cambodia-Dennis Jarvis (CC BY-SA)

21
A substance known as laterite was formed to support the emerging temple
which was then encased in sandstone. The sandstone blocks used in
construction were quarried from a site known as the Kulen Hills, 18 miles
north, and floated to the construction site through a series of canals. It is
unknown how long construction took to complete and, according to some
interpretations, it was never fully completed.

Religious Background
Angkor Wat can be interpreted in many different ways but Suryavarman II
wanted to ensure that, however one saw the work, he would be part of it.
Suryavarman II is depicted in statuary as Vishnu, consorting with the god,
and performing his responsibilities as ruler such as reviewing his troops and
holding court. The appearance of the monarch's likeness in so many different
scenes, in fact, led early excavators to conclude that the site was a funerary
temple.

There are compelling reasons to come to this conclusion: unlike the other
temples in the area - which face east - Angkor Wat faces west toward the
land of the dead. Further, the bas-reliefs which adorn the temple are clearly
meant to be read counterclockwise and, in funeral services, one conducts
traditional religious rituals in reverse. If any evidence had ever been found of
Suryavarman II's burial at the site, there would be no contesting the claim for
it as a funerary temple; but there is no evidence of this.

It is possible that it was begun as a funerary temple but it remained

unfinished at Suryavarman II's death and he was cremated and buried
elsewhere. It is more likely, however, that Suryavarman II had it purposefully
built to honor his god, and this claim holds more weight when one considers
the king's religious beliefs.

22
Suryavarman II-Kris

Suryavarman II practiced a form of Hinduism known as Vaishnavism, which

is devotion to the god Vishnu above all others. Although Hinduism is
generally regarded as a polytheistic religion by westerners, it is actually
henotheistic, meaning there is only one god with many different aspects. In a
henotheistic belief system, a single god is considered too immense to be
grasped by the human mind and so appears in a multiplicity of personalities
all of which focus on a single different aspect of human life.

In Hinduism, Brahma is the supreme deity who creates the world while, in
his form as Vishnu he preserves life and, as Shiva, takes life away and
rewards humans for their toil with death, which then continues the cycle of
rebirth or leads to union with the oversoul. Angkor Wat reflects the course of
life, death, and eternity according to Vaishnavism, removing Brahma as the
supreme god and replacing him with Vishnu.

Vishnu appears to human beings in many forms throughout the centuries

as avatars - like the popular Hindu god Krishna - to guide and instruct
people. The most famous example of this comes from the religious
text Bhagavad-Gita (“Song of God”) when Krishna visits Prince Arjuna on the
battlefield of Kurukshetra to explain the nature of existence and one's
purpose in life. The temple of Angkor Wat is designed to fulfill this same
purpose through its ornamentation which tells the story of the human
condition, the immanence of the gods, and how one is to best live one's life.

23
SURYAVARMAN II ELEVATED THE POSITION OF THE COMMON PEOPLE, USING
RELIGION, BY DECREEING THE WORSHIP OF VISHNU, A DEITY WHO WAS
A PROTECTOR OF ALL.
The rise of Vaishnavism in Cambodia was a direct result of the conflicts
between the Khmers and the neighboring Champa. Suryavarman I (r. c.
1006-1050 CE) extended the frontiers of his realm into Thailand during his
reign and came into conflict with the cities of the Champa. The Champa's
religion was Buddhism (which was also the faith of the Khmer elite) which
was viewed with hostility by most Khmer who saw it as a threat to their faith.
Vishnu, as a protector-god, rose in popularity through these conflicts and the
backlash against Buddhism.
By the time of Suryavarman II's reign, the form of Hinduism known
as Brahmanism, which favored the elite, was growing more popular in the
region and Buddhism had also gained more adherents. Suryavarman II
elevated the position of the common people, using religion, by decreeing the
worship of Vishnu, a deity who was a protector of all, not the supreme
creator aspect nor the destructive aspect but the mediator between human
beings and the divine who had also proven himself a benevolent guardian.
One of the most popular stories of Vishnu's kindness and cleverness in the
interests of human beings is The Churning of the Ocean (also known as The
Churning of the Ocean of Milk) in which he tricks the demons into
surrendering the amrita (ambrosia) which will make the gods immortal and
preserve eternal order. This story is among the most famous bas-reliefs
found at Angkor Wat and supports the claim that the building was originally
conceived of as a temple of worship rather than a funerary site.
Stories in Stone

Angkor Wat is designed to represent Mount Meru, the spiritual and physical
nexus in Hinduism which is the center of all reality. The five peaks of Mount
Meru are represented by the five spires of the temple. Brahma and the
Devas (demigods) were thought to live on Mount Meru and it is famously
referenced in The Mahabharata when Yudhishthira and his brothers travel to
the gates of heaven. One by one the brothers die until only Yudhishthira and
his faithful dog are left. When they reach the border of heaven, the
gatekeeper tells Yudhishthira that he may enter for the worthy life he lived
but that dogs are not allowed in heaven. Yudhishthira rejects any paradise
which does not include dogs and turns away, but the gatekeeper stops him
and reveals himself as Vishnu who was only testing him one last time before
allowing him entrance.

Stories such as this are told all over the temple where one finds scenes from
the classic works of Hindu religious literature such as
the Ramayana and Bhagavad-Gita. The great Battle of Kurukshetra from
the Gita is depicted clearly as is the Battle of Lanka from the Ramayana. As
most people could not read in the 12th century CE, Angkor Wat served as a

24
gigantic book on which the important religious and cultural tales could be
related visually.

Churning of the Ocean of Milk-Jason Eppink (CC BY)

The temple was galleried – meaning it progresses upwards through a series

of galleries - giving ample room for the designers to explore the cultural,
religious, and temporal history of the people. The outer gallery of the temple
stretches for over 1,960 feet (600 m) covered in these reliefs. Angkor Wat
was designed to represent the world with the four corners of the
outer wall anchored at the four corners of the earth and the moat
representing the surrounding oceans. Scenes from everyday life,
mythological tales, religious iconography, and royal processions all wind
themselves around the façade.

At the western entrance, a large statue of eight-armed Vishnu has been

placed in the present day to receive visitors who place offerings at his feet in
supplication or in gratitude for prayers answered. The central sanctuary of
the temple is aligned north-south to the axis of the earth, and the Vishnu
statue once stood in the center, making clear that Vishnu was at the heart of
all earthly and divine occurrences. The galleries, according to some scholars,
were used for astronomical observations and were built specifically for that
purpose so that astronomers could clearly view the rotation of the heavens
in the night sky. There is no doubt the site was linked to astronomical
observances as it is precisely positioned to mirror the constellation of Draco,
the dragon, which represents eternity because it never sets.
Rededication – Transformation

25
Angkor Wat was rededicated as a Buddhist temple in the 14th century CE
and statues of the Buddha and Buddha-related stories were added to the
already impressive iconography. As the Buddhists respected the beliefs of
the Hindus who still worshipped there, all of the original statuary and artwork
was left in place. The Buddhist craftsmen added to the intricate story of the
temple while taking nothing away.
By the early 16th century CE, use of the temple had waned, even though it
was still occupied by Buddhist monks, and it became the subject of stories
and legends. It was said to have been built by the gods in the distant past
and a popular story emerged that the god Indra had built it as a palace for
his son and that it rose from nothing in the course of a single night. The
temple was protected from the surrounding jungle by the immense moat and
so, unlike other ancient temples and cities (such as those of the Maya of
Mesoamerica) it was never completely lost.

Ghost Temple: very few people know that even though local people still
visited the site, it became increasingly associated with hauntings and dark
spirits. The great enthusiasm of devotees who used to visit the temple, it
was said, needed to be continued to infuse the area with positive energy.
Once worship at the site fell off, the dark spirits, attracted by the afterglow of
the high energy, moved in and made the place their home. Dark energy was
now thought to emanate from the empty galleries, porches, and
entranceways, and fewer and fewer people went to visit. With only a few
monks to care for it, the buildings began to decay and even though it was
never completely taken by the jungle, natural growth made headway up the
walls and through the cracks between the stones.

In 2016 CE, a New York Times article reported on the ongoing efforts of
archaeologists who continue to make discoveries in the surrounding jungle
and have located the sites of the workers who built the temple and of others
who lived around the complex. The temple itself has undergone major
restoration and is one of the most popular archaeological parks in the world.
Those who visit Angkor Wat today are following in the footsteps of literally
millions of people from the past who have emerged from the surrounding
jungle to find themselves at the site Suryavarman II created as the nexus of
earth and heaven.

Along with the Hindu and Indian Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho,
Central India, and the Taj Mahal in northern India, the Cambodian Khmer
temple complex of Angkor Wat ranks among the greatest examples of
religious architecture in the whole of Asia, comparable to the finest
specimens of Gothic architecture or Baroque architecture in Europe. Situated
some 4 miles (6 km) north of the modern town of Siem Reap in northwestern
Cambodia (Kampuchea), the temple was built about 1115-1145 in Angkor,
the capital of the Khmer Empire, by King Suryavarman II (ruled 1113-1150),
to serve as his mausoleum. Angkor Wat operated first as a Hindu shrine

26
dedicated to Vishnu, then a Theravada Buddhist temple in the late 13th
century. Today Angkor Wat is Cambodia's most famous site of religious
art and its silhouette appears on the Cambodian national flag. The temple is
renowned for its high classical style of Khmer architecture, as well as the
staggering quantity of its relief sculpture and architectural carvings. Artifacts
taken from the site and large sections cast from the temple buildings were
exhibited in Paris in 1867, announcing a great and
unknown civilization rivalling in sophistication the work of the greatest
architects in the West. In 1992, along with a sister temple Angkor Thom,
Angkor Wat was proclaimed a UN World Heritage Site.
For other examples of Asian art, see: Traditional Chinese Art. Also, please
see: India: Painting & Sculpture.

History
The city of Angkor (ancient name: Yasodharapura) was the royal capital from
which Khmer kings ruled one of the largest and most sophisticated kingdoms
in the history of Southeast Asia. From 890, when King Yasovarman I moved
his capital to Angkor, until about 1210, the kings of Angkor controlled an
area that extended from the southern tip of the Indochina peninsula
northward to Yunnan and from Vietnam westwards as far as the Bay of
Bengal. During this era, these kings implemented a series of massive
construction projects designed to glorify both themselves and their dynastic
capital. After the death of King Jayavarman VII (1181-1215), the Angkor
Empire went into decline, although as late as 1280 Angkor was still a thriving
metropolis and one of the most magnificent cities in Asia. However, the great
construction boom was over, Angkor Wat had been turned into a Buddhist
shrine, and Thai armies were watching. In 1431 they sacked the city which
was then abandoned.

From the early 15th century to the late 19th century, interest in Angkor was
limited almost entirely to the Angkor Wat temple complex which, having
been maintained by Buddhist monks, became one of the most significant
pilgrimage sites in Southeast Asia. In time, the complex fell into disrepair and
all that remained were jungle-covered ruins of the ancient temples and the
remnants of the once-magnificent series of waterways, although it was never
completely abandoned and its moat helped to preserve it against total
engulfment. After the French took over Cambodia in 1863, they instigated a
thorough program of reconstruction, under which Angkor Wat's buildings,
reservoirs, and canals were restored to something approaching their original
grandeur. The political and military upheavals which took place in Cambodia
during the period 1935-1990 put an end to this program, but otherwise
caused no great headaches. The site's only serious problem remained the
encroachment of the jungle.

Architecture and Construction

27
The Angkor Wat temple is made from 6-10 million blocks of sandstone, each
of which has an average weight of 1.5 tons. The city of Angkor required more
stone than all the Egyptian pyramids combined, and originally occupied an
area considerably greater than modern-day Paris. Given the additional
complexity of the overall building scheme, it is clear that Angkor was
designed and managed by some of the finest architects in southeast Asia.

The temple was designed and built on the basis of religious and political
ideas imported from India, albeit adapted to local conditions. From the time
of King Yasovarman I, for whom the city (originally called Yasodharapura)
was named, Angkor was designed as a symbolic universe modelled on
traditional Indian cosmology, and its temples were built in order to provide a
means whereby Khmer kings could be assured of immortality by becoming
closely identified with Shaiva or one of the other important deities of the
realm. Angkor Wat, for instance, was built by King Suryavarman II as a huge
funerary temple and tomb to serve as a home for his earthly remains and to
confirm his immortal and eternal identitification with Vishnu.

Angkor Wat defines what has come to be understood as the classical

style of Angkorian architecture: other temples designed in this idiom
include Banteay Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor, and Phimai in
modern Thailand. It combines two basic features of Khmer temple
architecture: the temple-mountain and the galleried temple, founded on
early Dravidian architecture, with key features including the "Jagati" - a
raised platform or terrace upon which many buddhist and hindu temples
were built. In addition to Angkor Wat, another famous shrine with a jagati is
the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, at Khajuraho.

28
Built on rising ground and surrounded by an artificial moat, the
temple of Angkor Wat is laid out symmetrically on tiered platforms that
ascend to the central tower (one of a quincunx), which rises to a height of
213 feet (65 metres). Long colonnades connect the towers at each stepped
level in concentric rings of rectangular galleries, whose walls are lined
with sculpture and relief carvings. The temple is approached across the
moat, via a stone causeway lined with stone figures. The ascending towers
represent the spiritual world and mountain homes of the gods and were
probably built in homage to ancestral deities. The temple's structures are
chiefly built in stone with detailed bas-reliefs carved into the walls; the
corbelled blockwork and pseudo-vaulted towers are covered with highly
animated figures chiseled into the sandstone and volcanic rock.

Sculpture

29
The Angkor Wat temple is world famous for its stone sculpture which can be
seen on almost all of its surfaces, columns, lintels and roofs. There are
literally miles of reliefs, typically in the form of bas-relief friezes illustrating
scenes from Indian mythology, and featuring a bewildering array of animal
and human figures, as well as abstract motifs like lotus rosettes and
garlands. They include: devatas (Hindu gods or spirits), griffins, unicorns,
lions, garudas, snakes, winged dragons, dancing girls and warriors. Khmer
sculptors - surely some of the greatest sculptors in southeast Asia - paid
meticulous attention to the headdresses, hair, garments, posture and
jewellery of the deities and human figures. In addition to reliefs, Angkor Wat
contains numerous statues of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.

Carved pediments and lintels decorate the entrances to the galleries and to
the shrines. While the inner walls of the outer gallery, for example, are
decorated with a series of large-scale scenes depicting episodes from Hindu
sagas like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. On the southern gallery
walls there is a representation of the 37 heavens and 32 hells of Hindu
mythology, while the eastern gallery houses one of the most celebrated
friezes, the Churning of the Sea of Milk, featuring Vishnu showing 88 devas
and 92 asuras.

The massive sandstone bricks used to construct the 12th-century temple

of Angkor Wat were brought to the site via a network of hundreds of canals,
according to new research.

The findings shed light on how the site's 5 million to 10 million bricks, some
weighing up to 3,300 pounds (1,500 kilograms), made it to the temple from
quarries at the base of a nearby mountain. The researchers found many
quarries of sandstone blocks used for the Angkor temples and also the
transportation route of the sandstone blocks. Archaeologist knew that the
rock came from quarries at the base of a mountain nearby, but wondered
how the sandstone bricks used to build Angkor Wat reached the site.
Previously people thought the stones were ferried to Tonle Sap Lake via
canal, and then rowed against the current through another river to the
temples.

To see whether this was the case the area was surveyed to find 50 quarries
along an embankment at the base of Mt. Kulen. They also scoured satellite
images of the area and found a network of hundreds of canals and roads
linking the quarries to the temple site. The distance between the quarries
and the site along the route Uchida's team found was only 22 miles (37
kilometers), compared with the 54 miles (90 km) the river route would have
taken.

30
The grid of canals suggests the ancient builders took a shortcut when
constructing the temple, which may explain how the imposing complex was
built in just a few decades.

 Sambor Prei Kuk style (610–650): Sambor Prei Kuk, also known as
Isanapura, was the capital of the Chenla Kingdom. Temples of Sambor
Prei Kuk were built in rounded, plain colonettes with capitals that include
a bulb.
 Prei Khmeng style (635–700): Structures reveal masterpieces of sculpture
but examples are scarce. Colonettes are larger than those of previous
styles. Buildings were more heavily decorated but had general decline in
standards.
 Kompong Preah style (700–800): Temples with more decorative rings on
colonettes which remain cylindrical. Brick constructions were being
continued.
Scholars have worked to develop a periodization of Angkorean architectural
styles. The following periods and styles may be distinguished. Each is named
for a particular temple regarded as paradigmatic for the style.

 Kulen style (825–875): Continuation of pre-Angkorean style but it was a

period of innovation and borrowing such as from Cham temples. Tower is
mainly square and relatively high as well as brick with laterite walls and
stone door surrounds but square and octagonal colonettes begin to
appear.
 Preah Ko style (877–886): Hariharalaya was the first capital city of
the Khmer empire located in the area of Angkor; its ruins are in the area
now called Roluos some fifteen kilometers southeast of the modern city
of Siem Reap. The earliest surviving temple of Hariharalaya is Preah Ko;
the others are Bakong and Lolei. The temples of the Preah Ko style are
known for their small brick towers and for the great beauty and delicacy
of their lintels.
 Bakheng Style (889–923): Bakheng was the first temple mountain
constructed in the area of Angkor proper north of Siem Reap. It was the
state temple of King Yasovarman, who built his capital of Yasodharapura
around it. Located on a hill (phnom), it is currently one of the most
endangered of the monuments, having become a favorite perch for
tourists eager to witness a glorious sundown at Angkor.
 Koh Ker Style (921–944): During the reign of King Jayavarman IV, capital
of Khmer empire was removed from Angkor region through the north
which is called Koh Ker. The architectural style of temples in Koh Ker,
scale of buildings diminishes toward center. Brick still main material but
sandstone also used.

31
 Pre Rup Style (944–968): Under King Rajendravarman, the Angkorian
Khmer built the temples of Pre Rup, East Mebon and Phimeanakas. Their
common style is named after the state temple mountain of Pre Rup.
 Banteay Srei Style (967–1000): Banteay Srei is the only major Angkorian
temple constructed not by a monarch, but by a courtier. It is known for its
small scale and the extreme refinement of its decorative carvings,
including several famous narrative bas-reliefs dealing with scenes from
Indian mythology.
 Khleang Style (968–1010): The Khleang temples, first use of galleries.
Cruciform gopuras. Octagonal colonettes. Restrained decorative carving.
A few temples that were built in this style are Ta Keo, Phimeanakas.
 Baphuon Style (1050–1080): Baphuon, the massive temple mountain of
King Udayadityavarman II was apparently the temple that most
impressed the Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan, who visited Angkor toward
the end of the 13th century. Its unique relief carvings have a naive
dynamic quality that contrast with the rigidity of the figures typical of
some other periods. As of 2008, Baphuon is under restoration and cannot
currently be appreciated in its full magnificence.
 Classical or Angkor Wat Style (1080–1175): Angkor Wat, the temple and
perhaps the mausoleum of King Suryavarman II, is the greatest of the
Angkorian temples and defines what has come to be known as the
classical style of Angkorian architecture. Other temples in this style
are Banteay Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor, and Phimai in
modern Thailand.
 Bayon Style (1181–1243): In the final quarter of the 12th century,
King Jayavarman VII freed the country of Angkor from occupation by an
invasionary force from Champa. Thereafter, he began a massive program
of monumental construction, paradigmatic for which was the state temple
called the Bayon. The king's other foundations participated in the style of
the Bayon, and included Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, Angkor Thom,
and Banteay Chmar. Though grandiose in plan and elaborately decorated,
the temples exhibit a hurriedness of construction that contrasts with the
perfection of Angkor Wat.
 Post Bayon Style (1243–1431): Following the period of frantic construction
under Jayavarman VII, Angkorian architecture entered the period of its
decline. The 13th century Terrace of the Leper King is known for its
dynamic relief sculptures of demon kings, dancers, and nāgas.

32
Construction techniques

Corridor

The monument was made out of five to ten million sandstone blocks with a
maximum weight of 1.5 tons each. The entire city of Angkor used far greater
amounts of stone than all the Egyptian pyramids combined, and occupied an
area significantly greater than modern-day Paris. Moreover, unlike the
Egyptian pyramids which use limestone quarried barely 0.5 km (1⁄4 mi) away
all the time, the entire city of Angkor was built with sandstone quarried
40 km (25 mi) (or more) away. This sandstone had to be transported from
Mount Kulen, a quarry approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) northeast.
The route has been suggested to span 35 kilometres (22 mi) along a canal
towards Tonlé Sap lake, another 35 kilometres (22 mi) crossing the lake, and
finally 15 kilometres (9 mi) against the current along Siem Reap River,
making a total journey of 90 kilometres (55 mi). However, Etsuo Uchida and
Ichita Shimoda of Waseda University in Tokyo, Japan have discovered in
2011 a shorter 35-kilometre (22 mi) canal connecting Mount Kulen and
Angkor Wat using satellite imagery. The two believe that the Khmer used this
route instead.
Virtually all of its surfaces, columns, lintels, and even roofs are carved. There
are kilometres of reliefs illustrating scenes from Indian literature including
unicorns, griffins, winged dragons pulling chariots as well as warriors
following an elephant-mounted leader and celestial dancing girls with
elaborate hairstyles. The gallery wall alone is decorated with almost
1,000 m2 (11,000 sq ft) of bas reliefs. Holes on some of the Angkor walls
indicate that they may have been decorated with bronze sheets. These were
highly prized in ancient times and were a prime target for robbers.
While excavating Khajuraho, Alex Evans, a stonemason and sculptor,
recreated a stone sculpture under 1.2 metres (4 ft), this took about 60 days
to carve. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner also conducted experiments to
quarry limestone which took 12 quarrymen 22 days to quarry about 400 tons
33
of stone. The labour force to quarry, transport, carve and install so much
sandstone must have run into the thousands including many highly skilled
artisans. The skills required to carve these sculptures were developed
hundreds of years earlier, as demonstrated by some artefacts that have
been dated to the seventh century, before the Khmer came to power
Materials; Angkorian builders used brick, sandstone, laterite and wood as
their materials. The ruins that remain are of brick, sandstone and laterite,
the wood elements having been lost to decay and other destructive
processes.
Brick
The earliest Angkorian temples were made mainly of brick. Good examples
are the temple towers of Preah Ko, Lolei and Bakong at Hariharalaya.
Decorations were usually carved into a stucco applied to the brick, rather
than into the brick itself. This because bricks being softer material do not
lend itself to sculpting as opposed to stones of different kinds such as the
Sandstones or the Granites. However, the tenets of the Sacred Architecture
as enunciated in the Vedas and the Shastras, require no adhesives to be
used while building blocks are assembled one over the other to create the
Temples, as such bricks have been used only in relatively smaller temples
such as Lolei and The Preah Ko. Besides, strength of bricks is much lesser as
compared to the stones (mentioned here-in) and the former degrade with
age.
Angkor's neighbor state of Champa was also the home to numerous brick
temples that are similar in style to those of Angkor. The most extensive ruins
are at Mỹ Sơn in Vietnam. A Cham story tells of the time that the two
countries settled an armed conflict by means of a tower-building contest
proposed by the Cham King Po Klaung Garai. While the Khmer built a
standard brick tower, Po Klaung Garai directed his people to build an
impressive replica of paper and wood. In the end, the Cham replica was more
impressive than the real brick tower of the Khmer, and the Cham won the
contest
Sandstone
The only stone used by Angkorian builders was sandstone, obtained from
the Kulen mountains. Since its obtainment was considerably more expensive
than that of brick, sandstone only gradually came into use, and at first was
used for particular elements such as door frames. The 10th-century temple
of Ta Keo is the first Angkorian temple to be constructed more or less
entirely from Sandstone
Laterite
Angkorian builders used laterite, a clay that is soft when taken from the
ground but that hardens when exposed to the sun, for foundations and other
hidden parts of buildings. Because the surface of laterite is uneven, it was

34
not suitable for decorative carvings, unless first dressed with stucco. Laterite
was more commonly used in the Khmer provinces than at Angkor itself.
[10]
Because the water table in this entire region is well high, Laterite has
been used in the underlying layers of Angkor Wat and other temples
(especially the larger ones), because it can absorb water and help towards
better stability of the Temple.

1. Preah Ko, completed in 879 CE, was a temple made mainly of brick
2. Ta Keo, a temple built in the 10th century, was constructed more or less
entirely from sandstone
3. Prasat Prang Ku in Sisaket, Thailand, was built with laterite STRUCTURES

Central sanctuary
The central sanctuary of an Angkorian temple was home to the temple's
primary deity, the one to whom the site was dedicated:
typically Shiva or Vishnu in the case of a Hindu temple, Buddha or
a bodhisattva in the case of a Buddhist temple. The deity was represented by
a statue (or in the case of Shiva, most commonly by a linga). Since the
temple was not considered a place of worship for use by the population at
large, but rather a home for the deity, the sanctuary needed only to be large
enough to hold the statue or linga; it was never more than a few metres
across. Its importance was instead conveyed by the height of the tower
(prasat) rising above it, by its location at the centre of the temple, and by the
greater decoration on its walls. Symbolically, the sanctuary
represented Mount Meru, the legendary home of the Hindu gods.
Prang
The prang is the tall finger-like spire, usually richly carved, common to much
Khmer religious architecture. A prang (is a tall tower-like spire, usually richly
carved. They were a common shrine element
of Hindu and Buddhist architecture in the Khmer Empire. They were later
adapted by Buddhist builders in Thailand, especially during the Ayutthaya
Kingdom (1350–1767) and Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932). In Thailand it
appears only with the most important Buddhist temples.

35
The term prang is a compound of the Sanskrit terms pra- ('forward, in front')
and aṅga (limb of the body), with the contacting vowels united by sandhi.
Prang tower took form of a multi-tiered structure with receding size as it
ascends. The receding size of almost identical roof structures of the stepped
pyramidal tower, creates a perspective illusion as if the tower is taller than it
actually is. The form of the tower is a reminiscent of Indic shikhara of Hindu
temple, although slightly different in design. On each cardinal points,
a prang usually has richly adorned tympanum and lintel above doorways or
blind doors. The prang took plan of multi corners rectangular, which on top of
each roof steps are adorned with antefixes, which mostly took theme of
multi-headed Nāgas, Garuda or deities.
Khmer temples

The central prang of Angkor Wat temple symbolizes the mount Meru.RIGHT PIC Wat Arun
Thornbury Thailand PRANGS

Originally the Khmer prang temples were for the worship of the Hindu gods,
such as Shiva and Vishnu. The space within the prang tower, the cella, was
relatively small for two reasons:

1. The rituals which were held in them were reserved for a small elite (in
the capital of the Khmer only the god king could enter the shrine).
2. The technology of the Khmer could not yet make large airy halls.
(Ringis, 1990)
The cella was entered via a small porch, usually aligned to the east, which
was called the Mandapa. Over the cubic cella rose the central tower,
the bud-shaped prang, modeled after the cosmic mountain Meru, crowned by
a top stone in form of a lotus bud.

36
The Khmer prangs resembled north Indian temples' shikhara and rekha
(temple towers) elements. The early 10th century and the late 12th century
prangs in Thailand were influenced by the Khmer architects of the great
temple complexes of Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom.
Thai temples

Wat Chaiwatthanaram, an example of Thai style prang

The first prangs in Thailand were built in Phimai and Khao Phnom
Rung and Lopburi between the early 10th century and the late 12th century,
when the Khmer kingdom was dominant.
After the Khmer Empire collapsed, the Thai building masters of the Sukhothai
Kingdom adapted the Prang form. They extended and developed it. The
building material was no more separate small sandstone blocks, instead the
Thais built the Prang in brick or laterite covered with stucco. And the cella
could be reached only by stairs. An example for this is the Prang of the Wat
Mahathat in Phitsanulok. Later developments of the Prang suggested the
cella only. The entrance door became a niche, in which was placed
the Buddharupa (Buddha statue), which had originally taken the central
position inside. For reasons of symmetry the niche was repeated on all four
sides. On its pinnacle was a Trishul, the "weapon of Indra".
A "more modern" Prang is a slim construction, like an ear of corn, which lets
its Khmer origin be only suspected. The best example is Wat Arun, the
landmark of Bangkok. Also Wat Phra Kaeo has six thin Prangs arranged in a
row. Another example is the four Prangs arranged in all four directions
around Wat Pho in Bangkok, and the five Prangs in Wat
Pichayart in Thonburi.
Enclosure
Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with
the central sanctuary in the middle; this arrangement represented the
mountain ranges surrounding Mount Meru, the mythical home of the gods.
Enclosures are the spaces between these walls, and between the innermost
wall and the temple itself. By modern convention, enclosures are numbered
from the centre outwards. The walls defining the enclosures of Khmer
temples are frequently lined by galleries, while passage through the walls is
by way of gopuras located at the cardinal points.

37
Gallery
A cruciform gallery separates the courtyards at Angkor Wat.

A gallery is a passageway running along the wall of an enclosure or along the

axis of a temple, often open to one or both sides. Historically, the form of the
gallery evolved during the 10th century from the increasingly long hallways
which had earlier been used to surround the central sanctuary of a temple.
During the period of Angkor Wat in the first half of the 12th century,
additional half galleries on one side were introduced to buttress the structure
of the temple.
Gopura

A gopura leads into the 12th-century temple compound at Ta Prohm./Many of the gopuras constructed under Jayavarman VII toward
the end of the 12th century, such as this one at Angkor Thom, are adorned with gigantic stone faces of Avalokiteshvara.

A gopura is an entrance building. At Angkor, passage through the enclosure

walls surrounding a temple compound is frequently accomplished by means
of an impressive gopura, rather than just an aperture in the wall or a
doorway. Enclosures surrounding a temple are often constructed with a
gopura at each of the four cardinal points. In plan, gopuras are usually cross-
shaped and elongated along the axis of the enclosure wall.
If the wall is constructed with an accompanying gallery, the gallery is
sometimes connected to the arms of the gopura. Many Angkorian gopuras
have a tower at the centre of the cross. The lintels and pediments are often
decorated, and guardian figures (dvarapalas) are often placed or carved on
either side of the doorways.
Hall of Dancers
A Hall of Dancers is a structure of a type found in certain late 12th-century
temples constructed under King Jayavarman VII: Ta Prohm, Preah
Khan, Banteay Kdei and Banteay Chhmar. It is a rectangular building
elongated along the temple's east axis and divided into four courtyards by

38
galleries. Formerly it had a roof made of perishable materials; now only the
stone walls remain. The pillars of the galleries are decorated with carved
designs of dancing apsaras; hence scholars have suggested that the hall
itself may have been used for dancing.
House of Fire
House of Fire, or Dharmasala, is the name given to a type of building found
only in temples constructed during the reign of late 12th-century
monarch Jayavarman VII: Preah Khan, Ta Prohm and Banteay Chhmar. A
House of Fire has thick walls, a tower at the west end and south-facing
windows.
Scholars theorize that the House of Fire functioned as a "rest house with fire"
for travellers. An inscription at Preah Khan tells of 121 such rest houses
lining the highways into Angkor. The Chinese traveller Zhou
Daguan expressed his admiration for these rest houses when he visited
Angkor in 1296 CE Another theory is that the House of Fire had a religious
function as the repository the sacred flame used in sacred ceremonies.

Unusually, the libraries at Angkor Wat open to both the East and the West.

Library
Structures conventionally known as "libraries" are a common feature of
Khmer temple architecture, but their true purpose remains unknown. Most
likely they functioned broadly as religious shrines rather than strictly as
repositories of manuscripts. Freestanding buildings, they were normally
placed in pairs on either side of the entrance to an enclosure, opening to the
west.
Srah and baray
Srahs and barays were reservoirs, generally created by excavation
and embankment, respectively. It is not clear whether the significance of
these reservoirs was religious, agricultural, or a combination of the two.
The two largest reservoirs at Angkor were the West Baray and the East
Baray located on either side of Angkor Thom. The East Baray is now dry.
39
The West Mebon is an 11th-century temple standing at the center of the
West Baray and the East Mebon is a 10th-century temple standing at the
center of the East Baray.
The baray associated with Preah Khan is the Jayataka, in the middle of which
stands the 12th-century temple of Neak Pean. Scholars have speculated that
the Jayataka represents the Himalayan lake of Anavatapta, known for its
miraculous healing powers.
Temple mountain

The Bakong is the earliest surviving Temple Mountain at Angkor.

The dominant scheme for the construction of state temples in the Angkorian
period was that of the Temple Mountain, an architectural representation
of Mount Meru, the home of the gods in Hinduism. The style was influenced
by South indian temple architecture. Enclosures represented the mountain
chains surrounding Mount Meru, while a moat represented the ocean. The
temple itself took shape as a pyramid of several levels, and the home of the
gods was represented by the elevated sanctuary at the center of the temple.
The first great temple mountain was the Bakong, a five-level pyramid
dedicated in 881 by King Indravarman I. The structure of Bakong took shape
of stepped pyramid, popularly identified as temple mountain of early Khmer
temple architecture. The striking similarity of the Bakong
and Borobudur in Java, going into architectural details such as the gateways
and stairs to the upper terraces, strongly suggests that Borobudur might
have served as the prototype of Bakong. There must have been exchanges
of travelers, if not mission, between Khmer kingdom and
the Sailendras in Java. Transmitting to Cambodia not only ideas, but also
technical and architectural details of Borobudur, including arched gateways
in corbelling method.
Other Khmer temple mountains include Baphuon, Pre Rup, Ta Keo, Koh Ker,
the Phimeanakas, and most notably the Phnom Bakheng at Angkor.
According to Charles Higham, "A temple was built for the worship of the
ruler, whose essence, if a Saivite, was embodied in a linga... housed in the
central sanctuary which served as a temple-mausoleum for the ruler after his

40
death...these central temples also contained shrines dedicated to the royal
ancestors and thus became centres of ancestor worship."
Bas-relief
Bas-reliefs are individual figures, groups of figures, or entire scenes cut into
stone walls, not as drawings but as sculpted images projecting from a
background. Sculpture in bas-relief is distinguished from sculpture in haut-
relief, in that the latter projects farther from the background, in some cases
almost detaching itself from it. The Angkorian Khmer preferred to work in
bas-relief, while their neighbors the Cham were partial to haut-relief.
Narrative bas-reliefs are bas-reliefs depicting stories from mythology or
history. Until about the 11th century, the Angkorian Khmer confined their
narrative bas-reliefs to the space on the tympana above doorways. The most
famous early narrative bas-reliefs are those on the tympana at the 10th-
century temple of Banteay Srei, depicting scenes from Hindu mythology as
well as scenes from the great works of Indian literature, the Ramayana and
the Mahabharata.
By the 12th century, however, the Angkorian artists were covering entire
walls with narrative scenes in bas-relief. At Angkor Wat, the external gallery
wall is covered with some 12,000 or 13,000 square meters of such scenes,
some of them historical, some mythological. Similarly, the outer gallery at
the Bayon contains extensive bas-reliefs documenting the everyday life of
the medieval Khmer as well as historical events from the reign of
King Jayavarman VII.

A bas-relief in a tympanum at Banteay Srei shows Indra releasing the rains in an attempt
to extinguish the fire created by Agni./ RIGHT The Battle of Kurukshetra is the subject of
this bas-relief at Angkor Wat.

41
This blind door at Banteay Srei is flanked by colonettes. Above the door is
a lintel, above which is a tympanum with a scene from the Mahabharata.
Blind door and window Angkorean shrines frequently opened in only one
direction, typically to the east. The other three sides featured fake or blind doors
to maintain symmetry. Blind windows were often used along otherwise blank
walls. RIGHT PIC This scene from the outer gallery at the Bayon shows Chinese
expats negotiating with Khmer merchants at an Angkorean market.

The following is a listing of the motifs illustrated in some of the more famous
Angkorian narrative bas-reliefs:

 bas-reliefs in the tympana at Banteay Srei (10th century)

o the duel of the monkey princes Vali and Sugriva, and the intervention
of the human hero Rama on behalf of the latter
o the duel of Bhima and Duryodhana at the Battle of Kurukshetra
o the Rakshasa king Ravana shaking Mount Kailasa, upon which
sit Shiva and his shakti
o Kama firing an arrow at Shiva as the latter sits on Mount Kailasa
o the burning of Khandava Forest by Agni and Indra's attempt to
extinguish the flames
 bas-reliefs on the walls of the outer gallery at Angkor Wat (mid-12th
century)
o the Battle of Lanka between the Rakshasas and the vanaras or
monkeys
o the court and procession of King Suryavarman II, the builder of Angkor
Wat
o the Battle of Kurukshetra between Pandavas and Kauravas
o the judgment of Yama and the tortures of Hell
o the Churning of the Ocean of Milk
o a battle between devas and asuras
o a battle between Vishnu and a force of asuras
o the conflict between Krishna and the asura Bana
o the story of the monkey princes Vali and Sugriva

42
 bas-reliefs on the walls of the outer and inner galleries at the Bayon (late
12th century)
o battles on land and sea between Khmer and Cham troops
o scenes from the everyday life of Angkor
o civil strife among the Khmer
o the legend of the Leper King
o the worship of Shiva
o groups of dancing apsaras
Colonette
Colonettes were narrow decorative columns that served as supports for the
beams and lintels above doorways or windows. Depending on the period,
they were round, rectangular, or octagonal in shape. Colonettes were often
circled with molded rings and decorated with carved leaves.

Corbelled arch at the south gate of Angkor Thom./Corbelled hallway at Ta

Prohm.

Corbelling
Angkorian engineers tended to use the corbel arch in order to construct
rooms, passageways and openings in buildings. A corbel arch is constructed
by adding layers of stones to the walls on either side of an opening, with
each successive layer projecting further towards the centre than the one
supporting it from below, until the two sides meet in the middle. The corbel
arch is structurally weaker than the true arch. The use of corbelling
prevented the Angkorian engineers from constructing large openings or
spaces in buildings roofed with stone, and made such buildings particularly
prone to collapse once they were no longer maintained. These difficulties did
not, of course, exist for buildings constructed with stone walls surmounted
by a light wooden roof. The problem of preventing the collapse of corbelled
structures at Angkor remains a serious one for modern conservation.
Lintel, pediment, and tympanum A lintel is a horizontal beam connecting two
vertical columns between which runs a door or passageway. Because the

43
Angkorean Khmer lacked the ability to construct a true arch, they
constructed their passageways using lintels or corbelling. A pediment is a
roughly triangular structure above a lintel. A tympanum is the decorated
surface of a pediment.

Lintel and pediment at Banteay Srei; the motif on the pediment

is Shiva Nataraja.

The styles employed by Angkorean artists in the decoration of lintels evolved

over time, as a result, the study of lintels has proven a useful guide to the
dating of temples. Some scholars have endeavored to develop a
periodization of lintel styles.[28] The most beautiful Angkorean lintels are
thought to be those of the Preah Ko style from the late 9th century.
Common motifs in the decoration of lintels include the kala, the nāga and
the makara, as well as various forms of vegetation. [30] Also frequently
depicted are the Hindu gods associated with the four cardinal directions, with
the identity of the god depicted on a given lintel or pediment depending on
the direction faced by that element. Indra, the god of the sky, is associated
with East; Yama, the god of judgment and Hell, with South; Varuna, the god
of the ocean, with West; and Kubera, god of wealth, with North.
List of Khmer lintel styles

 Sambor Prei Kuk style : Inward-facing makaras with tapering bodies. Four
arches joined by three medallions, the central once carved with Indra.
Small figure on each makara. A variation is with figures replacing the
makaras and a scene with figures below the arch.
 Prei Khmeng style : Continuation of Sambor Prei Kuk but makaras
disappear, being replaced by incurving ends and figures. Arches more
rectilinear. Large figures sometimes at each end. A variation is a central
scene below the arch, usually Vishnu Reclining.
 Kompong Preah style : High quality carving. Arches replaced by a garland
of vegetation (like a wreath) more or less segmented. Medallions
disappear, central one sometimes replaced by a knot of leaves. Leafy
pendants spray out above and below garland.
 Kulen style : Great diversity, with influences from Champa and Java,
including the kala and outward-facing makaras.
 Preah Ko style : Some of the most beautiful of all Khmer lintels, rich, will-
carved and imaginative. Kala in center, issuing garland on either side.
44
 Distinct loops of vegetation curl down from garland. Outward-facing
makaras sometimes appear at the ends. Vishnu on Garuda common.

Rich-carved decoration of Preah Ko lintel.

 Bakheng style : Continuation of Preah Ko but less fanciful and tiny figures
disappear. Loop of vegetation below the naga form tight circular coils.
Garland begins to dip in the center.
 Koh Ker style : Center occupied by a prominent scene, taking up almost
the entire height of the lintel. Usually no lower border. Dress of figures
shows a curved line to the sampot tucked in below waist.
 Pre Rup style : Tendency to copy earlier style, especially Preah Ko and
Bakheng. Central figures. Re-appearance of lower border.
 Banteay Srei style : Increase in complexity and detail. Garland sometimes
makes pronounced loop on either side with kala at top of each loop.
Central figure.
 Khleang style : Less ornate than those of Banteay Srei. Central kala with
triangular tongue, its hands holding the garland which is bent at the
center. Kala sometimes surmounted by a divinity. Loops of garland on
either side divided by flora stalk and pendant. Vigorous treatment of
vegetation.
 Baphuon style : The central kala surmounted by divinity, usually riding a
steed or a Vishnu scene, typically from the life of Krishna. Loops of
garland no longer cut. Another type is a scene with many figures and little
vegetation.
 Angkor Wat style : Centered, framed and linked by garlands. A second
type is a narrative scene filled with figures. When nagas appear, they
curls are tight and prominent. Dress mirrors that
of devatas and apsaras in bas-reliefs. No empty spaces.
 Bayon style : Most figures disappear, usually only a kala at the bottom of
the lintel surmounted by small figure. Mainly Buddhist motifs. In the
middle of the period the garland is cut into four parts, while later a series
of whorls of foliage replace the four divisions. [32]

45
Stairs

The stairs leading to the inner enclosure at Ankor Wat are daunting.

Angkorean stairs are notoriously steep. Frequently, the length of

the riser exceeds that of the tread, producing an angle of ascent somewhere
between 45 and 70 degrees. The reasons for this peculiarity appear to be
both religious and monumental. From the religious perspective, a steep
stairway can be interpreted as a "stairway to heaven," the realm of the gods.
"From the monumental point of view," according to Angkor-scholar Maurice
Glaize, "the advantage is clear – the square of the base not having to spread
in surface area, the entire building rises to its zenith with a particular thrust."
MOTIFS
Apsara and devata

Two apsaras appear on this pillar at the 12th-century Buddhist temple

the Bayon.///Apsaras (left) and a devata (right) grace the walls at Banteay Kdei.

Apsaras, divine nymphs or celestial dancing girls, are characters from Indian
mythology. Their origin is explained in the story of the churning of the Ocean
of Milk, or samudra manthan, found in the Vishnu Purana. Other stories in
the Mahabharata detail the exploits of individual apsaras, who were often
used by the gods as agents to persuade or seduce mythological demons,

46
heroes and ascetics. The widespread use of apsaras as a motif for decorating
the walls and pillars of temples and other religious buildings, however, was
a Khmer innovation. In modern descriptions of Angkorian temples, the term
"apsara" is sometimes used to refer not only to dancers but also to other
minor female deities, though minor female deities who are depicted standing
rather than dancing are more commonly called "devatas".
Apsaras and devatas are ubiquitous at Angkor, but are most common in the
foundations of the 12th century. Depictions of true (dancing) apsaras are
found, for example, in the Hall of Dancers at Preah Khan, in the pillars that
line the passageways through the outer gallery of the Bayon, and in the
famous bas-relief of Angkor Wat depicting the churning of the Ocean of Milk.
The largest population of devatas (around 2,000) is at Angkor Wat, where
they appear individually and in groups.

This dvarapala stands guard at Banteay Kdei.

Dvarapala
Dvarapalas are human or demonic temple guardians, generally armed with
lances and clubs. They are presented either as a stone statues or as relief
carvings in the walls of temples and other buildings, generally close to
entrances or passageways. Their function is to protect the temples.
Dvarapalas may be seen, for example, at Preah Ko, Lolei, Banteay
Srei, Preah Khan and Banteay Kdei
Gajasimha and Reachisey
The gajasimha is a mythical animal with the body of a lion and the head of
an elephant. At Angkor, it is portrayed as a guardian of temples and as a
mount for some warriors. The gajasimha may be found at Banteay Srei and
at the temples belonging to the Roluos group.

47
The reachisey is another mythical animal, similar to the gajasimha, with the
head of a lion, a short elephantine trunk, and the scaly body of a dragon. It
occurs at Angkor Wat in the epic bas reliefs of the outer gallery.
Garuda

In this 9th century lintel now on display at the Musée Guimet, Garuda bears Vishnu on his
shoulders.

Garuda is a divine being that is part man and part bird. He is the lord of
birds, the mythological enemy of nāgas, and the battle steed of Vishnu.
Depictions of Garuda at Angkor number in the thousands, and though Indian
in inspiration exhibit a style that is uniquely Khmer. [37] They may be classified
as follows:

 As part of a narrative bas relief, Garuda is shown as the battle steed

of Vishnu or Krishna, bearing the god on his shoulders, and
simultaneously fighting against the god's enemies. Numerous such
images of Garuda may be observed in the outer gallery of Angkor Wat.
 Garuda serves as an atlas supporting a superstructure, as in the bas relief
at Angkor Wat that depicts heaven and hell. Garudas and stylized
mythological lions are the most common atlas figures at Angkor.
 Garuda is depicted in the pose of a victor, often dominating a nāga, as in
the gigantic relief sculptures on the outer wall of Preah Khan. In this
context, Garuda symbolizes the military power of the Khmer kings and
their victories over their enemies. Not coincidentally, the city of Preah
Khan was built on the site of King Jayavarman VII's victory over invaders
from Champa.
 In free-standing nāga sculptures, such as in nāga bridges and
balustrades, Garuda is often depicted in relief against the fan of nāga
heads. The relationship between Garuda and the nāga heads is
ambiguous in these sculptures: it may be one of cooperation, or it may
again be one of domination of the nāga by Garuda. [

48
 III
THE MANY GODS of ANGKOR
Indra
In the ancient religion of the Vedas, Indra the sky-god reigned supreme. In
the medieval Hinduism of Angkor, however, he had no religious status, and
served only as a decorative motif in architecture. Indra is associated with the
East; since Angkorian temples typically open to the East, his image is
sometimes encountered on lintels and pediments facing that direction.
Typically, he is mounted on the three-headed elephant Airavata and holds
his trusty weapon, the thunderbolt or vajra. The numerous adventures of
Indra documented in Hindu epic Mahabharata are not depicted at Angkor.

49
Kala

A kala serves as the base for a deity at the 10th-century Hindu temple Banteay
Srei.

The kala is a ferocious monster symbolic of time in its all-devouring aspect

and associated with the destructive side of the god Siva.[38] In Khmer temple
architecture, the kala serves as a common decorative element on lintels,
tympana and walls, where it is depicted as a monstrous head with a large
upper jaw lined by large carnivorous teeth, but with no lower jaw. Some
kalas are shown disgorging vine-like plants, and some serve as the base for
other figures.
Scholars have speculated that the origin of the kala as a decorative element
in Khmer temple architecture may be found in an earlier period when the
skulls of human victims were incorporated into buildings as a kind of
protective magic or apotropaism. Such skulls tended to lose their lower jaws
when the ligaments holding them together dried out. Thus, the kalas of
Angkor may represent the Khmer civilization's adoption into its decorative
iconography of elements derived from long forgotten primitive antecedents.
Krishna
Scenes from the life of Krishna, a hero and Avatar of the god Vishnu, are
common in the relief carvings decorating Angkorian temples, and unknown
in Angkorian sculpture in the round. The literary sources for these scenes are
the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, and the Bhagavata Purana. The following
are some of the most important Angkorian depictions of the life of Krishna:

50
 A series of bas reliefs at the 11th-century temple pyramid
called Baphuon depicts scenes of the birth and childhood of Krishna. [41]
 Numerous bas reliefs in various temples show Krishna subduing
the nāga Kaliya. In Angkorian depictions, Krishna is shown effortlessly
stepping on and pushing down his opponent's multiple heads.
 Also common is the depiction of Krishna as he lifts
Mount Govardhana with one hand in order to provide the cowherds with
shelter from the deluge caused by Indra.
 Krishna is frequently depicted killing or subduing various demons,
including his evil uncle Kamsa. An extensive bas relief in the outer gallery
of Angkor Wat depicts Krishna's battle with the asura Bana. In battle,
Krishna is shown riding on the shoulders of Garuda, the traditional mount
of Vishnu.
 In some scenes, Krishna is depicted in his role as charioteer, advisor and
protector of Arjuna, the hero of the Mahabharata. A well-known bas relief
from the 10th-century temple of Banteay Srei depicts the Krishna and
Arjuna helping Agni to burn down Khandava forest.
As described in the Bhagavata Purana, the
youthful Krishna miraculously raises Mount
Govardhan, near Mathura in northern India, to
protect the villagers and cowherds from a great
rainstorm sent by Indra. The sculptor of this
image, active in the Phnom Da workshops,
clearly understood the essence of his subject. It
is evident that this sculpture evolved from a
long-standing local tradition, which, by the
seventh century, had surpassed any Indian
prototypes that were remembered.

A twelfth-century Phnom Da inscription credits

a group of seven cult images to the patronage
of an early Funan ruler and lists a Krishna
Govardhana in the group. This sculpture is
likely one of those works.METROPOLITAN
MUSEUM OF ART

51
Linga

The corner of a lintel on one of the brick towers at Bakong shows a man riding on the back of
a makara that in turn disgorges another monster./// This segmented linga from 10th century
Angkor has a square base, an octagonal middle, and a round tip.

The linga is a phallic post or cylinder symbolic of the god Shiva and of
creative power. As a religious symbol, the function of the linga is primarily
that of worship and ritual, and only secondarily that of decoration. In
the Khmer empire, certain lingas were erected as symbols of the king
himself, and were housed in royal temples in order to express the king's
consubstantiality with Siva. The lingas that survive from the Angkorean
period are generally made of polished stone.
The lingas of the Angkorian period are of several different types.

 Some lingas are implanted in a flat square base called a yoni, symbolic of
the womb.
 On the surface of some lingas is engraved the face of Siva. Such lingas
are called mukhalingas.
 Some lingas are segmented into three parts: a square base symbolic
of Brahma, an octagonal middle section symbolic of Vishnu, and a round
tip symbolic of Shiva.
Makara
A makara is a mythical sea monster with the body of a serpent, the trunk of
an elephant, and a head that can have features reminiscent of a lion, a
crocodile, or a dragon. In Khmer temple architecture, the motif of the makara
is generally part of a decorative carving on a lintel, tympanum, or wall. Often
the makara is depicted with some other creature, such as a lion or serpent,
emerging from its gaping maw. The makara is a central motif in the design of

52
the famously beautiful lintels of the Roluos group of temples: Preah
Ko, Bakong, and Lolei. At Banteay Srei, carvings of makaras disgorging other
monsters may be observed on many of the corners of the buildings.
Nāga

Mucalinda, the nāga king who shielded Buddha as he sat in meditation, was a favorite
motif for Cambodian Buddhist sculptors from the 11th century. This statue is dated
between 1150 and 1175 CE/ RIGHT This multi-headed nāga is part of a decorative lintel
from the end of the 9th century.

Mythical serpents, or nāgas, represent an important motif in Khmer

architecture as well as in free-standing sculpture. They are frequently
depicted as having multiple heads, always uneven in number, arranged in a
fan. Each head has a flared hood, in the manner of a cobra.

Nāgas are frequently depicted in Angkorian lintels. The composition of such

lintels characteristically consists in a dominant image at the center of a
rectangle, from which issue swirling elements that reach to the far ends of
the rectangle. These swirling elements may take shape as either vinelike
vegetation or as the bodies of nāgas. Some such nāgas are depicted wearing
crowns, and others are depicted serving as mounts for human riders.
To the Angkorian Khmer, nāgas were symbols of water and figured in the
myths of origin for the Khmer people, who were said to be descended from
the union of an Indian Brahman and a serpent princess from Cambodia.
[47]
Nāgas were also characters in other well-known legends and stories
depicted in Khmer art, such as the churning of the Ocean of Milk, the legend
of the Leper King as depicted in the bas-reliefs of the Bayon, and the story

53
of Mucalinda, the serpent king who protected the Buddha from the elements.
[48]

Nāga Bridge

Stone Asuras hold the nāga Vasuki on a bridge leading into the 12th century
city of Angkor Thom.

Nāga bridges are causeways or true bridges lined by

stone balustrades shaped as nāgas.
In some Angkorian nāga-bridges, as for example those located at the
entrances to 12th century city of Angkor Thom, the nāga-shaped balustrades
are supported not by simple posts but by stone statues of gigantic warriors.
These giants are the devas and asuras who used the nāga king Vasuki in
order to the churn the Ocean of Milk in quest of the amrita or elixir of
immortality. The story of the Churning of the Ocean of Milk or samudra
manthan has its source in Indian mythology.
Quincunx

A linga in the form of a quincunx, set inside a yoni, is carved into the
riverbed at Kbal Spean.

54
A quincunx is a spatial arrangement of five elements, with four elements
placed as the corners of a square and the fifth placed in the center. The five
peaks of Mount Meru were taken to exhibit this arrangement, and Khmer
temples were arranged accordingly in order to convey a symbolic
identification with the sacred mountain. The five brick towers of the 10th-
century temple known as East Mebon, for example, are arranged in the
shape of a quincunx. The quincunx also appears elsewhere in designs of the
Angkorian period, as in the riverbed carvings of Kbal Spean.
Shiva
Most temples at Angkor are dedicated to Shiva. In general, the Angkorian
Khmer represented and worshipped Shiva in the form of a lingam, though
they also fashioned anthropomorphic statues of the god. Anthropomorphic
representations are also found in Angkorian bas reliefs. A famous tympanum
from Banteay Srei depicts Shiva sitting on Mount Kailasa with his consort,
while the demon king Ravana shakes the mountain from below. At Angkor
Wat and Bayon, Shiva is depicted as a bearded ascetic. His attributes include
the mystical eye in the middle of his forehead, the trident, and the rosary.
His vahana or mount is the bull Nandi.

The Australian archaeologist Damian Evans has discovered

undocumented ancient cities between 900 and 1,400 years ago buried in the
Cambodian jungle surrounding Angkor Wat, the largest religious monument
in the world. Some cities can reach the size of Cambodia's capital, Phnom
Penh (about 678.5 square kilometers). The new finding may rewrite the
history of Southeast Asia.

Angkor Wat, a
UNESCO World Heritage Site in Cambodia

The existence of Mahendraparvata (the 1,200-year-old lost medieval city in

Cambodia) was confirmed in 2012. In 2015, Damian Evans and his

55
colleagues utilized the advanced light-scanning equipment lidar to scan
more than 735 square miles of the Angkor region. Recently, the entire
ancient cities beneath the jungle have been found by analyzing data
captured in 2015. These cities seemed to have constituted the Khmer
Empire, the largest empire on earth in the 12th century.

The new discovery can deepen our understanding of Khmer culture and cast
into doubt the traditional assumptions about the empire. In addition, the
survey detected elaborate water systems were constructed hundreds of
years earlier than historians previously believed. It appears that these
ancient cities will become the new secrets attracting tourists to visit and
explore soon.

Although it remains unknown when the newly discovered ancient cities will
be opened to visitors, the Angkor Wat has already been extremely popular
with world travelers. The magnificent temple was built by King Suryavarman
II and considered among the most significant attractions in Southeast Asia
widely. It consists of three rectangular galleries surrounding a central tower,
each level higher than the last. Small apsara images are used as decorative
motifs on pillars and walls and larger devata images are employed in the
entry pavilion of the temple to the tops of the high towers.

Devatas,
characteristic of the Angkor Wat style

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56
New, digitally enhanced images reveal detailed murals at Angkor
Wat showing elephants, deities, boats, orchestral ensembles and people
riding horses — all invisible to the naked eye. Many of the faded markings
could be graffiti left behind by pilgrims after Angkor Wat was abandoned in
the 15th century. But the more elaborate paintings may be relics of the
earliest attempts to restore the temple.

Painting discovery: Subtle traces of paint caught the eye of Noel Hidalgo
Tan, a rock-art researcher at Australian National University in Canberra,
while he was working on an excavation at Angkor Wat in 2010. While
spotting traces of red pigment all over the walls when one rfesearcher was
taking a stroll through the temple on his lunch break one day.he took a few
pictures and planned to digitally enhance them later. The digitally enhanced
pictures revealed paintings of elephants, lions, the Hindu monkey god
Hanuman, boats and buildings — perhaps even images of Angkor Wat itself.
Tan went back to the site to conduct a more methodical survey in 2012 with
his Cambodian colleagues from APSARA (which stands for the Authority for
the Protection and Management of Angkor and the Region of Siem Reap).

Invisible images- Some of the most detailed paintings, the ones located at
the top of the temple, are passed by literally thousands of visitors every day,
but the most elaborate scenes are effectively invisible to the naked eye. To
make these paintings visible, a technique called decorrelation stretch
analysis, was used, which exaggerates subtle color differences. This method
has become a valuable tool in rock-art research, as it can help distinguish
faint images from the underlying rock. It has even been used to enhance
images taken of the Martian surface by NASA's Opportunity rover.

One chamber in the highest tier of Angkor Wat's central tower, known as
the Bakan, contains an elaborate scene of a traditional Khmer musical
ensemble known as the pinpeat, which is made up of different gongs,
xylophones, wind instruments and other percussion instruments. In the
same chamber, there's an intricate scene featuring people riding horses
between two structures, which might be temples
Secret Paintings

Digitally enhanced images revealed hidden paintings on the walls of

Cambodia's Angkor Wat, one of the largest religious monuments in the
world, built between A.D. 1113 and 1150. The paintings, once invisible to the
naked eye, show elephants, deities, boats, orchestral ensembles and people
riding horses, according to a new research article detailed online in May
2014 in the journal Antiquity.
Angkor Wat-Aerial view of Angkor Wat, showing the moat and causeway and
the central tower surrounded by four smaller towers

57
oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo

58
 IV

Site and plan of Borobudur

Borobudur covers a total surface area of around 2,500 m2. The monument is a
marvel of design, decorated with 2,672 relief panels and originally 504 Buddha
statues. The architecture and stonework of this temple have no equal. It was built
without using any cement or mortar! The structure is like a set of massive
interlocking Lego blocks held together without any glue. Built with about 2,000,000
cubic feet (56,600 cubic metres) of gray volcanic stone, Borobudur encloses a
small hill and is shaped like a stepped pyramid with three major levels—a square
base, a middle level of five square terraces, and an upper level of three circular
terraces—totaling, in effect, nine lesser sections It was built in three tiers: a
pyramidal base with five concentric square terraces, the trunk of a cone with three
circular platforms and, at the top, a monumental stupa.

Architecture: From Darkness to Light: The idea of moving from the darkness
into the light is the final element of the experience of Borobudur. The temple’s
pathway takes one from the earthly realm of desire (kamadhatu), represented and
documented on the hidden narratives of the structure’s earthbound base, through
the world of forms (rupadhatu) as expounded on the narratives carved along the
four galleries set at right angles, until one finally emerges into the realm of
formlessness (arupadhatu) as symbolized and manifested in the open circular
terraces crowned with 72 stupas.

59
However, the symbolization of enlightenment these stupas represent is not
intended to be merely aesthetic. Buddhist stupas and mandalas are understood as
“spiritual technologies” that harness spiritual “energies” in the creation of sacred
space. The repetition of form and the circumabulatory progress of the pilgrim
mimic, and thereby access, the cosmological as a microcosm. The clockwise
movement around the cosmic center reproduces the macrocosmic path of the sun.
Thus, when one emerges from the dark galleries representing the realms of desire
and form into the light of the “formless” circular open air upper walkways, the
material effect of light on one’s physical form merges concomitantly with the
spiritual enlightenment generated by the metaphysical journey of the sacred path.
Light, in all its paradoxes, is the ultimate goal. The crowning stupa of this sacred
mountain is dedicated to the “Great Sun Buddha” Vairocana. The temple sits in
cosmic proximity to the nearby volcano Mt. Merapi. During certain times of the year
the path of the rising sun in the East seems to emerge out of the mountain to strike
the temple’s peak in radiant synergy. Light illuminates the stone in a way that is
intended to be more than beautiful. The brilliance of the site can be found in how
the Borobudur mandala blends the metaphysical and physical, the symbolic and the
material, the cosmological and the earthly within the structure of its physical setting
and the framework of spiritual paradox.

Borobudur and the concept of path in Buddhism

Paths have been pervasive in human civilization. We are all familiar with the streets,
trails, and lanes along which we routinely travel. Ancient Roman roads are utilized
in some places even today. In contemporary computer culture we follow “paths” on
webpages as we find our way to the information or experience we are searching for
or find unexpectedly. There are simulated paths in complex first-person virtual
reality video environments, where role-playing games formulate their content
around the path to be conquered. The idea of path is an important concept in
Buddhism, and is essential in understanding the meaning and purpose of one of the
most remarkable and impressive monuments in the world: Borobudur.

60
Borobudur, Indonesia (photo: Claire André, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)

Located on the island of Java in Indonesia, the rulers of the Śailendra Dynasty built
the Temple of Borobudur around 800 C.E. as a monument to the Buddha (exact
dates vary among scholars). The temple (or candi in Javanese, pronounced
“chandi”) fell into disuse roughly one hundred years after its completion when, for
still unknown reasons, the rulers of Java relocated the governing center to another
part of the island. The British Lieutenant Governor on Java, Sir Thomas Stamford
Raffles, only rediscovered the site in 1814 upon hearing reports from islanders of an
incredible sanctuary deep within the island’s interior.

61
photo: Wilson Loo Kok Wee (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)

Set high upon a hill vertically enhanced by its builders to achieve a greater
elevation, Borobudur consists of a series of open-air passageways that radiate
around a central axis mundi (cosmic axis). Devotees circumambulate clockwise
along walkways that gradually ascend to its uppermost level. At Borobudur,
geometry, geomancy, and theology all instruct adherents toward the ultimate goal
of enlightenment. Meticulously carved relief sculptures mediate a physical and
spiritual journey that guides pilgrims progressively toward higher states of
consciousness.
The entire site contains 504 statues of the Buddha. 1460 stone reliefs on the walls
and opposite balustrades decorate the first four galleries, with an additional 1212
decorative reliefs augmenting the path. The relief sculptures narrate the Buddha’s
teachings (the Dharma), depict various events related to his past lives (Jataka
tales), and illustrate didactic stories taken from important Buddhist scriptures
(sutras). Interestingly, another 160 relief sculptures adorn the base of the
monument, but are concealed behind stone buttresses that were added shortly
after the building’s construction in order to further support the structure’s weight.
The hidden narrative reliefs were photographed when they were discovered in the
late 19th century before the stones were put back to help ensure the temple’s
stability.

62
Borobudur, photo: Gildardo Sánchez (CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Moving past the base and through the four galleries, the devotee emerges onto the
three upper terraces, encountering 72 stupas each containing a three-dimensional
sculpture of a seated Buddha within a stone latticework. At the temple’s apex sits
the large central stupa, a symbol of the enlightened mind.
The archaeological excavation into Borobudur during reconstruction suggests that
adherents of Hinduism or a pre-Indic faith had already begun to erect a large
structure on Borobudur's hill before the site was appropriated by Buddhists. The
foundations are unlike any Hindu or Buddhist shrine structures, and therefore, the
initial structure is considered more indigenous Javanese than Hindu or Buddhist.

Design

63
Borobudur ground plan taking the form of a Mandala

The monument is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist
pilgrimage.The journey for pilgrims begins at the base of the monument and follows
a path around the monument and ascends to the top through three levels symbolic
of Buddhist cosmology: Kāmadhātu (the world of desire), Rupadhatu (the world
of forms) and Arupadhatu (the world of formlessness).
Zone 1: Kamadhatu (The phenomenal world, the world inhabited by common
people)
Borobudur’s hidden Kamadhatu level consists of 160 reliefs depicting scenes of
Karmawibhangga Sutra, the law of cause and effect. Illustrating the human behavior
of desire, the reliefs depict robbing, killing, rape, torture and defamation. A corner
of the covering base has been permanently removed to allow visitors to see the
hidden foot, and some of the reliefs.
Zone 2: Rapudhatu (The transitional sphere, humans are released from worldly
matters)
The four square levels of Rapadhatu contain galleries of carved stone reliefs, as
well as a chain of niches containing statues of Buddha. In total there are 328
Buddha on these balustrade levels which also have a great deal of purely ornate
reliefs. The Sanskrit manuscripts that are depicted on this level over 1300 reliefs
are Gandhawyuha, Lalitawistara, Jataka and Awadana. They stretch for 2.5km. In
addition there are 1212 decorative panels.
Zone 3: Arupadhatu (The highest sphere, the abode of the gods) The three
circular terraces leading to a central dome or stupa represent the rising above the

64
world, and these terraces are a great deal less ornate, the purity of form is
paramount.
The terraces contain circles of perforated stupas, an inverted bell shape, containing
sculptures of Buddha, who face outward from the temple. There are 72 of these
stupas in total. The impressive central stupa is currently not as high as the original
version,
which rose 42m above ground level, the base is 9.9m in diameter. Unlike the stupas
surrounding it, the central stupa is empty and conflicting reports suggest that the
central void contained relics, and other reports suggest it has always been empty.
The monument guides pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways and
corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls and the balustrades.
Borobudur has the largest and most complete ensemble of Buddhist reliefs in the
world.
Borobudur is built as a single large stupa and, when viewed from above, takes the
form of a giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist
cosmology and the nature of mind. The original foundation is a square,
approximately 118 metres (387 ft) on each side. It has nine platforms, of which the
lower six are square and the upper three are circular. The upper platform features
seventy-two small stupas surrounding one large central stupa. Each stupa is bell-
shaped and pierced by numerous decorative openings. Statues of the Buddha sit
inside the pierced enclosures.

The design of Borobudur took the form of a step pyramid. Previously,

the prehistoric Austronesian megalithic culture in Indonesia had constructed several
earth mounds and stone step pyramid structures called punden berundak as
discovered in Pangguyangan site near Cisolokand in Cipari near Kuningan. The
construction of stone pyramids is based on native beliefs that mountains and high
places are the abode of ancestral spirits or hyangs. The punden berundak step
pyramid is the basic design in Borobudur, believed to be the continuation of older
megalithic tradition incorporated with Mahayana Buddhist ideas and symbolism.

65
As mentioned earlier the monument's three divisions symbolize the three "realms"
of Buddhist cosmology, namely Kamadhatu (the world of desires), Rupadhatu (the
world of forms), and finally Arupadhatu (the formless world). Ordinary sentient
beings live out their lives on the lowest level, the realm of desire. Those who have
burnt out all desire for continued existence leave the world of desire and live in the
world on the level of form alone: they see forms but are not drawn to them. Finally,
full Buddhas go beyond even form and experience reality at its purest, most
fundamental level, the formless ocean of nirvana. The liberation from the cycle
of Saṃsāra where the enlightened soul had no longer attached to worldly form
corresponds to the concept of Śūnyatā, the complete voidness or the nonexistence
of the self. Kāmadhātu is represented by the base, Rupadhatu by the five square
platforms (the body), and Arupadhatu by the three circular platforms and the large
topmost stupa. The architectural features between the three stages have
metaphorical differences. For instance, square and detailed decorations in
the Rupadhatu disappear into plain circular platforms in the Arupadhatu to
represent how the world of forms—where men are still attached with forms and
names—changes into the world of the formless.
Congregational worship in Borobudur is performed in a walking pilgrimage.
Pilgrims are guided by the system of staircases and corridors ascending to the top
platform. Each platform represents one stage of enlightenment. The path that
guides pilgrims was designed to symbolize Buddhist cosmology.
In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was accidentally discovered. The
"hidden footing" contains reliefs, 160 of which are narratives describing the
real Kāmadhātu. The remaining reliefs are panels with short inscriptions that
apparently provide instructions for the sculptors, illustrating the scenes to be
carved. The real base is hidden by an encasement base, the purpose of which
remains a mystery. It was first thought that the real base had to be covered to
prevent a disastrous subsidence of the monument into the hill. There is another
theory that the encasement base was added because the original hidden footing
was incorrectly designed, according to Vastu Shastra, the Indian ancient book about
architecture and town planning. Regardless of why it was commissioned, the
encasement base was built with detailed and meticulous design and with aesthetic
and religious consideration.

Building structure
Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd) of andesite stones were taken
from neighbouring stone quarries to build the monument. The stone was cut to size,
transported to the site and laid without mortar. Knobs, indentations
and dovetails were used to form joints between stones. The roof of stupas, niches
and arched gateways were constructed in corbelling method. Reliefs were
created in situ after the building had been completed.
The monument is equipped with a good drainage system to cater to the area's
high stormwater run-off. To prevent flooding, 100 spouts are installed at each
corner, each with a unique carved gargoyle in the shape of a giant or makara.
Hilly Construction: Borobudur differs markedly from the general design of other
structures built for this purpose. Instead of being built on a flat surface, Borobudur
is built on a natural hill. However, construction technique is similar to other temples
in Java. Without the inner spaces seen in other temples, and with a general design
similar to the shape of pyramid, Borobudur was first thought more likely to have

66
served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as a shrine for the
Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A
temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship. The meticulous
complexity of the monument's design suggests that Borobudur is in fact a temple.
The basic unit of measurement used during construction was the tala, defined as
the length of a human face from the forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin or the
distance from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the middle finger when both fingers
are stretched at their maximum distance. The unit is thus relative from one
individual to the next, but the monument has exact measurements. A survey
conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around the
monument. The architect had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of
the fractal and self-similar geometry in Borobudur's design. This ratio is also found
in the designs of Pawon and Mendut, nearby Buddhist temples. Archeologists have
conjectured that the 4:6:9 ratio and the tala have calendrical, astronomical and
cosmological significance, as is the case with the temple of Angkor Wat in
Cambodia.The main structure can be divided into three components: base, body,
and top. The base is 123 m × 123 m (404 ft × 404 ft) in size with 4 metres (13 ft)
walls.] The body is composed of five square platforms, each of diminishing height.
The first terrace is set back 7 metres (23 ft) from the edge of the base. Each
subsequent terrace is set back 2 metres (6.6 ft), leaving a narrow corridor at each
stage. The top consists of three circular platforms, with each stage supporting a row
of perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome at the
center, the top of which is the highest point of the monument, 35 metres (115 ft)
above ground level. Stairways at the center of each of the four sides give access to
the top, with a number of arched gates overlooked by 32 lion statues. The gates are
adorned with Kala's head carved on top of each and Makaras projecting from each
side. This Kala-Makara motif is commonly found on the gates of Javanese temples.
The main entrance is on the eastern side, the location of the first narrative reliefs.
Stairways on the slopes of the hill also link the monument to the low-lying plain.

Features-Outer enclosure
uring the visit, which began at 4 am, I was able to witness the spectacle of the
sunrise from the temple, where the bluish light of dawn slowly unveils the
mountains surrounding the temple, while a thick fog that emanates from the
Javanese jungle makes you feel like being in a not earthly place, closer to heaven.

BOROBUDUR, THE ARCHITECTURAL MANDALA.

67
In Buddhism, the mandala represents a landscape of the universe with Buddha in its
center, and shows the different steps in the process of finding the truth.Borobudur
was built on a hill, following the layout of a giant mandala, representing the
Buddhist cosmology. It consists of nine platforms divided into three sections:
- The upper three are circular platforms, called Arupadhatu, and have a slightly
curved oval shape consisting of two minor axes aligned with the cardinal points and
two major axes aligned with the intermediate directions.
- The six lower platforms are square, called Rupadhatu,
- Moreover, in 1885 a structure in the base was discovered and it was
called Kamadhatu.
The lower platform probably also had a structural function to prevent the collapse of
the structure. It was added after the temple was finished, as it can be seen in one of
the corners, where the older reliefs have been exposed.

The architectural layout leads the visitor throughout a system of stairs in order to
ascend to the platforms and reach the top of the structure, a clear representation of
the journey towards a spiritual "enlightenment". The pilgrims walked each platform
twice, in order to learn from the reliefs on each side.

68
Between the latest square platform and the first circular one there is an arch topped
by an intimidating figure of a guardian. It is a reference to a transition to a more
pure place, where evil spirits had no access.The bell-shaped stupas contain the
figure of a Buddha. This is quite unusual, I have not seen it in other Asian countries,
perhaps due to a syncretism between Buddhism and ancient Javanese traditions,
where ancient ascetics used go to meditate in caves.

An interesting detail is that the openings of the stupas of the first two levels are in
diamond shape, while those of the stupas of the upper platform are in square
shape. (Note the different form of the pieces of stone). Perhaps this symbolized the
path perfection, to the enlightenment that every pilgrim aspired by climbing and
meditating through the different platforms.

The last great stupa, crowned by an octagonal pinnacle, has no opening and some
people say that inside there used to be a golden Buddha, stolen by a Dutchman
explorer, but this theory has not been proved. The simplicity of its form contrasts
with the baroque richness of the reliefs that are located in the platforms below, and
I imagine that has to do precisely with the austerity and simplicity that Buddha
preached.

69
ASTROLOGICAL-COSMOLOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL RELATIONS IN
BOROBUDUR

The structure can be divided into three main elements: the base, the central part
and the top, which in analogy to the feet, body and head represent the three states
of mental preparation: the Kamadhatu or world of desires,the Rupadhatu or world of
forms and the Arupadhatu or formless world. A 1977 study by the professor found a
ratio of 4:6:9 for the composition of both the three parts of the temple as well as
each of the temple main parts. This ratio is equal to that found in the temples of
Pawon and Mendut as well as the impressive complex of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.

Section of the temple according to Professor Atmadi.Image courtesy of

Borobudur.tv

The researcher Mark Long, who has been studying the calendrical, astronomical and
cosmological relations in Borobudur for several years, based on its own survey of
the complex, proposed that the same ratio of 4:6:9 can be applied to the width of
the whole monument.
North South Section, where according to Mark Long the same 4:6:9 ratio was used,
such as in the height of the temple.
It is thought that the architect of Borobudur, named Gunadharma, believed that the
plans of temples played a direct role in determining the fate of each occupant of the
structure, so the architect's role should be to harmonize the forces of the
microcosm that govern human life with the macrocosm that governs the life of the

70
gods. Gunadharma took the tala as a measurement unit, which is the distance
between the thumb and little finger when they are stretched to their maximum
separation, a system widely used in India. Because this measure varies little from
person to person it is possible that the tala form an important person may have
been employed as a method of standardization. Mark Long has found that the
extent of the tala used in the monument was 22.9 cm.

Based on his own measurements, Long stated that the overall dimensions are based
on a number of talas that symbolize important events in the Hindu calendar,
specifically a calendar called Vatsu Purusha Mandala. In the faces and square
corners of this diagram the solstices and equinoxes are represented. The
arrangement of the stupas follows a well-studied geometric pattern, avoiding, for
example, being placed in the main diagonals of the monument, where it was
believed the important divine energies flow.

DECORATION:Borobudur aside of the symbolism in their mandalic architectural

layout displays also many references to the life of Buddha, both in reliefs and
statues.The reliefs have an educational role. The scenes represent the history of
Buddha, his various incarnations and the path that the faithful should follow to
reach Nirvana.

The Buddha statues, many of whom are maimed and some missing, are
distributed differently in the square platforms than in the circular ones.
In the five square platforms, called Rupadhatu, the Buddhas, numbering 432, are
located in niches, placed in rows in art outer part of the balustrades. The number of
Buddhas diminishes as platforms get higher. Thus, the first platform contains 104
niches, the second 104, the third 88, the fourth 72 and the fifth 64.

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Details of Borobudur/ Extreme left pic Model top temple-Photo courtesy of Davey
Sarge

The upper platforms or Arupadhatu, contain 72 small latticed stupas (which are
mound-shaped structures, typical of early Buddhism) that surround a larger stupa
more. Thus, in the first level there are 32 stupas, 24 in the second and 16 in the
third level.

While at first glance the Buddhas seem to be the same. sitting lotus position, which
is sitting on crossed legs. However, the different hand position represents various
statesof meditation. http://architecturalmoleskine.blogspot.com/2010/02/borobudur-

MANDALA IS IT ?

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Creation of a Mandala

Artists and monks can create mandalas in sculptural and architectural forms. They
may also paint mandalas on a wall, cloth, or paper. For example, for ceremonies,
monks often create mandalas in less permanent media, with colored powders or
sands. They put a lot of effort into producing mandalas. Performing a series of
rituals, they prepare the space and objects used to create a mandala. These rituals
may take up to three days to complete. Then the makers create a mandala in their
minds before they begin the physical creation of the mandala.

Construction of a Mandala

The construction of a mandala is a part of the ritual. It includes chanting mantras or

words of power. The ritual serves for the empowerment of the mandala seen as an
object of cosmic energy. When practitioners meditate with a mandala, they access
the energy that the mandala embodies.

The actual construction of the mandala is the last phase of ritual preparation. First,
monks snap the dry cord or wisdom thread. Next the deities and their consorts are
invoked and dissolved into the string. The monks twist out the cord of five different
colored threads that symbolize the wisdom-knowledge of each of the five Buddhas.

The Art of Mandala – Rituals

Today Buddhist lamas or priests draw Mandalas which are beautiful works of art.
They also aid in the exploration of deep and divine concepts. Initiation rituals help
to define the sacred space of a mandala. They come with a beautiful set of highly
symbolic accessories. Before the mandala ritual takes place, practitioners use the
tantric hand dagger to eliminate negative forces that may inhabit the space.

The mandala is a central entity in Hinduism and Buddhism and is the generic
name for any plan or chart, which represents the cosmos (MICHEL, 1977). In
Sanskrit mandala means ‘circle and center’ or ‘Holy Circle’ and points to its cyclic
character. This circle is often embedded in a square, being a symbolic rendering of
the surface of the earth (Prithvi). The earth is ‘Caturbhsti’ or ‘four cornered’.

The Vaasta Purusha mandala is a specific type of mandala used in Vaastu

Shastra, representing a metaphysical plan of a building or temple in relation to the
course of the heavenly bodies and supernatural forces. Purusha refers to the energy
and power, which is generated by the understanding of this cosmic presence. The
form is a square, subdivided in smaller squares. The number of subdivisions can
vary and each type has a distinct name and is used in a specific context. The
central area is called the Brahma-sthana, because Brahma or some other prominent
deity concerned with the creation usually occupies it. The building (of a temple)
takes place from a chosen grid, dedicated to a particular deity. Planetary divinities
are arranged around the Bramasthana. The central place, being the most important
part of the building, remains unbuilt.

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The cosmic man or mahapurusha, drawn on a temple mandala indicates the
relation between parts of the body and the meaning of its position within the
architectonic setting. The outlay of a temple is subject to the principle of vimana,
meaning ‘well-measured’ or ‘well-proportioned’. This picture is derived from an
ancient manual of architecture. The main axis runs here from south-east to north
west (head), but an orientation from south-west to north-east is also known.

The square and rectangular outlay: The ‘Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple

Architecture’ by Michael MEISTER (1988/1991) says that the Indian temple
architecture, both in its northern and southern variety, are deeply inspired by a
tetradic consciousness.
The square and rectangular outlay, if possible orientated along an east-west
axis, with the entrance to the east, is the main characteristic. In front of the
doorway is often a pillared hall, or mandapa. The attention to the four directions,
either in the form of entrances or stairs, is prominent.
The layout of Borobudur is in fact a cosmological map of the Buddhist universe.
Seen from above the shape of the pyramid is that of a traditional mandala whereby
a square with four cardinal entry points gives way to a circular centre point. Moving
from outside to inside one crosses three regions of Buddhist
cosmology; Kamadhatu is the realm of desires, that of ordinary
people; Rupadhatu is the realm of forms, where beings have controlled their earthly
desires but are still bounded by physical form; Arupadhatu is the formless realm, of
beings who have achieved sufficient merit to escape not just desires but even form
and location.

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 Borobudur represents the Buddhist cosmos

As one climbs the temple of Borobudur one enters each of these realms. These first
four levels around the temple represent the Rupadhatu realm, of beings who have
controlled desire. Starting at the east facing entrance the carved stone reliefs
depict mainly Jataka scenes, that is scenes from the Buddha’s life, organised to
instruct devotees as they proceed clockwise around each of the first four levels in
turn.

East facing Buddha statues in the Calling the Earth to Witness posture
One of the lower Rupadhatu galleries of Borobudur
On the four Rupadhatu levels there are also 432 Buddha statues located in niches

75
along each side of the temple . On the east facing terraces these statues are all in
the Calling the Earth to Witness posture. Moving round to the south the statues are
in the Alms Giving posture and then to the west they are in the Concentration &
Meditation posture. On the north facing levels they are in the posture of Courage,
fearlessness. Around the fifth uppermost balustrade of the Rupadhatu levels the
Buddha images facing in all directions are in the Reasoning & Virtue posture.

On reaching the fifth level one moves into the Arupadhatu formless realm of
nirvana, represented by the shift to a circular layout. This realm is perhaps the most
famous aspect of Borobudur due to its iconic perforated stupas. A total of 72 of
these stupas are arranged on three circular terraces around the main central stupa.
On the first two Arupadhatu levels the stupas have rhombic perforations whereas
on the third and highest level the openings are square. In each of the 72 stupas
there is a Buddha statue in the posture of Turning the Wheel of Dharma.

The upper Arupadhatu levels of Borobudur representing nirvana

The central stupa represents the centre of the Buddhist universe. It looks rather
truncated because it is missing its original chattra, a three-tiered stone parasol that
would have topped the stupa. There is known to be an empty room at the centre of
the stupa which would be expected to contain the most highly revered images and
relics. It is not known when or how these were lost.
Archaeologists have discovered traces of coloured pigments and gold leaf on the
reliefs and believe that rather than the drab volcanic stone we see today Borobudur
was once covered in white plaster, painted in vivid colours and covered in gold. It
would have been a truly awe inspiring sight 1000 years ago.

The Hidden Foot

One of the mysteries of Borobudur concerns the lowest level of the temple
representing the Kamadhatu realm of desires. On an initial climb of the temple the
first level appears to start in the second level realm of Rupadhatu with tales of the
Buddha’s life. In fact the lowest Kamadhatu realm is represented by a gallery of
carved reliefs which are hidden under an encasement and are hence known as the

76
“hidden foot”. This Hidden Foot was only re-discovered during European led
restoration activities in 1885. It is not known exactly why this lower level has been
covered up. Some postulate that the encasement had to be add

Aerial view of the concentric circulatory

77
Paharpur stupa on Left as a Mandala and Borobudur on right also in cross section
REFERENCES
Connections, ed. Dorothy C. Wong and Gustav Heldt (Amherst: Cambria Press,
2014)

Borobudur’s Pāla forebear? A field note from Kesariya, Bihar, India,swati

chemburkar

Across Space and Time: Architecture and the Politics of Modernity,By Patrick
Haughey,google books
Though the assumption of the Borobudur as a maṇḍala seems possible, this view
remains yet impossibleto prove. In spite of the previously mentioned
similarities with the
maṇḍalas, there are, however, also many differences. Beside the five
transcendental Buddhas many other deities – both male and female – are often
seen depicted in
maṇḍas . However, neither of these deities can be found on the Borobudur.Instead
we do find many other depicted Buddhas on the Borobudur, but these do not
display any of thefeatures similar to other male or female deities. Thus,
the other Buddhas do not function as a mere substitution for the
various
deities. T h e r e f o r e , w e m a y a s s u m e , t h a t , a s a l r e a d y h a d b e e n
s u g g e s t e d , t h e Borobudur displays a variant of Buddhism in the way it
manifested in Java at the time of the reign of Shailendra Dynesty
but b a s e d o n I n d i a n i n f l u e n c e s a n d Mahāyāna Buddhism, which came to

78
Java from China during the heydays of the Tang dynasty (618-906).The unique
combination of these aspects would eventually become the Buddhism of Java.

Then there also was the Hindu dynasty of Sanjaya that ruled on Java during
the same period of the Sailendra dynasty. Thefact that the Sanjaya shared their
power with the Sailendra dynasty – for example, through donations for the
construction of the Kalasan temple – illustrates, that, apart from its religious
function, the Borobudur also formed an important expression of power.

The origin of the mandala is not quite clear. However, the earliest concepts may
have come from India and were initially mentioned in early Sanskrit texts. They
described how the gods may have existed in their worlds. For example, Manjushri,
the bodhisattva of wisdom, appears in this sculpture in his esoteric form, with three
heads and six arms. The way he crosses his hands at the chest signifies supreme
wisdom. Manjushri holds a bow and arrow, a sword, a lotus, and vajras or ritual
weapons. Most prominent among the weapons is the sword, which cuts away
ignorance.
Five stupas appear above the elaborate architectural setting. Within these stupas sit
emanations of Manjushri. This sculpture represents a mandala because it
conceptualizes the architectural plan of one of the great Buddhist monastic
complexes or mahavihara of Bengal, probably in present-day Bangladesh.
Somapura Mahavihara
Somapura Mahavihara was one of the important centers of Buddhism. The complex
is located in Paharpur, in northern Bangladesh. It was built by king Dharmapala (ca.
781–821) of the Pala dynasty (8th –12th centuries). The original tower in the center
of the complex was believed to be about 32 meters (about 105 feet) high. Four
large holes were placed around the tower towards the cardinal points.
Consequently, the cross-shaped plan of this mahavihara could represent a part of
the mandala.

79
Philosophy Behind the Mandala

Five Tathagatas or Dhyani Buddhas

In places like Paharpur thinkers probably helped to develop the concept of the Five
Tathagatas or Dhyani Buddhas. These deities are “self-born” celestial buddhas who
have existed since the beginning of time. In contrast with historical figures like
Gautama Buddha, they represent intangible forces and divine principles. These
Buddhas usually include Vairocana, Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, and
Amoghasiddhi. Each of them has their own colors, symbols, and mudras. They also
face different cardinal directions. As a result, monks found a new way to meditate
on self-restraint.

5 Dhyani-Buddha, in Mahayana Buddhism, and particularly in Vajrayana (Tantric)

Buddhism, any of a group of five “self-born” celestial buddhas who have always
existed from the beginning of time. The five are usually identified as Vairochana,
Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, and Amoghasiddhi.
As Takeo Kamiye puts it in SOMAPURA MAHAVIHARA at
PAHARPUR (BANGLADESH)http://www.kamit.jp/17_world/28_paharpur/pah_eng.htm

Here they were unified in the form of a great stupa surrounded by monk cells in a
vast square shape. As a result, the temple form with a large geometric Mandala-
type plan spreading to the four quarters, was established here and was then
transmitted to Southeast Asia. It was furthermore scaled up from at the temples in
Pagan, Myanmar, until the Borobudur, Indonesia, through the Angkor-Wat,
Cambodia, under the influence of Paharpur. I have already written that this form
was originated in Jaina temples, in Chapter 6 of “Jaina Architecture in India” on this
website, “The Adinatha Temple at Ranakpur”.

 Dharmachakra mudra. Dharmachakra in Sanskrit means the 'Wheel of

Dharma'. ...

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 Bhumisparsha mudra. Literally Bhumisparsha translates into 'touching the
earth'. ...
 Varada mudra. This mudra symbolizes charity, compassion and boon-
granting. ...
 Dhyana mudra. ...
 Abhaya Mudra.

81
82
 V
The Orthogonal Plan of Angkor Thom

In a Historical Context, Angkor Wat is dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu who is one of the
three principal gods in the Hindu pantheon (Shiva and Brahma are the others).
The difference is that Angkor Thom is the name for the entire city that includes Angkor Wat.
Angkor Thom translates as "Great City" while Angkor Wat is just one of several temple
complexes that exist within or nearby the city. Angkor Thom alternatively Nokor Thom located
in present-day Cambodia, was the last and most enduring capital city of the Khmer Empire.

The Bayon Temple is one of the more famous, popular and beautiful of the structures in the
Angkor Wat Archeological Park. Situated just to the north of Angkor Wat itself, the temple was
once at the center of the ancient city of Angkor Thom.
A temple that is about two centuries older than Angkor Wat, Phnom Bakheng stood as
architectural landmark for the first capital of Khmer Empire, Yasodharapura. If one asks the
question-Which temple is similar to Angkor Wat in India? The answer would be the Khajuraho
temples were built between 950 and 1050 by the Chandela dynasty and as such they pre-date the
famous Angkor Wat temples that are of a similar scale and state of repair.
Unlike Angkor Wat, which looks impressive from all angles, Bayon looks rather like a glorified
pile of rubble from a distance. It's only when you enter the temple and make your way up to the
third level that its magic becomes apparent. The Bayon's most distinctive feature is the multitude
of serene and smiling stone faces of The Buddha - probably modeled on the face of King
Jayavarman VII - on every side the many towers that jut out from the upper terrace and cluster
around its central peak. The other name for Angkor Wat is Yasodharapura also known as Angkor
Thom, is a city that was the capital of the Khmer Empire for most of its history. It was
established by King Yashovarman I in the late 9th century and centred on the temple of Phnom
Bakheng. Angkor Thom was a fortressed city state built in the 13th century with multiple
temples, with the Bayon (the one with many faces) at its heart.
Yashodharapura was referred to in the inscriptions as Phnom Kandal (Central Mountain). Phnom
Bakheng was constructed just before the foundation of Yashodharapura due to Yashovarman's
belief that the mountain was among the holiest of places to worship the Hindu deities.
Yashodharapura was linked to an earlier capital, Hariharalaya, by a causeway. The urban
complex included the Yashodharatataka.

The succeeding capitals built in the area were called Yashodharapura. One of those is Angkor
Thom, centred on the Bayon temple by King Jayavarman VII (1181-1218AD).

In 1352, King U Thong (also known as Ramathibodi I of the Ayutthaya Kingdom) laid siege to
it. The Ayutthaya were successful the next year in capturing the city, placing one of their princes
on the throne. In 1357 the Khmer regained it. Angkor Thom was raided and abandoned in the
15th century by King Borommarachathirat II of Ayutthaya.

What is bigger than Angkor Wat?

83
At about 1,000 square kilometres, the Bujang Valley complex in Merbok, Kedah is far larger
than the Angkor Wat complex in Cambodia. Not only that, it is much, much older.
Archaeologists have dated the complex to be at least 1,900 years old with some even suggesting
that it is 2,535 years old.

People don't believe that Angkor wat was constructed by a Tamil king - because it wasn't built by
a Tamil king. Khmers and Tamils had friendly relations through trade, so there might have been
some Tamil influences in the architecture, but : Angkor wat was built by a Khmer king :
Suryavarman II in the 12th century.

Wat (វត្ត vôtt) is the word for "temple grounds", also derived from Sanskrit/Pali vāṭa
(Devanāgarī: वाट), meaning "enclosure". The original name of the temple was Vrah Viṣṇuloka
or Parama Viṣṇuloka meaning "the sacred dwelling of Vishnu".

Bayon Temple is important for many reasons. It served as the first and only Buddhist temple
constructed by the Angkor (Khmer) Empire. Additionally, its bas-reliefs depict important events
like battles and pictures of everyday life, providing viewers with an idea of life in Cambodia
during the 12th and 13th centuries.Its four-sided central tower is carved with faces, some of
which seem to represent Jayavarman in the guise of Avalokiteś-vara, the great bodhisattva. Each
side of the tower is oriented to a cardinal direction. The carved faces gracing the main towers and
gates are hotly debated by scholars. Some identify them as the many faces of the Hindu god
Shiva. Others believe they represent King Jayavarman VII, who began building the complex.
The most popular theory is also the most reasonable: the Bayon are the faces of Bodhisattvas.

Hinduism is a minority religion in Cambodia which is followed by about 1,000 to

15,000 individuals. Even being a small minority in the Buddhist majority nation it highly
influences the vast culture and history of Cambodia with being prominent religion under the
Khmer Empire.

84
How many faces does Bayon Temple have?

216 faces

The third level is why this temple is so famous – it consists of a circular setting, from which arise
54 towers and 216 faces which have been carefully carved. During the time this temple was
being built, the Khmer Empire was split into 54 regions.

Why did King Suryavarman built the temple at Angkor Wat?

It was built by Suryavarman II as a vast funerary temple within which his remains were to be
deposited. Construction is believed to have spanned some three decades. All of the original
religious motifs derived from Hinduism, and the temple was dedicated to the gods Shiva,
Brahma, and Vishnu.

The architecture and layout of the successive capitals bear witness to a high level of social order
and ranking within the Khmer Empire. Angkor is therefore a major site exemplifying cultural,
religious and symbolic values, as well as containing high architectural, archaeological and
artistic significance.The East Asian summer monsoon became very fickle in the decades leading
up to the fall of Angkor in the fifteenth century. Brendan Buckley suggests this drought dried out
Angkor's reservoirs and canals, which in turn, led to its precipitous decline and foreign invasion.

85
Angkor Wat – built by Suryavarman II (r 1113–50) – is the earthly representation of Mount
Meru, the Mount Olympus of the Hindu faith, and the abode of ancient gods.

Current largest temples

Rank Name of the temple Area (m²)

1 Angkor Wat 1,626,000

2 BAPS Swaminarayan Akshardham (New Jersey) 655,591

3 Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple 631,000

4 Sri Lakshmi Narayani Devi Temple, Sripuram 404,686

Which Indian king ruled Cambodia?

Suryavarman II

Mother Narendralakshmi

Religion Hinduism

Military service

Allegiance Khmer Empire

The difference is that Angkor Thom is the name for the entire city that includes Angkor Wat. It
is the Rajdhani in Hindi refers in English to a capital, metropolis; —[parashid] metropolitan
council. Angkor Thom translates as "Great City" while Angkor Wat is just one of several temple
complexes that exist within or nearby the city. It appears that although Angkor Wat was built
earlier, during the mid 1100s, (construction supposedly took 3 decades), when a later ruler, King
Jayavarman VII, built Angor Thom, it came to include Angkor Wat.

Orthogonal plan of Angkor Thom

According to UNESCO Digital Library,https://unesdoc.unesco.org › ark: Angkor Thom is open

to rice fields.

86
Angkor Wat's asymmetrical western and symmetrical eastern sides are sewn into a unified
architectural fabric by a web of diagonal lines, visual threads connecting its gopuras, galleries,
towers and cruciform structures, which weave together these two opposed geometries.
Symbolically, Angkor Thom is a microcosm of the universe, divided into four parts by the main
axes. The temple of the Bayon is situated at the exact center of the axes and stands as the
symbolical link between heaven and earth. Traditionally,orthogonal shapes are polygons
or polyhedra enclosed by axis-aligned edges or faces, respectively. studies by Damien Evans and
others have uncovered “an engineered landscape on a scale perhaps without parallel in the
preindustrial world.” Uncovering archaeological landscapes at Angkor using lidar, Damian
H. Evans, et al

Wat (វត្ត vôtt) is the word for "temple grounds", also derived from Sanskrit/Pali vāṭa
(Devanāgarī: वाट), meaning "enclosure". The original name of the temple was Vrah Viṣṇuloka
or Parama Viṣṇuloka meaning "the sacred dwelling of Vishnu".
The walls of Angkor Wat seem to be covered with carved events from Hindu mythology and the
Khmer empire, yet experts continue to debate about what these carvings mean and why they are
here. The images represented in the carvings are baffling even to historians.

87
Some myths say that the temple was constructed mathematically to be in harmony with the
universe, and the distances and sizes in Angkor Wat are related to the Indian mythology.
Therefore, Angkor Wat is called “The replica of universe” and it represents an earthly model of
the cosmic world.
Initially, Angkor Wat was designed as a Hindu temple, as that was the religion of the region's
ruler at the time, Suryavarman II. However, by the end of the 12th century, it was considered a
Buddhist site.

Its most-imposing monuments are Angkor Wat, a temple complex built in the 12th century by
King Suryavarman II (reigned 1113–c. 1150), and Angkor Thom, a temple complex built about
1200 by King Jayavarman VII.

Who built Angkor Thom city?

King Jayavarman VII
1150), and Angkor Thom, a temple complex built about 1200 by King Jayavarman VII. (See also
Southeast Asian arts: Kingdom of Khmer: 9th to 13th century.)

Kingdom of Khmer: 9th–13th century

Late in the 8th century the kingdom of Chenla declined politically, perhaps because of dynastic
disputes with the rising power of Indonesian kings, who were themselves also descended from
the original royal dynasty of Funan. It seems that the Indonesians gave some assistance in
establishing a new kingdom in the northern part of what had been the territory of Funan. In 802
a Khmer king, who took the title of Jayavarman II, established his capital near Phnom Kulen,
about 20 miles (30 km) from Angkor. It was a rather unsuitable place for an administrative
capital, but it was a mountain, and the peoples of Southeast Asia have always believed that gods
and spirits dwell on mountaintops. The image of the sacred mountain thereafter remained the
inspiration for all the later architecture of the Khmer around Angkor. Jayavarman, who built
other temples in the vicinity, seemed to have revived the Chenla style. A distinctively Khmer art,
however, began to emerge under Indravarman I (877–889), who expanded the boundaries of the
Khmer kingdom and finally settled its administration. Most important of all, he developed the
initial plan of the colossal city of Angkor, whose mysterious ruins, lost in dense jungle until the
19th century, tantalized Western travelers for centuries.

88
Towers of Angkor Wat reflected in a pond, Angkor, Cambodia.
Angkor was not only a city; more important, it was an immense technological achievement, from
which the agricultural prosperity of the whole Cambodian plain derived. This plain was well
watered naturally, but its rivers were subject to strong seasonal fluctuations. Controlled, they
were capable of producing an enormous increase in fertility. Angkor was thus essentially
an elaborate system of artificial lakes, canals, and radiating irrigation channels that watered a
huge acreage of rice paddy; and it was the basis for the strength and prosperity of the Khmer
empire. Since Angkor itself was the technical source of the life-giving agricultural water
controlled by the king, it was regarded by the Khmer with religious reverence. Its temples and
palaces were an expression of that reverence and at the same time an essential part of its
supernatural mechanism. Royal intercession by numerous ceremonies, some of which reenacted
the primal marriage of Hindu divinity and native earth spirit on the pattern of ancient folk cult,
ensured the continuing gift of the waters of heaven. The king, an earthly image of his god, was
the intermediary who ensured that his kingdom would continue to receive divine benevolence in
the form of water in controlled quantities. Courtiers played roles at once religious and
administrative for the king, who believed that after his death he would be united with his patron
deity. Dedicatory statues were often set up in his chief temple to commemorate his divinization.

In order to conform with mountain mythology, the Khmer kings built themselves a series of
artificial mountains on the Cambodian plain at Angkor, each crowned by shrines containing
images of gods and of themselves, their family, and their ancestors. The huge platforms of earth
on which these buildings were founded probably consist of the soil excavated in forming the
lakes, moats, and channels that not only divided up the city but also provided an easy means of
transport. The temple mountains, like the city itself, are oriented east to west, the main gates
facing east. Each king strove to outdo his predecessor in the height, size, and splendour of his
temple mountain. The earlier ones, therefore, are relatively small, though beautiful, and the later
ones, such as Angkor Wat and the Bayon, are of stupendous size.

In the basic pattern of the Khmer temple mountain, the principal overall enclosure, which is
square or rectangular, is at ground level. Within it the artificial mountain rises through a series of
terraces and at least one further enclosure wall toward a flat summit. On the summit stands either
a single shrine or a group of shrines, often a quincunx—five shrines, one at each corner and one
in the middle of a square. Arranged along the terraces or within the enclosures there may be
further shrines, whose arched doorway pediments refer to the rainbow bridge between heaven
89
and earth. There may be other long buildings, perhaps used as libraries or administrative offices.
A principal staircase runs directly up from the east gate to the summit, and sometimes subsidiary
staircases run up from other gates at the cardinal directions.

The architecture of the shrines themselves is relatively simple; it is based upon patterns invented
in India, though the ornament of the shrines is often highly developed and characteristically
Cambodian. Fundamentally, each shrine consists of a cell whose internal space is cubic and
whose external walls are marked by moldings at the top and bottom. The shrine is roofed by a
pyramidal tower composed of a series of similar but diminishing tiers, each of them a
compressed version of the exterior pattern of the main shrine volume. Depending on which
Indian pattern is followed, the cell has one main door with an elaborately carved portal or, if the
plan is cruciform, four entrances. The earlier shrines were built of brick, most commonly with
stucco ornament and figures on the outside. The later shrines were built of stone, with all their
ornament and figurative sculpture carved in relief. The moldings on the roofs of the shrines and
the decoration of the roofs of many of the subsidiary buildings are extremely elaborate. There are
long panels of dense foliate ornament, and the niches in which the sculptured relief figures of
celestials are set and framed in flamboyant ogival (contoured like a pointed arch) moldings
crowned by no less flamboyant foliate ornament; the smaller architectural features, such
as niche pilasters, are elaborately carved and molded. The figures themselves wear
gorgeous jewelry and chignons. The massive stone icons that survive in some of the shrines have
a massiveness probably intended to make them awe-inspiring. Among the lesser relief figures of
celestials, which decorate the walls of the shrines, one finds a more sensuous touch. Many of
these celestials represent apsaras, the celestial singers and dancers of Indian mythology.

On some of the temple mountains there are also relief panels illustrating various aspects of the
royal mythology. Episodic relief sculpture first appears on Banteay Srei (10th century). The
relief centres on a series of Indian legends dealing with the cosmic mountain Meru as the source
of all creation and with the divine origin of water. The chief artistic achievement of its
architecture is the way in which it conceives and coordinates the spaces between the walls of the
enclosures, the faces of the terraces, and the volumes of the shrine buildings. A most
sophisticated architecture of full and empty space, it seems to have been influenced by that of the
Hindu Pallava dynasty in southeastern India.

The earliest more or less complete example of a shrine complex devoted to deifying the
ancestors of a king is the Preah Ko at Roluos, near Angkor, completed in 879. The earliest
surviving temple mountain at Angkor itself is the Bakong, probably finished in 881. In the
central shrine at the summit was a linga, the phallic emblem sacred to Shiva. Around the base of
the terraced pyramid stood eight large shrines inside the main enclosure, with a series of moats,
causeways, and auxiliary sculptures guarding the approaches to the exterior. The Bakheng,
begun in 893, had an enormous series of 108 tower shrines arranged on the terraces around the
central pyramid, which was crowned by a quincunx of principal shrines. The whole was intended
to illustrate a mystical conception of the cosmos, very much on the lines of the great temple
mountain at Borobudur in Java (see below Indonesia). Pre Rup, dedicated in 961, was probably
the first of the temple mountains intended as a permanent shrine for the divine spirit of a king
after his death. It, too, has a quincunx of principal shrines, but it is distinguished by the large
number of auxiliary pavilions arranged along both sides of the inner enclosure wall.

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Shiva and Uma, sandstone, from Banteay Srei, Angkor, Cambodia, late 10th century; in the
National Museum, Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Height 60 cm.
From roughly the same period is perhaps the most beautiful—and most beautifully preserved—
of the early Khmer temples, Banteay Srei. It was actually a private foundation, built some 12
miles from Angkor by a Brahman of royal descent. Its auxiliary buildings, all of sandstone, are
adorned with a profusion of elaborate ornament and relief figure sculpture. The roof gables, in
particular, are treated with antefixes of fantastic invention. Its principal icon, a huge sandstone
sculpture of the god Shiva, seated with his wife Uma on his left knee, is perhaps the most
impressive full-round sculpture from the whole Khmer epoch. It differs from the 10th-century
Khmer official sculpture, which began to take on a conventional and relatively insensitive
massiveness.

The Baphuon temple mountain (1050–66) is unfortunately almost completely destroyed. It was a
vast monument 480 yards (440 metres) long and 140 yards (130 metres) wide, approached by a
200-yard (180-metre) causeway raised on pillars. Its ground plan shows that it was no mere
assemblage of buildings but a fully articulated structure. In this it must rank as the
immediate prototype for the great Angkor Wat. Built by Suryavarman II in the early 12th
century, Angkor Wat is the crowning work of Khmer architecture, the culmination of all the
features of earlier styles.

The enormous structure of the Wat is some 1,700 yards (1,550 metres) long by 1,500 yards
(1,400 metres) wide. Surrounded by a vast external cloister, it is approached from the west by a
magnificent road, which is built on a causeway and lined with colossal balustrades carved in the
likeness of the cosmic serpent associated with the sources of life-giving water. The Wat rises in
three concentric enclosures. The western gate complex itself is nearly as large as the complex of
central shrines, and both are subdivided into smaller, beautifully decorated courts. Only five of
the original nine towers still stand at the summit; although they follow the basic pattern of the
Khmer roof tower composed of diminishing imitative stories, the contour of the towers is not
rectilinear but curved, so as to suggest that the stories grow one out of another like a sprouting
shoot. All the courtyards, with their molded plinths, staircases, porticoes, and eaves moldings,

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are perfectly articulated enclosed spaces. The symbolic meaning of the Wat is clear. Its central
shrine indicates the hub of the universe, but its surroundings—the gate complex, the cloister, the
city of Angkor itself, and, finally, the whole visible world—represent the successive outer
envelopes of cosmic reality. That it is oriented toward the west—and not to the east, as was
customary—indicates that its builder, Suryavarman II, intended it as his own mortuary shrine;
for, according to Indo-Chinese mythology, the west is the direction in which the dead depart.

Sculptures at the Wat include some full-rounded figures—the guardians on the terraces, for
example—and relief sculpture, which is magnificent and full of vitality. The open-colonnaded
gallery on the first story contains over a mile of relief carving six feet (two metres) high. Much
of it was originally painted and gilded, which strongly suggests that there must have been a
Khmer style of painting of which nothing is known. The subject matter of the carvings is taken
principally from the Hindu epics, but there are also many scenes representing Suryavarman’s
earthly glory. Working in relief only about an inch deep, the sculptors were able to depict an
extraordinary complex of scenes of figures in vigorous action, full of complex overlaps to
suggest deep space. The solid bodies are created mainly out of groups of convex curves, and
everywhere there is the typical regional feeling for decorative spirals. Perhaps the most
interesting group of figures are the apsaras, carved in relief, either singly or in groups, on the
plain walls of the courtyards. These celestial beings, whom Indian tradition describes as
rewarding with their charms the kings, heroes, and saints who attain heaven, are carved with
sinuous sensuality; but the most important part of their charm is their elaborate clothing, jewelry,
and hairdressing or ornate, towering, jeweled crowns. Apparently, deep downward-drooping
curves standing far out from the body represented the height of Khmer chic. Skirts, stoles, and
the long sidelocks of hair all follow these curves, laid out flat on the ground of the relief.
Symbolizing the erotic joys that are essential attributes of heaven, the apsaras were natural
possessions of the king.

Prajnaparamita, the
Mother of All Buddhas

The effort demanded of the people in constructing the colossal stone Angkor Wat, along with its
4 miles (6 km) of stone-lined moat 200 yards (180 metres) wide, was great. The irrigation system
itself may well have been neglected in favour not only of shifting the building stone—as much in

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quantity as there is in the Pyramid of Khafre in Egypt—but also of dressing, carving, and
ornamenting it. After Suryavarman’s death, the Cham, from the neighbouring kingdom of
Champa (see below Vietnam kingdom of Champa), seized and sacked Angkor for the first time
in its history (1177), thus shattering the confidence of the Khmer people in the protective powers
of their Hindu deities. When Suryavarman’s son, Jayavarman VII, came to the throne he
inherited a ravaged kingdom. In 1181 he succeeded in driving out the Cham. He invaded their
country and seized their capital, thereby making Champa a province of the Khmer. Then, more
than 60 years old, he embarked on a series of campaigns that extended the borders of the Khmer
empire farther than ever before—into Malaya, Burma, and Annam.

Prajnaparamita, sandstone sculpture from Cambodia, Bayon style, c. 1200; in the Honolulu
Academy of Arts.(more)
The ruler of this empire naturally believed himself to be the greatest of the Khmer, and he set
about demonstrating the truth of his belief by building his own city, Angkor Thom (c. 1200),
and, at the centre of it, the biggest temple complex of them all—the Bayon (c. 1200). Breaking
with all previous Khmer traditions, he took as his patron deity not one of the Hindu gods, but one
of the Buddhist bodhisattvas. Although Buddhism had flourished for several centuries in the
whole of Indochina, it had not been adopted by the Khmer as an imperial cult. Now that the
Hindu gods had been discredited by defeat, Jayavarman placed himself under the patronage
of Mahayana Buddhism. The mythology according to which the Bayon was designed was thus
another version of the old mythology of the celestial mountain and the divine origin of water.
Only the central figure of his mythology, Lokeshvara, Lord of the World, was specifically
Buddhist. The colossal masks that look out over the four directions of the world from the towers
of the Bayon and from the gates of Angkor Thom are there to demonstrate the compassionate,
all-seeing power of Lokeshvara and the king.

When Jayavarman VII set out to create Angkor Thom, he had to raze the fine older work of his
predecessors, for the site at Angkor had become choked with nearly four centuries of grandiose
temple building. Within Angkor Thom’s 10 miles (16 km) of moats, he constructed huge
complexes of buildings and made his city the focus of a final system of canals and irrigation,
with additional lakes.

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Angkor, Cambodia: Angkor Thom ruins-Ruined temples at the Angkor Thom complex, Angkor,
Cambodia.(more)

Angkor Thom’s achievement lay with Jayavarman’s scholastic architects, who conceived and
laid out a complex of mythical imagery in massive architectural symbols.
Their stupendous overall plan illustrates the creation of the world, a cosmos spreading outward
from the central mountain tower. The two roads leading from the tower are lined with mile-long
rows of gigantic deities who are pulling on the body of the serpent naga. According to
Hindu legend, the gods use the magical mountain Meru, symbolized by the mountain tower, as a
churning stick and the body of the cosmic serpent as a churning rope to churn the world out of
the milk of nothingness. Lake-sized fountains represent the healing waters of the Buddhist
paradise, and allegories of salvation are realized in carved architecture. Perhaps the most
impressive works of art associated with this last period of Angkor are some stone icons, such as
the famous Leper King, in the Angkor Thom complex. Many excellent smaller bronze figures of
deities have also been found among the ruins.
13th century to the present

After the death of Jayavarman VII, c. 1215, possibly as late as 1219, Angkor declined. The Thai
population of Siam gradually pushed the Khmer down toward the Mekong
delta. Theravada Buddhism became the religion of the people, and the grandiose vision of a
cultural unity based on sacred kingship disappeared. In the 15th century Angkor was retaken
from the Thai, and a few buildings were restored by the ancestors of the modern (now abdicated)
Cambodian kings. Some of the buildings were used as monasteries, but the city, with its essential
irrigation system, had fallen into ruin.

Who built Angkor Thom temple?

Historical Context. Angkor Wat is dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu who is one of the three
principal gods in the Hindu pantheon (Shiva and Brahma are the others).However it was King
Jayavarman VII who built a large city surrounding Angkorn Wat and Bayon.

After the Cham people of modern-day Vietnam sacked Angkor in 1177, King Jayavarman
VII (reigned 1181–c. 1220) decided that the Hindu gods had failed him. When he built a new
capital nearby, Angkor Thom, he dedicated it to Buddhism. The accepted view has been that
Angkor collapsed suddenly in 1431, following an invasion by inhabitants of the powerful city of
Ayutthaya, in modern day Thailand.14 Apr 2020

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Angkor Wat Is the Largest Religious Monument on the Planet

Angkor Wat is spread across over 400 acres/1.6 km², and is said to be the largest religious
monument in the world. It was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1992, which
encouraged an international effort to save the complex.

The lidar data also confirm the existence of basic elements of a schematic rendering of
orthogonal divisions in the enclosure of Angkor Thom, currently, this open space is
predominantly covered by trees, though LIDAR survey has identified an orthogonal series of
mounds and depressions.

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 VI
The Mound and Ruins of the Square Plan stone temple,
DISTRICT:Sonitpur
LOCALITY: Tezpur (Lat. 26° 37' N; Long. 92°47' E)
APPROACH: Airport: Salani (Tezpur);
Railway Station :Tezpur.Bus Station :Tezpur.

The site is famous for magnificent doorframe of the highest architectural merit.
The remains are ascribed to an ancient temple of brick and stone masonry
oriented in east-west direction. The temple was designed on the principle
of square. The garbhagriha is of square plan (5.10 x 5.10m) as well as the mandapa
(7.90 x7.90m.).

The most noteworthy feature of the temple is its doorframe, the stylistic
features show a close affinity with the art tradition of the Gupta rulers and
the doorframe accordingly may be placed around circa 6th century CE. The
jambs and lintel of the doorframe are profusely carved. The five vertical
bands begin with the jambs and carried up to the lintel. Beautifully carved
river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna respectively occupy the right and left
doorjambs. The figures are shown in gently slanting posture with garlands in
their hands. The doorframe is also decorated with scroll designs. The long
tails of two nagis carved from the doorjambs are shown holding by a figure of
Garuda, depicted at the middle of the lintel. The lintel contains five chaitya
windows and contains three figures viz. Lakulisa, Krisna and Surya.

Fig 1: Door frame 2: Stone temple Da Parbatia is a small village very

close to west Tezpur, in the Indian State of Assam. In the village there are
significant architectural remnants of an ancient temple of the 6th century
overlying the ruins of another Shiva temple built of bricks during

96
the Ahom period. Archaeological excavations done here in 1924 have
unearthed a sixth-century antiquity in the form of a stone door frame with
extensive carvings. The ruins of the temple built during the Ahom period are
built over the ancient temple's foundations and are in the form of a stone
paved layout plan of the sanctum sanctorum and a mandapa. This complex
is under the jurisdiction of the Archaeological Survey of India and its
importance and notability is recorded under the Ancient Monuments and
Archaeological Sites and Remains Act 1958.
The Dah Parvatiya village, located to the west of Tezpur, was subject to
archaeological excavations by the Archaeological Survey of India in 1924,
and also during 1989–90. The excavations of many mounds have revealed
structural features built of brick and stone; these are in various stages of
decay. The excavations revealed many terracotta plaques in which human
figures were shown in a sitting position.

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The antiquities found at the Dah Parvatiya are inferred to have been
from a temple complex built during the 5th or 6th century, prior to
the Bhaskaravarman period. On the basis of the mouldings and its
architectural style it is inferred that the terracotta plaques are definitely not
later than the 6th century; the altered form of motifs noted in Assam

98
confirms this assessment. This type of architectural feature, particularly in
the stylistics of figurines of the ruins, is seen in North India, in the temples of
the Bhumra and Nachha Kuthara which belonged to the Gupta period.
Further confirmation of the dating is provided by the carvings of the river
Goddesses Ganga and Yamuna, which are also akin to the Greek
architecture with striking similarity to the Hellenistic art. The decorative
elements of the ruins also have close similarity with those seen in the
temples of Orissa.
During the Ahom period, a Shiva temple was built with bricks over the ruins
of an ancient Gupta period temple. When the Ahom period temple was
destroyed during the Assam Earthquake of 1897, the remains of Gupta
period temple were exposed but only in the form of a door frame made of
stone.[3] Epigraphic evidence and ancient literature found here,
supplemented by the ruins seen scattered around the area, also confirms
that in the pre-Ahom period Gupta art extended into the early Medieval
period.
Features: The excavated foundation of the temple of the Gupta period
revealed the base of the garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) in a roughly
square form measuring 8.925 feet (2.720 m) x 8.33 feet (2.54 m),[3][8] which
is enclosed by a circumambulatory passage leading to a colonnaded hall of
rectangular shape, which is interpreted as a mantapa or outdoor pavilion. To
the east of the mantapa is a mukhamantapa (front hall), which is of smaller
size. In the open space of the garbhagriha there is a "stone kunda" or Vedi
(altar) of 2.418 feet (0.737 m) x 2.66 feet (0.81 m) size with a depth of 5
inches (130 mm). It is also inferred from the exposed ruins that the original
temple was built of bricks (of size 15 inches (380 mm) x 11.5 inches
(290 mm) x 2.5 feet (0.76 m)) which were in use in the 5th century, with
door frames and sill made of stone.]
The door frame made of stone, which stands in front of a large block of stone
with a square cavity that held the original linga, is the most important find
here that has carvings which attest to the Gupta period art form. [1] [8] The
architectural depictions on this door frame are akin to the Gupta
architectural features in Northern India, deciphered in the archaeological
excavations done by Sir John Marshall.[3]
Doorjambs
The door jambs or posts (the vertical part of the door frame), which measure
5.25 feet (1.60 m) in height and 1.25 feet (0.38 m) in width, have high relief
carvings in their lower parts while the upper parts have four vertical bands or
strips carved in different patterns.[1] The human figures carved at the base of
the door posts are of the river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna,[9] which belong
to the Gupta period art traditions, and also depict carvings of flying geese.
This architectural depiction is stated to be the "finest and oldest specimen of
sculptural art in Assam".The goddesses carved in an elegant standing
posture are shown with divine halos over their heads with each figure
99
holding a garland in its hands. This type of depiction of goddesses on the
door frames was prevalent in the medieval temples. Many smaller figurines
are also carved as if in attendance to the main goddess. On the right door
post, there are two female attendants, one is in a standing posture holding
up a chamara or an umbrella while the second attendant is shown on bent
knees and holding a flat tray filled with flowers. The carvings on the right
door post are better preserved than those on the left. On the left door post,
the two figurines standing in attendance flanking the goddess are not
distinct. Here, there is also a carving of a naga in a kneeling posture carved
to the right of the halo of the goddess; to the left of this depiction there are
carvings of two geese.[3]
Vertical bands
The vertical strips in each of the upper part of the door posts extend up to
the lintel. The first strip, starting from the head of the naga or the nagi, is
carved in the wavy pattern of a creeper and is filled with decorations of
leaves pattern. The second band is like a lotus stem, out of which lotus
leaves and different flowers emerge; the stem is supported at the base by
two pygmy shaped figures. The third strip has embossed panels of human
figures fronting ornamental leaves. This band is crowned by a vase with
drooping decorative foliage. The vase is also decorated with a square
shaped pilaster that terminates in a capital, which has a cruciform. The
capital has carvings of a gana (attendant of Shiva).
Decorative rosettees form the fourth strip.
Lintel
The lintel spanning over the door posts is 3.75 feet (1.14 m) in length and
1.25 feet (0.38 m) in breadth. The lintel is larger in size than the door-frame,
extending a little on each side of the jambs. It is richly decorated with
architectural carvings which are placed in a symmetrical form, similar to the
architectural features seen in the fifth and sixth century temples
in Pataliputra and Benares. Five Chaitya-windows (horse-shoe shaped) are
carved in the front face of the lintel – three large and two small – with the
figurine of a male with four arms carved in the extreme right window seated
on a throne; two of its arms are damaged while one arm is seen holding
Shiva's damaru. At the base of this throne there is a carving in the form of
sea waves. The central window has a Shiva carving known as "Lakulisa",
meaning Lord with the staff, a rope tied to its leg and is flanked by two
mythical deities, called "suparna", anthropomorphic figures of a bird and
man. Also seen in this window are two females figures. In another window is
a depiction of man playing the flute, and with a hooded snake feature above
his head. The window to the extreme right has carving of Surya, the Sun god,
in a cross-legged posture holding a lotus flower. Two attendants are seen
next to this figure, one is offering betel leaves (pan) while holding an ink pot
in the other hand, and the second attendant is carrying a stick.

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 VII
Symbolism and Vaastu Shastra
THE SQUARE of Hindu Temples and WHY?

“The shape of the Vastu for gods and Brahmanas is square” ~ Mayamata.

When people think of buildings Mandirs (Hindu Temples) , they are defaulted to imagining
rectangular structures—or at the very least, structures with orthogonal floor plans and hard angles,
certainly not buildings with circular plans. The rarity of the circular plan comes in part from the fact
that poor design choices can lead to wasted space and awkward interior arrangements, especially if
furniture and appliances are rectangular in shape.

However, strongly designed circular planes can have a dramatic effect, generating extraordinary
spatial configurations that meet a variety of aesthetic and functional needs, while challenging the
material specification process. Below, we list 18 buildings with circular plans, considering their
varying strategies of design.Very few and rare circular designes temples are found in Hinduism.

https://www.academia.edu/88402508/Circular_Cities_of_the_ancient_world

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Zorastrians consider the circle as a holy symbol hence their graveyards known as Towers of
Silence are circular and also their ancient cities as discussed above in my research paper.
The circular citadel city of Gur was the first capital of the Sassanid Empire was circular.
It is situatedin Fars province, about 110 km south of Shiraz.Ardeshir-e Pabakan, the first
king of Sassanid dynasty.

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 A Hindu temple is not
essentially only a place to perform religious rites; it is more of a teerth, a place where one goes to
seek union with the Supreme Consciousness or Divinity and attain moksha. The square is the
fundamental form in Indic architectural sciences; the perfect and integral form of Indian
architecture. It presupposes (implies the presence of) of a circle and results from it, and both
became a part of Indian architecture from the Vedic fire altar, or Agni. As per Satapatha
Brahmana, the sacrificial ground is called a Vedi as the gods obtained the earth by performing
sacrifices on four sides, thus making the sacrificial ground symbolic of the earth.

In Vastu Shastra, the number of corners in a hall or any room is not the only factor to consider
when evaluating the energy flow in a space. However, a room with an irregular shape or more
than four corners may not be considered ideal from a Vastu perspective.

103
BAPS Temple California, USA

This is because the energy flow in a room with an irregular shape can be disrupted and may not
be balanced. Additionally, a room with more than four corners can create sharp and harsh
energy, which can be challenging to balance. This can affect the well-being of the occupants and
their ability to function optimally in the space.

If your hall has an irregular shape or more than four corners, there are ways to balance the
energy flow using Vastu principles. For example, you can use colours, furniture placement, and
other design elements to create a more harmonious and balanced space. It is also recommended
to consult with a Vastu consultant who can provide personalized guidance based on your specific
situation.
The square does not refer to the outline of the earth; but connects the four cardinal points; East,
West, South and North. Thus, earth is chatusbhristi or four cornered (Rig Veda, 58. 3),
symbolically represented as Prithvi mandala; however when considered in itself, the earth is
circular (Rig veda, X. 89). It is this square Vedi which forms to be the sacred ground for temple
building.

It is a well established norm in both Vedic as well as Modern Vastu Shastra that one is to avoid
both a plot or a built premise which has more than four corners. Further, these four corners
should form ninety degrees.Hence, the same rule would be applied to each room including your
living room. Having five corners makes the room some kind of a pentagon which is not
considered healthy from the energy flow perspective. It creates an imbalance in the Prana Shakti
and smooth flow of energy. Hence, It is suggested that you consult a competent Vastu Shastra
consultant and have it rectified at the earliest.

These five corners would disturb relationships of people visiting you and also within the family.
This has been my personal experience in some of the Vastu’s that I have visited. Depending on
104
the details of the five corners an effective solution can be found and in my personal opinion you
should without wasting anytime get to rectifying it ASAP.

Baseswara
temple in Bajoura, Kullu// "Gods play where groves are near rivers, mountains, and springs..."
Panchavaktra temple in Mandi Himachal Pradesh

Hindu temple or Mandir is referred to a place where Hindus go to worship gods in the form of
various deities. Many Hindu temples are filled with wooden and stone arts
like pashupatinath temple. A mandir is a spiritual place for Hindus. It is the landmarks around
which ancient arts, community celebrations and economy were developed, as well as this the
mandir has been recognised for.Contained in the mandirs are stone or wooden images of
idols ceremonially infused with the divine presence of God. They worship with arts and other
ceremonies.

Hindus believe that gods and goddesses will answer the prayers of the faithful and inspire
spiritually. For them, the temple also acts as a contact between the gods and goddesses and the
worshipers. They also believe that the gods and goddesses will grant their wishes and protect
them from danger.

This vision of the life as a journey is beautifully expressed in many of these temples. Teertha or
sacred sites refer to pilgrimage places that are often seen located beside water bodies, such as a
river, sea, or lake. The word teertha, which means a passage, is closely associated with the river
of life that helps one in self- realization and crossing over to reach the Centre. It is a sacred
ground or an active energy field, where one can achieve moksha or the final release.Thus, a
teertha is not the end goal by itself; it is where the journey to the Centre starts. That is why there
are so many teerthas spread across India, and the whole of India is considered as a sacred site of
divine energy; while the Garudapurana mentions seven such special cities that help to attain
moksha: Ayodhyā Mathurā Māyā Kāśī Kāñcī Avantikā| Purī Dvārāvatī caiva saptaitā
mokṣadāyikāḥ.

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It is also the same reason why one need not even undertake the visit to the templeor Mandir.
Thus, these are places where gods are installed and temples are built, whose towering shikharas
lead the devotee’s eyes from this world to the other worlds above. While temple designs may
vary based on time and location, there is one basic regulating factor that remains unchanged: the
plan, known as the Vastupurushamandala.

Vastupurushamandala is the ritual diagram that regulates the site plan and the ground plan, and
is drawn on the ground before temple construction starts, over which the temple will stand. It is
always a square and records what is known as an architectural rite, and as
per Samaranganasutradhara, the precise drawing of this rite is the first step in Indian
architectural science.

The word Vastupurushamandala has three words, of which Vastu refers to the site, which is the
bodily existence; Purusha represents the universal Essence, which is the Source and Principal of
all things that has no substance but gives the Form; and Mandala is any closed polygon, which is
a square in this case. The temple stands over the diagram of this Vastupurushamandala, which is
the fundament from which the structure rises.
The temple thus built over this well levelled intellectual plane is where the entire world exists,
which is the meeting point of Heaven (para prakriti- beyond Existence) and Earth (apara
prakriti- Existence), and is accessible to man. Vastupurushamandala is also considered to be
a Yantra, where the latter is a geometrical method to bind an aspect of the Supreme Principle for
the purpose of worship.

When it is decided that a temple will be built, there will be three involved in the initial process:
the Yajamana (the donor or the sacrificer) on whose behalf the temple will be built; the architect
or Sthapati who builds the temple; and the Sthapaka or the architect-priest under whose guidance
the sthapati will work. Once temple building activity starts there will be four classes of craftsmen
or silpin involved: Sthapati (designing architect and the foremost
one), Sutragrahin (surveyor), Taksaka (sculptor), and Vardhakin (builder/painter/plasterer).
The Sthapati must be an expert in guiding the construction work, be well versed in 4 Vedas, and
all shastras including cosmology, astrology, and all other sciences; he must be an expert in
mathematics, know the Puranas well, and be free from all vices.

“The shape of the Vastu for gods and Brahmanas is square” ~ Mayamata.

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 Concept of a prithvi mandala. Pic for representation purposes only VATICAN (Main)////Vastu purusha
mandala is the metaphysical diagrammatic design of cosmos on which the whole concept of Vastu Shastra is
based. It is believed that Vastu purusha is lying down on the cosmos in a way that his head is resting in North-
east direction which represents balanced thinking; lower body faces South-west, which represents strength and
firmness; his navel is in center of the earth signifying cosmic awareness and holiness; while his hands
face North-west and South-east which signify energy. Vastu purusha is the presiding deity while other eight
directions have their own specific Gods that govern their directions. The mandala is basically the enclosed area
in which Vastu purusha is lying down, thus signifying his birth from nature. On the basis of this structure and
prescribed directions all construction work is recommended, which includes physical characteristics such as
placement of doors, windows, etc. (photo from public domain)

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 The Concept of
Irregularity

There is no issue with a hall having five corners. Usually less or more than four corners are not
preferred as they make the shape of a place irregular. But it totally depends upon how irregular a
shape is.

Shape is one consideration in Vastu. Again, it is not the only factor which decides the overall
energy of a place. A place having 5 corners can also have positive energy. So, number of corners
is just a guideline to have a possibility of having a better energy level.

One can also see that if circular shapes are placed side by side there is wastage of space in
the intermittant areas seen as red in the pic below.

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109
 Dominant square plan of ANGKOR

Temple architecture of high standard developed in almost all regions during ancient India.
The distinct architectural style of temple construction in different parts was a result of
geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial, historical and linguistic diversities. Ancient Indian
temples are classified in three broad types. This classification is based on different
architectural styles, employed in the construction of the temples. Three main style of
temple architecture are the Nagara or the Northern style, the Dravida or the Southern style
and the Vesara or Mixed style. But at the same time, there are also some regional styles of
Bengal, Kerala and the Himalayan areas.

One important part of the ancient Indian temples was their decoration. It is reflected in the
multitude details of figured sculpture as well as in the architectural elements. Another
important component of Indian temples was the garbha-griha or the womb chamber,
housing the deity of the temple. The garbha-griha was provided with a circumambulation
passage around. However, there are also many subsidiary shrines within temple
complexes, more common in the South Indian temple.

In the initial stages of its evolution, the temples of North and South India were
distinguished on the basis of some specific features like sikhara and gateways. In the north
Indian temples, the sikhara remained the most prominent component while the gateway
was generally unassuming. The most prominent features of South Indian temples were
enclosures around the temples and the Gopurams (huge gateways). The Gopurams led the
devotees into the sacred courtyard. There were many common features in the Northern and
the Southern styles. These included the ground plan, positioning of stone-carved deities on
the outside walls and the interior, and the range of decorative elements.

Design
The very essence of a Hindu temple is believed to have developed from the ideology that
all things are one and everything is associated. The four essential and significant principles
which are also aims of human life according to Indian philosophy are the quests for artha -
wealth and prosperity; kama - sex and pleasure; dharma - moral life and virtues; and
moksha, self- knowledge and realisation. The mathematically structured spaces, intricate
artworks, decorated and carved pillars and statues of Hindu temples illustrate and revere
such philosophies. A hollow space without any embellishments situated at the centre of the
temple, usually below the deity, may also be at the side or above the deity symbolises the
complex concept of Purusha or Purusa meaning the Universal principle, Consciousness,
the cosmic man or self without any form, however, omnipresent and associates all things.
The Hindu temples suggest contemplations, encouragement and further purification of
mind and prompt the process of self-realisation in devotees; however the preferred process
is left to the convention of individual devotees.

Site
According to Vastu Shastra, plots should be selected carefully, to channelise the
harmonious energy in one’s lives. The land is the foundation of energy on which depends

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the quality of other energies that impact the structure constructed on it. The location,
surroundings, wind, water bodies, soil type and sunlight, determine the Vastu of a place
and, consequently, the quality of life in a house built there. The areas of Hindu temple sites
are usually vast with many of them built near water bodies, in the lap of nature. This is
probably because according to ancient Sanskrit texts the most suitable site for a Hindu
temple referred as ‘Mandir’ is at close proximity to water bodies and gardens where
flowers blossom, chirping of birds and sounds of ducks and swans can be heard and
animals can rest without any fear. These places exhibiting peace and tranquillity are
recommended by the texts for building Hindu temples elucidating that Gods reside in such
places. Although, leading Hindu temples are suggested near natural water bodies like
confluence of rivers, river banks, seashores and lakes, according to the ‘Puranas’ and
‘Bharat Samhita’, Mandirs can even be constructed in sites devoid of natural water bodies.
However, such suggestions include building up of a pond with water gardens in front of
the ‘Mandir’ or towards left. In the absence of both natural and man-made water bodies,
water remains typically present during consecration of the deity or the Mandir. Part III of
Chapter 93 of the Hindu text Vishnudharmottara Purana also recommends building of
temples within caves and chiselled out stones; atop hills amidst spectacular and serene
views; within hermitages and forests; beside gardens; and at the upper end of a street of a
town.

Layout
Layout of a Hindu temple pursues a geometrical design known as vastu-purusha-mandala,
the name of which is derived from the three vital components of the design namely Vastu
meaning Vaas or a place of dwelling; Purusha, meaning the Universal principle; and
Mandala meaning circle. Vastupurushamandala is a mystical diagram referred in Sanskrit
as a Yantra. The symmetrical and self-repeating model of a Hindu temple demonstrated in
the design is derived from the primary convictions, traditions, myths, fundamentality and
mathematical standards.

According to Vastupurushamandala, the most sacred and typical template for a Hindu
temple is the 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan also referred as Bhekapada
and Ajira. The layout displays a vivid saffron centre with intersecting diagonals which
according to Hindu philosophy symbolises the Purusha. The axis of the Mandir is created
with the aid of the four fundamentally significant directions and thus, a perfect square is
created around the axis within the available space. This square which is circumscribed by
the Mandala circle and divided into perfect square grids is held sacred. On the other hand,
the circle is regarded as human and worldly that can be perceived or noticed in daily life
such as the Sun, Moon, rainbow, horizon or water drops. Both the square and the circle
support each other. The model is usually seen in large temples while an 81 sub-square grid
is observed in ceremonial temple superstructures.
Each square within the main square referred as ‘Pada’ symbolise a specific element that
can be in the form of a deity, an apsara or a spirit. The primary or the innermost square/s
of the 64 grid model called Brahma Padas is dedicated to Brahman. The Garbhagruha or
centre of the house situated in the Brahma Padas houses the main deity. The outer
concentric layer to Brahma Padas is the Devika Padas signifying facets of Devas or Gods
which is again surrounded by the next layer, the Manusha Padas, with the ambulatory. The

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 devotees circumambulate clockwise to perform Parikrama in the Manusha Padas with
Devika Padas in the inner side and the Paishachika Padas, symbolising facets of Asuras
and evils, on the outer side forming the last concentric square. The three outer Padas in
larger temples generally adorn inspirational paintings, carvings and images with the wall
reliefs and images of different temples depicting legends from different Hindu Epics and
Vedic stories. Illustrations of artha, kama, dharma and moksha can be found in the
embellished carvings and images adorning the walls, ceiling and pillars of the temples.

Pillared outdoor halls or pavilions called Mandapa meant for public rituals with the ones in
the east serving as waiting room for devotees adorns the large temples. The Mandir’s spire,
usually a tapering conical or pyramidal superstructure with a dome designed adhering
principles of concentric squares and circles and referred in North India as Shikhaa and
Vimana in South India is symmetrically aligned exactly above the Brahma Pada or the
central core of the Mandir. Compounds of many larger temples house smaller temples and
shrines that also follow fundamental aspects of grids, symmetry and mathematical
perfection. Repetition and mirroring of fractal-like design structure forms a significant
principle of Hindu temple designs.

The manuals comprising of Hindu temple layouts elucidates plans with squares in the
count of 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 and thus, reaching up to 1024. Each plan of different Padas has
individual significance, for instance in one pada plan the pada is regarded as the seat for a
devotee or hermit to perform yoga, meditation or offer Vedic fire; a four Padas plan, also a
meditative design represents a core at the center; and a nine Padas layout that generally
forms model of smallest temples has a divine surrounded centre. Although the perfect
square grid principle is primarily found in different temples of India, some others hold
exception such as the Teli-ka-mandir and the Naresar temple in Madhya Pradesh and the
Nakti-Mata temple in Rajasthan, indicating that Hinduism welcomed flexibility, creativity
and aesthetic independence of artists.

Vastu Purusha Mandala is one secret that contains the essence of the sacred science of Vastu in
its entirety.
From time immemorial, this cosmic geometrical wonder has been used to design everything from
the yagya vedis (fire altars), temples, entire villages, towns and individual houses.
Every minute detail with regards to every single structure is based on these universal principles
of the Vastu Purush Mandala architecture.

When we observe the energy fields that develop at different stages of a building – starting from
the stage of a vacant plot to the digging of land to the laying of the foundation to the completion
of the building and finally to the point when it is inhabited by the people – we unravel the
secrets of the Vastu purusha mandala.

The Vastu Mandala is the omnipresent, omnipotent soul of every building. It is based on the
principle that man and Universe are analogous in their structure and spirit. Vastu Purush
Mandala is thus a Yantra or an image of the Universe.

The Yajurveda reveals –

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यथा ब्रह्माण्डे तथा पिंडे II यथा पिंडे तथा ब्रह्माण्डे
II Yatha brahmande tatha pinde , Yatha pinde tatha brahmande II
As is the universe, so is the physical body. As is the physical body, so is the universe
Thus, the Vastu Purush Mandala represents the manifest form of the cosmic being. Whatever is
in the universe is within us.

The belief that the earth is a living organism, throbbing with life and energy is fundamental to
the Vastu Shastra. The Vastu Purush Mandala symbolizes that living energy.. The site for the
construction is his field- the Vastu Purush Mandala.
The ‘Purusha’ here refers to the energy, power, soul or the cosmic man. Mandala is the generic
name for any plan or chart which symbolically represents the cosmos.
The Vastu Purush Mandala is the core of every structure. You can use it to design a temple, a
house, an office and even when you’re planning the Vastu of a factory or a whole city. It
constitutes the geometrical and metaphysical basis for every construction.
The Origin of the Vastu Purusha Mandala

The ancient Vastu text of Vishwakarma Prakash reveals an engaging story about the origin of
the Vastu Purusha Mandala .The story is about a fierce war between the Gods (devtas ) and the
demons (asuras). In this war, Lord Shiva represented the devtas while Andhaka asur was
fighting for the asuras.
During the war, some drops of sweat fell on the earth. From those drops emerged a gigantic
being that scared both the devtas and the asuras. The devtas and the asuras together took this
being to lord Brahma. Lord Brahma called this giant his manas putra (mind-being) and named
him Vastu Purush. The Vastu Purush was then laid down on the earth prostrate with his head
towards the North East and feet to the South West. Some of his parts were inhabited by
the devtas while some by the asuras.

Lord Brahma then ordered that whoever reveres the Vastu Purush and perform the Vastu Purush
pooja while constructing a temple, palace, house, pond, city etc. will be blessed by the devtas.
The ones who don’t would be destroyed by the asuras.
Hidden Secrets in Symbols and the Mandala
The above story is of course symbolic because in the Vedas, deep secrets have been woven into
stories. To unlock these secrets, the deeper meaning of these symbols and the Mandala has to be
understood.

The Vastu Purush Mandala is not necessarily an actual picture of a giant encased in numerous
cells or squares. It is a diagrammatic representation through symbols, of the inter-sections and
the energy current flows in the subtle body of a human being.
The Purusha, in the Vastu Mandala chart is a term of reference. It serves as a means to locate
several parts, within the whole. The body here indicates a sphere of coordinated activities; and
each part corresponds to a particular function.

The devtas represent our consciousness and the asuras our ignorance and fear. The war between
consciousness and ignorance still goes on each moment within all of us. It is not just
a Puranic story, it’s the reality we live in each moment.

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The Vastu Purush represents the constant phenomenon inside each building. The Purusha means
that which is stable and contains all possibilities of existence within him.
The Vastu Purusha is the soul of the building. As soon as a building comes into existence, all
the devtas and asuras occupy their respective positions. As a result, they create the effects and
results that the inhabitants experience through their lives while living in that building.
Decoding the Devtas & Asuras of the Vastu Purush Mandala

This above story is depicted diagrammatically in the Vastu Purush Mandala with specific
portions allocated hierarchically to each deity based on their attributes and powers.
The division of the built-up space represents different energy fields. We call this process –
the Pada Vinyasa (modular grid). In total there are 45 energy fields that constitute the Vastu
Purush Mandala. They are as follows :
The Central Energy Field : Brahma , the Creator – Brahma Vithi
Lord Brahma occupies the central portion – the Brahmasthan. This portion is the Brahma Vithi.
It is the most sacred part of the building. It contains within it, all the possibilities of creation and
existence.
First the Shilanyas (foundation stone laying ceremony) is done and the construction of the
foundation walls begins by digging the earth. When they reach the plinth level, the divine energy
field called Brahma starts to originate right in the center of the plot.
This field of Brahma – the absolute is responsible for the evolution of everything in the universe.
This is why the universe is also termed as Brahmaand (the golden egg of Brahma).

The 4 Energy Fields next to Brahma – The Deva Vithi

 Bhudhar (the power of manifestation)
 Aryama (the power of connection)
 Vivaswaan (the power of revolution or change)
 Mitra (the power of inspiration and action)
As the construction of the building progresses and the raising of the walls is done to a height of
about 5-8 feet , the energy field of Brahma starts to expand in 4 directions.
Out of the 12 Adityas mentioned in the Bhagavata Puran , the above 4 occupy the 4 sides of
Brahma.

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We all know that Lord Brahma has 4 heads. Thus these 4 devtas are symbolic of the 4 heads of
Brahma. They are responsible for carrying forward the process of creation initiated by Brahma.
The 8 Energy Fields in the diagonal directions – The Manushya Vithi
After the raising of the walls ( but the casting of the roof is remaining) , the energy fields start to
spread in the four diagonal directions viz. North East, South East, South West and North West.
This flow of energies is akin to a tortoise spreading its legs and extending them out of its body.
In each of these directions, two energy fields start to take shape and form. If we draw a line
dividing the North East to South West and from North West to South East, one energy fields
develops on either side of this dividing line.
The names of these energies are as follows :
NORTH EAST
1. Apaha ( generates the energies responsible for healing)
2. Apahavatsa (carriers the healing powers to the occupants)
SOUTH EAST
3. Savita (energies that help to initiate any process or action)
4. Savitur (energies that give capibilities to continue those actions and overcome all
challenges)
SOUTH WEST
5. Indra (energies that establish stability and enhance growth)
6. Indrajaya (the tools and the channels through which one can achieve growth)
NORTH WEST
7. Rudra (energies responsible for support and ensure flow of activities and life)
8. Rajyakshma ( energies which uphold the support and stabilise the mind)
The 32 energy fields of the outer periphery – Paishacha Vithi
A total of 32 energy fields develop in a concentric pattern in the outer periphery of the Vastu
Purusha Mandala.
Once the roof is cast in the building, four energy fields start to develop in each of the diagonal
directions. Thus, a total of 16 fields develop in the diagonal directions which are as follows:
NORTH EAST

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 1. Aditi (the mother of the devtas, this energy field provides security and helps one connect
with himself/herself)
2. Diti (the mother od the asuras, this energy field gives the powers of a wider vision and to
see the actual truth of life)
3. Shikhi (symbolic of a pointed flame. This field gives the power of ideas and the ability to
project one’s thoughts to the world )
4. Parjanya (the giver of rains, this field has the powers to bless the occupants with fertility
and fructification of all their wishes)
SOUTH EAST
1. Brisha (the power of friction needed to initiate any action , thinking or activity)
2. Akash ( the energy that provides the space for manifestation)
3. Anila ( the energy of air or vayu, it helps to uplift the fire or push further the actions
initiated)
4. Pusha ( the energy of nourishment, it blocks the path of enemies)
SOUTH WEST
1. Bhringraj (the energy which extracts nutrients from the food and removes the waste)
2. Mrigah (the energy that drives curiosity and imparts skills)
3. Pitra ( the ancestors provide all means of safety and happiness required for existence)
4. Dauwarik (the safekeeper, represents lord Nandi, the trusted vehicle of lord Shiva. The
energy of being genius and highly knowledgeable)
NORTH WEST
1. Shosha (the power of detoxification from negative emotions)
2. Papyakshama (the energy which gives addiction, diseases and the feeling of guilt)
3. Roga ( the energy which provides support in the hour of need)
4. Naga ( the energy which gives emotional enjoyments and cravings)
Once the super-structure, i.e. the civil work is done but the installation of services like plumbing,
electrical connections etc. has not begun , 16 more energy fields start to develop in the four
cardinal directions. These are as follows :
EAST
1. Jayant (the energy which gives the sense of being victorious, it refreshes the mind and
body)
2. Mahendra ( the power of administration and connectivity )
3. Surya ( the core controller, this energy fields imparts health , fame and farsightedness)
4. Satya ( the energy which establishes goodwill, status, authenticity and credibility)
SOUTH
1. Vitatha ( the energy field of falsehood, pretension and the unreal)
2. Gurhakshat ( the power which binds the mind and defines its limits)
3. Yama ( the power of expansion, this energy field binds the world in laws)
4. Gandharva ( the energy of preservation of health and vitality, this is also the energy
which governs all kinds of arts and music)
WEST
1. Sugreev ( the power which grants the ability to receive all knowledge)
2. Pushpadant ( the power which grants blessings and fulfils all desires )
3. Varun ( the lord of the seas, this energy field observes and runs the whole world. It is the
granter of immortality)

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 4. Asur ( the energy field that releases the mind from temptations and gives depth in
spirituality )
NORTH
1. Mukhya ( the chief architect or lord Vishwakarma, this energy field defines the main
purpose of the building and also helps in their manifestation)
2. Bhallat ( the energy field which grants colossal abundance, it magnifies the efforts and
their results )
3. Soma (the energy field of lord Kuber, the lord of all wealth and money. It ensures a
smooth flow of money and opportunities)
4. Bhujag ( the lord of hidden treasures, this energy field is the preserver of medicines. It
safeguards the health of the occupants )
Installation of the Vastu Purusha Mandala – Vastu Purusha Sthapana
A few common questions which we come across are:
 How should we do the Vastu Mandala sthapana or where to bury Vastu Purush or Vastu
yantra?
 What are the ideal directions to put Vastu Purush in the house or the best Vastu Purusha
location in the house?
 Should we put it on the floor or bury underground?
This is what we believe :
There is absolutely no need to put any Vastu Purush structure in your house. Neither an idol on
the ground nor any Vastu Purusha Yantra underground.
The Vastu Purush is a metaphysical being. It is a diagrammatic and geometric representation of
the whole universe.
In other words, it is a combination of 45 different energy fields that exist within every built-up
structure. It’s there in a 100 sq.ft. Office and it’s there in a 50,000 sq.ft. Factory.
Whether or not you place an idol or yantra, these energy fields (together called the Vastu Purush
Mandala) will exist in different proportions in your building.
Therefore, all you need to do to please the Vastu Purusha is to deign your house as per the tenets
of Vastu Shastra, keeping in mind the Vastu Purusha Mandala. This is the biggest offering you
can make to the Vastu Purusha. Above all, this is the greatest favour you can do to yourself and
your family.
FAQs for Vastu Purusha Mandala and Their Answers
Which is the best place in house for Vastu Purusha mandala?
Vastu Purusha is the soul of the building. It is already inherent in the structure of the house. You
don’t need to place it separately. If you have a Vastu yantra, you may place it on the Pooja room.
What is the head direction for Vastu purusha?
As per Vastu Purusha Mandal architecture, the head of the Vastu Purusha lies in the North East
direction of the house.
What is vastu purusha mandala?
Vastu Purusha Mandala is the soul of the building. It is the metaphysical floor plan of the
universe and is the basis of all design in the universe including every building and structure.
How many steps are there in Vastu Purush Mandala?
There are various types of Vastu Purusha Mandalas. Some may have 81 steps while some other
may have 64 steps also called padas.
Conclusion

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This is how the 45 energy fields develop and progress as per the Vastu Purush Mandala. These
Vastu Mandala devtas and asuras manifest and move life and contribute to everything that
happens in the lives of the occupants.

“The Vastu Purusha Mandala represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which
the temple is built and in whom the temple rests. The temple is situated in Him, comes from Him,
and is a manifestation of Him. The Vastu Purusha Mandala is both the body of the Cosmic Being
and a bodily device by which those who have the requisite knowledge attain the best results in
temple building.” – Stella Kramrisch ; The Hindu Temple, Vol. I

We can replace the word temple above with any built up structure like a house, factory, office
etc. Every constructed structure is really the manifest form of the cosmic being.
The universal equation of the Vastu Purush Mandala has been in existence for thousands of years
and will continue till eternity. It is the fundamental principle which will continue to create and
run the whole universe both at the macro and the micro level.

Irregular Plots

What is an irregular shaped plot?

An irregular shape is one which does not have equal sides or equal angles. Irregular plots can
also be those, where the land is not even or balanced. Irregular-shaped plots are said to have bad
energies, as the magnetic forces are dispersed unequally. If the shape of the plot is inauspicious
as per Vastu Shastra, then, it can cause sorrow, misery, loss of wealth and other problems.
“In Vastu Shastra, the beneficial shapes are square and rectangle (with proper ratio). These plot
shapes lead to prosperity, wellbeing and happiness for the owner. Other shapes, such as circle, U
or L-shaped plots have missing corners that may cause serious problems, depending on the
section that is missing. Round, oval, triangular, semi-circle, cart shaped and star-shaped plots
should also be avoided. Avoid plots with any major extensions, cuts or slopes in the corners,”
states Nitien Parmar of Vastu Plus, Mumbai. Elephant-shaped properties give wealth while bull-
shaped properties lead to an increase in the cattle (or vehicles), adds Parmar.
Apart from these, there are many other shapes of plots.

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Irregular shape of the plot and its effect according to Vastu
Gamukhi plot: Good for residential use, as the shape represents a cow, denoting the best of
everything.
Lion face (shermukhi) plot: Suitable for commercial building.
Triangular-shaped plot: Leads to problems, especially from the government.
Oval or semi-circular: Inauspicious, causes various health problems, losses and lack of
happiness in the house.
Circular-shaped: Good for constructing circular shaped buildings only.
Polygonal plot: Invite lawsuits.
Octagonal: Brings all-round prosperity.
Bucket-shaped plot: Leads to debt.
Wheel-shaped plot: Causes financial loss.
Bow-shaped plot: Attracts fear and dread.
Drum-shaped plot: Loss of family members and increase in animosity.
Pitcher-shaped plot: Leads to serious illness.
Varahan Mukhi Akaar (pig-faced shaped): Leads to death of relatives.
Turtle shaped plot: Imprisonment of the owner and his family members.
Hand fan-shaped plot: Leads to loss of wealth
Feather shaped plot: Inauspicious and causes bad fortune.
Star-shaped plot: Leads to legal suits.
Bucket shaped plot: Occupants will be always in debt
Projections and missing corners of an irregular shaped plot
It is natural that all plots cannot be square or rectangular. Plots may have projections, extensions
or missing corners. Projections mean that the plot has an additional space which when deducted
from the plot, to make it a regular square or rectangle. On the other hand, retraction is an
additional space which, when added to the plot, makes it a regular square or rectangle.
Extensions are beneficial only if they are in the north, north-east, east and east-north-east
directions. Other extensions are inauspicious. Plots with extensions in the south-east, north-west
or south-west are not considered suitable, as they bring bad luck.

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Avoid plots with any major extensions or cuts in the corners. If you must, do so with proper
consultation of a Vastu expert.
The decision regarding a plot of land should not be based on one factor in isolation. A plot
should be bought, considering the effects of all factors.

Levels and slopes of an irregular plot

It is recommended to buy plots with flat surfaces. As per Vastu, the ground level should be
elevated in the south and the west, as compared to the north and the east. It should be the lowest
in the north-east corner. This is good for all spheres of prosperity and happiness. A low northeast
ensures health, wealth, peace and prosperity.
If the plot has a slope towards the east or the north side, it will lead to prosperity. “Do not buy
the land with a slope towards the south or the south-west. Slope towards the west and the south is
not all good and can lead to loss. Plots with a slope towards the south, the south-west, the south-
east and north-west, bring downfall in business,” adds Parmar.
Plots with extended corners other than the north-east side create Vastu defect, based on its
extended direction. Land with slight elevation in the south, the south-west, the west or the north-
west are auspicious, as it is like an elephant’s back and is associated with Laxmi, the goddess of
wealth.
The land, which is raised in the middle and low from all sides, is said to be like a turtle’s back
and is good and will lead to an increase in wealth.
An elevation of the plot in the north-east, the east and the south-west side is like a demon’s back
and can cause loss of wealth and children.
Land, which is extended in the east-west directions and high in the north and the south
directions, is said to be like a serpent’s back and will have ill effects and even untimely demise.

Water bodies and soil type

Any pond or tank or well towards the south-west of the plot may bring adversity. The same is
true, if the plot has a well, pool, lake, river or a stream flowing on the north-east side. Red,
brown or yellow soil are good for cultivation and also for the foundation of a building. Black and
clay soil hold water and causes dampness to the foundation. So, avoid such a plot. Also, plots of
land, which have capability of growing fruits and medicinal herbs, are considered good while the
presence of thorny shrubs is not good. According to Vastu for the plot, it is considered
inauspicious to buy a plot with sandy soil as it cannot bear the weight of the foundation of a
house. One must not buy a plot that has a lot of worms as the soil tends to be loose and will not
support the construction well.

Vastu for plots in relation to roads

 Plots that are surrounded by roads from all four or even three sides, are considered
auspicious.
 A plot which has adjacent roads to the north and the west, is also good.
 Plots which have adjacent roads to the south and west, lead to wealth creation.
 A plot of land which has plots on three sides and a road to the south and the south-west,
is not auspicious.

Vastu tips for buying plot or land

 Do not buy a small plot that is positioned between two bigger plots.

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  Plots facing a ‘T’ or ‘Y’ junction, are inauspicious.
 Plots located near electrical power stations are not good for the family.
 Avoid plots that are close to a cemetery or graveyard.
 Do not buy a plot with a hill or mountain towards the north or east direction. Mountains
on the west and south side of the plot are beneficial for wealth and health.
 Plot sharing boundary with water canal or pond at south and west should be avoided.
 Plot with water bodies at north, northeast or east leads to success in business. A flow of
water should not be towards the south.
 Avoid a plot that has big trees like mango, banyan, peepal, white fig, etc. if the plot is
huge then the house area ( to be constructed ) should be far from the trees.

Vastu remedies for irregular shaped plots

 It is advisable to level the plot, to rectify problems. If the north-east corner is higher than
other sides, soil from that corner can be used to fill up the south and west portions.
 A plot which is raised in the center can be corrected by digging out and dumping the soil
towards the south-west part.
 The negative impact of a plot shaped like a ‘T’ or ‘L’ or with intersecting points of a
triangle, can be reduced by dividing the plot into two. Divide an irregular-shaped plot
into two regular plots, with separate compound walls for each portion.
 Construct the additional compound wall to protect from negativity due to road facing in
the particular direction of a plot.
 One can grow plants and trees near the entrance of the house to reduce the negative
effects of road facing the plot.
 Based on defects in the direction, metals, rocks or plants can be used to correct the space,
as suggested by Vastu experts.
 Remedies, such as placing Vastu pyramids on extended plots, can be resorted to, based
on expert advice, to correct Vastu doshas. While a lead pyramid for the south-west
extension helps, copper strips are ideal for the south-east extension.

Today we find that Circular building design could significantly reduce the environmental impact
of buildings and the pressure on natural resources. However, most buildings today are not
designed according to the principles of the circular economy. Most literature has focused on
either methods for quantifying the lifecycle analysis of buildings and materials, or on innovative
circular building materials, but not much is known about the design process of circular buildings
and how architects are dealing with translating the principles of the circular economy to the
building sector. There is the conservativeness of the building industry, the lack of political
priority and the dependency throughout the building industry were found to be the main barriers,
while a supportive client with a well-defined assignment and idea was considered to be the main
driver. sector.Circular Building Design: An Analysis of Barriers and Drivers for a Circular
Building Sector,by Jouri Kanters
Division of Energy & Building Design, Department of Architecture and the Built Environment,
Lund University, 221 00 Lund, Sweden, https://www.mdpi.com/2075-5309/10/4/77

All new temples constructed in India or abroad also follow a circular plan despite no shortage for
funds for the projects.

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The Kailasha Temple that wa s constructed TOP down.

Abu Dhabi BAPS Mandir construction work

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123
124
 5 Architectural Schools featuring the Square plan
Nagara

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The Nagara style that is palpable in different parts of India with varied elaborations in
different localities has two particular features. The first being presence of several graduated
projections or rathakas in the centre of all sides of the square temple, thus bearing a cross-
shape with several re-entrant angles on all sides. The second feature includes design of the
spire or Shikhara that follow principles of concentric squares and circles and gradually taper
in a convex curve while stretching upwards. The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple in Khajuraho
in Madhya Pradesh is a fine example of this style.

Dravidian

Dravidian temple architecture evolved in South India predominantly comprise of temples

built of sandstone, soapstone or granite. The square-shaped temple called Vimana has one or
more storied pyramidal roof while its cell houses the image or emblem of the God. The
Mandapas/Mandapams or porches are built in such a way that these precede and cover the
door that leads to the cell. The Gopurams/Gopuras or elaborate gateway-towers or gate-
pyramids encloses the temples. The Chaultris or pillared halls employed for different
purposes forms one of the principal and constant features of this style. Temple tanks, wells,
abodes of priests and other important buildings form part of this temple style. The famous
Thanjavur temple of Tamil Nadu typifies this style.

Badami-chalukya

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Indian architecture saw an illustrious phase during the Badami Chalukyas rule. The
foundation of cave temple architecture was laid by them on the banks of Malaprabha River in
Karnataka during 500 and 757 CE. The Badami Cave temples situated in the town of Badami
in northern Karnataka dating back to the 6th century is one of the finest examples of this
architecture that consist of decorative pillars, finely chiselled ceiling panels and sculptures.
More than 150 temples in the historic temple complex situated in the village of Aihole called
‘Cradle of Indian architecture’ and also Group of Monuments of Pattadakal are marked by
UNESCO as World Heritage site comprising of architectural edifices like the Virupaksha
temple and the Mallikarjuna temple are also brilliant examples of this style.

Gadag

The Western Chalukya architecture or Gadag style of architecture is a specific style of

decorative architecture that originated from the old dravida style in the 11 th Century and

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 defines the Karnata dravida tradition. It prospered for around 150 years till 1200 CE during
the reign of Western Chalukya Empire in the Tungabhadra region of Karnataka and saw
construction of around 50 temples. A distinct feature of this style was articulation.
Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi and Saraswati temple in the temple complex of
Trikuteshwara at Gadag are some of the temples that illustrate this style.
Kalinga
This style having three specific types of temples prospered in Odisha and Northern Andhra
Pradesh. The three styles are Pidha Deula, Rekha Deula and Khakhara Deula with the first
two linked with Shiva, Surya and Vishnu and the latter is predominantly associated with
Goddesses Durga and Chamunda. Again the first type comprises of outer halls for offerings
and dancing while the latter two comprise of the sanctum sanctorum. The word Deula means
temple. The famous Jagannath Temple of Puri and Lingaraj Temple of Bhubaneswar portray
Rekha Deula style while Vaital Deula of Bhubaneswar typifies Khakhara Deula and the Sun
Temple at Konark remains a prominent example of Pidha Deula.
Maru-Gurjara

Kalinga and Maru Gurjara

This temple architecture with two notable styles namely Maru-Gurjara and Maha-Maru
originated in Rajasthan and its vicinity sometime around 6th century having associative
features with Hoysala temple architecture as sculpturally rich architecture is palpable in both
the styles. The Nagda temple in Rajasthan illustrates this style.
What is an irregular shaped plot?
An irregular shape is one which does not have equal sides or equal angles. Irregular plots can
also be those, where the land is not even or balanced. Irregular-shaped plots are said to have bad
energies, as the magnetic forces are dispersed unequally. If the shape of the plot is inauspicious
as per Vastu Shastra, then, it can cause sorrow, misery, loss of wealth and other problems.
“In Vastu Shastra, the beneficial shapes are square and rectangle (with proper ratio). These plot
shapes lead to prosperity, wellbeing and happiness for the owner. Other shapes, such as circle, U
or L-shaped plots have missing corners that may cause serious problems, depending on the
section that is missing. Round, oval, triangular, semi-circle, cart shaped and star-shaped plots
should also be avoided. Avoid plots with any major extensions, cuts or slopes in the corners,”
states Nitien Parmar of Vastu Plus, Mumbai. Elephant-shaped properties give wealth while bull-
shaped properties lead to an increase in the cattle (or vehicles), adds Parmar.
Apart from these, there are many other shapes of plots.

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Irregular shape of the plot and its effect according to Vastu
Gamukhi plot: Good for residential use, as the shape represents a cow, denoting the best of
everything.
Lion face (shermukhi) plot: Suitable for commercial building.
Triangular-shaped plot: Leads to problems, especially from the government.
Oval or semi-circular: Inauspicious, causes various health problems, losses and lack of
happiness in the house.
Circular-shaped: Good for constructing circular shaped buildings only.
Polygonal plot: Invite lawsuits.
Octagonal: Brings all-round prosperity.
Bucket-shaped plot: Leads to debt.
Wheel-shaped plot: Causes financial loss.
Bow-shaped plot: Attracts fear and dread.
Drum-shaped plot: Loss of family members and increase in animosity.
Pitcher-shaped plot: Leads to serious illness.
Varahan Mukhi Akaar (pig-faced shaped): Leads to death of relatives.
Turtle shaped plot: Imprisonment of the owner and his family members.
Hand fan-shaped plot: Leads to loss of wealth
Feather shaped plot: Inauspicious and causes bad fortune.
Star-shaped plot: Leads to legal suits.
Bucket shaped plot: Occupants will be always in debt
Projections and missing corners of an irregular shaped plot
It is natural that all plots cannot be square or rectangular. Plots may have projections, extensions
or missing corners. Projections mean that the plot has an additional space which when deducted
from the plot, to make it a regular square or rectangle. On the other hand, retraction is an
additional space which, when added to the plot, makes it a regular square or rectangle.
Extensions are beneficial only if they are in the north, north-east, east and east-north-east
directions. Other extensions are inauspicious. Plots with extensions in the south-east, north-west
or south-west are not considered suitable, as they bring bad luck.

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Avoid plots with any major extensions or cuts in the corners. If you must, do so with proper
consultation of a Vastu expert.
The decision regarding a plot of land should not be based on one factor in isolation. A plot
should be bought, considering the effects of all factors.

Levels and slopes of an irregular plot

It is recommended to buy plots with flat surfaces. As per Vastu, the ground level should be
elevated in the south and the west, as compared to the north and the east. It should be the lowest
in the north-east corner. This is good for all spheres of prosperity and happiness. A low northeast
ensures health, wealth, peace and prosperity.
If the plot has a slope towards the east or the north side, it will lead to prosperity. “Do not buy
the land with a slope towards the south or the south-west. Slope towards the west and the south is
not all good and can lead to loss. Plots with a slope towards the south, the south-west, the south-
east and north-west, bring downfall in business,” adds Parmar.
Plots with extended corners other than the north-east side create Vastu defect, based on its
extended direction. Land with slight elevation in the south, the south-west, the west or the north-
west are auspicious, as it is like an elephant’s back and is associated with Laxmi, the goddess of
wealth.
The land, which is raised in the middle and low from all sides, is said to be like a turtle’s back
and is good and will lead to an increase in wealth.
An elevation of the plot in the north-east, the east and the south-west side is like a demon’s back
and can cause loss of wealth and children.
Land, which is extended in the east-west directions and high in the north and the south
directions, is said to be like a serpent’s back and will have ill effects and even untimely demise.

Water bodies and soil type

Any pond or tank or well towards the south-west of the plot may bring adversity. The same is
true, if the plot has a well, pool, lake, river or a stream flowing on the north-east side. Red,
brown or yellow soil are good for cultivation and also for the foundation of a building. Black and
clay soil hold water and causes dampness to the foundation. So, avoid such a plot. Also, plots of
land, which have capability of growing fruits and medicinal herbs, are considered good while the
presence of thorny shrubs is not good. According to Vastu for the plot, it is considered
inauspicious to buy a plot with sandy soil as it cannot bear the weight of the foundation of a
house. One must not buy a plot that has a lot of worms as the soil tends to be loose and will not
support the construction well.

Vastu for plots in relation to roads

 Plots that are surrounded by roads from all four or even three sides, are considered
auspicious.
 A plot which has adjacent roads to the north and the west, is also good.
 Plots which have adjacent roads to the south and west, lead to wealth creation.
 A plot of land which has plots on three sides and a road to the south and the south-west,
is not auspicious.

Vastu tips for buying plot or land

 Do not buy a small plot that is positioned between two bigger plots.

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  Plots facing a ‘T’ or ‘Y’ junction, are inauspicious.
 Plots located near electrical power stations are not good for the family.
 Avoid plots that are close to a cemetery or graveyard.
 Do not buy a plot with a hill or mountain towards the north or east direction. Mountains
on the west and south side of the plot are beneficial for wealth and health.
 Plot sharing boundary with water canal or pond at south and west should be avoided.
 Plot with water bodies at north, northeast or east leads to success in business. A flow of
water should not be towards the south.
 Avoid a plot that has big trees like mango, banyan, peepal, white fig, etc. if the plot is
huge then the house area ( to be constructed ) should be far from the trees.

Vastu remedies for irregular shaped plots

 It is advisable to level the plot, to rectify problems. If the north-east corner is higher than
other sides, soil from that corner can be used to fill up the south and west portions.
 A plot which is raised in the center can be corrected by digging out and dumping the soil
towards the south-west part.
 The negative impact of a plot shaped like a ‘T’ or ‘L’ or with intersecting points of a
triangle, can be reduced by dividing the plot into two. Divide an irregular-shaped plot
into two regular plots, with separate compound walls for each portion.
 Construct the additional compound wall to protect from negativity due to road facing in
the particular direction of a plot.
 One can grow plants and trees near the entrance of the house to reduce the negative
effects of road facing the plot.
 Based on defects in the direction, metals, rocks or plants can be used to correct the space,
as suggested by Vastu experts.
 Remedies, such as placing Vastu pyramids on extended plots, can be resorted to, based
on expert advice, to correct Vastu doshas. While a lead pyramid for the south-west
extension helps, copper strips are ideal for the south-east extension.

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132
How did the Indians build temples without any modern equipment?
Yes I know that it is almost impossible to believe that these temple were build
without modern technology.

But, they did by using common sense and using simple physics on large scale.

As for the example of simple physics on large scale let's take temple of Tanjore.
If you see the image of the temple you will see that there is a huge dome on the
top of temple but it is not a dome it is a whole solid rock carved in sphere and
sculpted beautifully. The question is : How it got up there?? There were no
cranes(obviously). Answer to it is that they build a large ramp of rocks and mud
the ramp was extended upto several hundred metres. The reason for such large
distance was to keep the angle low, so that elephants and people can pull it to
the top.

So they pulled it on to the top and sculpted up there.

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Temple of Tanjore.

As for example of temple build by hard work and using common sense. You
must remember the temples of Mahabalipuram, recently visited by our PM.
Those temples were carved out of whole rocks. They made an out line on rock
and started sculpting basically from outside to inside. Imagine carving the roof
inside the temple, you are making an idol of god on the roof lying on your back
and sculpting it. While all the dust is depositing on you and the irritation in the
eyes ohh..

Temples of Mahabalipuram.

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 VIII

Architectural planning of Angkor

Construction ?

Introduction: The kings of Khmer took upon themselves the role of Brahmins
inspite of having on connect with the Indus- Valley Civilization but on the
basis of staunch Hinduism they embraced which is far remote from the
concept of a king in Hindu areas of Bharat where Kings were Ksatriyas and
Brahmins handled religious matters with no superiority.

BRAHMANICAL ARCHITECTURE of ANGKOR

The Aryans were the founders of Brahmanism?
Brahmanism was started by the Aryans, a group of Indo-European people who migrated into the
Indus River Valley, and the basis for Brahmanism were the Vedas, the Aryan's books of
knowledge. The Aryans, whose name means noble ones, migrated around 1500 BCE.
What are the basic features of brahmanic tradition?
The belief in one true God, Brahman, is at the core of the Hinduism religion. The supreme spirit
is celebrated through the symbolism of the Om. The central practice of Brahmanism is sacrifice
while Moksha, the liberation, bliss and unification with the Godhead, is the main mission.

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Architecture of this type of tradition consists of the normal type of plan consists of the vimana or
cell crowned with curved pyramidal roof, and the porch without columns crowned with stepped
roof in stories. Each façade has rectangular projections in the centre, which increased in depth as
the style developed, until they formed the points of a square on plan. Also: Brahminism. a
religious and social system based on the writings, rituals and social pre-eminence of the priestly
caste of Hindu society. 2. an ancient religious system based on the Vedas and other priestly
writings, regarded as a precursor of classical HinduismThis is a classic view, with three
symmetrical towers rising from the building. There are really five, but two are obscured, behind
the towers on the left and right.

What are the main features of Hindu architecture?

Essential elements of Hindu architecture are precise and harmonious geometry when viewed
from all four sides and above, the square form and grid ground plans, soaring towers, and
elaborate decorate sculpture which includes gods, worshippers, erotic scenes, animals, and floral
and geometric patterns
The major ancient Angkor temples were built in locations according to the location of stars in the
constellation Draco, the dragon. In Cambodia this is seen as a Naga, a divine cobra. The
Cambodians trace their origins back to the Naga, so it seems fitting that they think these temples
were built according to the stars of Draco. In Cambodian mythology, the Princess of the Nagas
married an Indian Brahmana and from that union was born the Cambodian people. Therefore still
Cambodians say that they are “Born from the Naga.” Here is the layout of Angkor Wat. It stands
within a wide moat and has an outer wall 3.6 km (2.2 mi) long. The entrance is from the west,
the left on the diagram below.

The western gate tower seems broken at the top. The crowd of people at the entrance is typical of
Angkor Wat. This is THE place where almost every person who visits Cambodia will tour during
their visit. Religious buildings often have designs based on military defensive strategy. Even a
modern Christian church built in the shape of a cross is a defensible structure.

This is because, at some stage in its history, every religious following fears persecution. This is
obvious with Angkor Wat; it'’s a walled city with it’s own water supply and protected farmlands.

In the field of architecture an architectural plan is a design and planning for a building, and can
contain architectural drawings, specifications of the design, calculations, time planning of the
building process, and other documentation.

The term "architectural plan" can have multiple related meanings:

 plan for an architectural project
 documentation of written and graphic descriptions of the architectural elements of a building
project including sketches, drawings and details. This effort could also include both the
design of new buildings and other structures, as well as the planning for reconstruction of
early historic structures.
 architectural design
 floor plan
 scale drawing of a structure

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This article will focus on the general meaning of architectural plan as a plan and documentation
for a building project.

137
Aspects of an Architectural Plan : A building is a man-made structure with a
roof and walls standing more or less permanently in one place. Buildings
come in a variety of shapes, sizes and functions, and have been adapted
throughout history for a wide number of factors, from building materials
available, to weather conditions, to land prices, ground conditions, specific
uses and aesthetic reasons. To better understand the term building compare
the list of nonbuilding structures. The gallery below gives an overview of
different types of building.

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Temples: Angkor Wat, Ta Prohm, Angkor Thom, Phnom Bakheng & Our Hotel: Angkor
D'Tresor Resort

Angkor Wat means Capital Temple, it was built by a Khmer King in the early 12th century as a
Hindu temple but gradually transformed into a Buddhist temple towards the end of the 12th
century.

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140
 Angkor Wat Temple Layout
Talking of the temple, it is a very majestic structure. The structure is very intricate and very
complex. It must have taken a lot of craftmen many years to build the temple. The entire
complex is rectanglar in shape. Outside the outer wall is a moat. Within the wall are three
rectangular structures stacked one on top of the other, each progressively smaller than the other.
On the third level stands five towers.

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Site planning
A site plan is an architectural plan, and a detailed engineering drawing of proposed
improvements to a given lot. A site plan usually shows a building footprint, travelways, parking,
drainage facilities, sanitary sewer lines, water lines, trails, lighting, and landscaping.
Such a plan of a site is a graphic representation of the arrangement of buildings, parking, drives,
landscaping and any other structure that is part of a development project.
A site plan is a set of construction drawings that a builder or contractor uses to make
improvements to a property. Counties can use the site plan to verify that development codes are
being met and as a historical resource. Site plans are often prepared by a design consultant who
must be either a licensed engineer, architect, landscape architect or land survey. The architect
Map is part of a plan in Chandler, AZ.
The practice of designing, constructing, and operating buildings is most usually a collective
effort of different groups of professionals and trades. Depending on the size, complexity, and
purpose of a particular building project.

Floor plan
One of the major tools in architectural design is the floor plan. This diagram shows the
relationships between rooms, spaces and other physical features at one level of a structure.
Dimensions are usually drawn between the walls to specify room sizes and wall lengths. Floor
plans will also include details of fixtures like sinks, water heaters, furnaces, etc. Floor plans will
include notes to specify finishes, construction methods, or symbols for electrical items.
Similar to a map in a floor plan the orientation of the view is downward from above, but unlike a
conventional map, a plan is understood to be drawn at a particular vertical position (commonly at
about 4 feet above the floor). Objects below this level are seen, objects at this level are shown
'cut' in plan-section, and objects above this vertical position within the structure are omitted or
shown dashed. Plan view or "planform" is defined as a vertical orthographic projection of an
object on a horizontal plane, like a map.

142
Above is a floor plan of the Angkor Wat temple. This shows the three levels, and the galleries
that line the outer corridor.

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Hindu (or Brahmanical) Architecture varies in its three special styles. All three have the
small shrine-cell and preceding porches, the same excessive carving and sculpture, which are
impressive by this evident tribute of labour to the gods. The principal Brahmanical Temples, like
those of Egypt, show progressive additions of sanctuaries and inclosures, grouped around or
attached to the original shrine. Beyond this, the grandeur of their imposing mass produces an
impression of majestic beauty. The effect depends almost wholly on richness of surface and
outline, rather than on abstract beauty of form, and contrasts very strongly with Grecian
architecture. (a.) The Northern Brahman, in comparison with the Dravidian style, has a curved
pyramidal roof to the “vimana” instead of a storied one, and is without columns to the preceding
porch. (b.) The Chalukyan style is affected by its northern and southern rivals, taking features
from each without losing its special character. The starshaped plan and curved pyramidal tower
are in contrast with the storied towers of the Dravidian style. (c.) The Dravidian

The normal type of plan consists of the vimana or cell crowned with curved pyramidal roof, and
the porch without columns crowned with stepped roof in stories. Each façade has rectangular
projections in the centre, which increased in depth as the style developed, until they formed the
points of a square on plan. In addition to these two chambers, others were added in more
important examples. The large inclosures and gateways of the Dravidian style are wanting.
Orissa, on the east coast, contains a remarkable series of monuments dating from A.D. 500-1200.
The ancient city of Bhuvaneswar contains some hundreds of examples. The best known is the
Great Temple (A.D. 617-657), quoted as the finest in India. It is a four-chambered example ;
every stone on its facades is carved, the courses being deeply rusticated. The principal vimana is
crowned with the usual northern high curved pyramidal roof with melon ornament and finial.

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Other examples are at Konark (ninth century), at PURI (the four-chambered temple of Juganât,
A.D. 1174), the latter being placed in a large double inclosure surroundd by a wall 20 feet high.

145
In Dharwar, on the western coast, are examples in which pillars are employed, as the Temple of
Papanetha, a.d. 500, influenced by Dravidian architecture.

Important groups exist at Chandravati, in Rajputana (a.d. 600), Baroli (a.d. 750), and Udaipor
(a.d. 1060). At Khajuraho (a.d. 954-1000) is a group of thirty important temples, of which that

146
 dedicated to Kandarya Mahadeo is the most important. It is a two-chambered example, placed on
a well-proportioned stylo- bate, with three rows of sculptured figures, half life-size, nearly one
thousand in number. The sikra is enriched by the addition of sculptured representations of itself
— a favourite Indian method.

Modern monuments exist at Chittore, Gwalior, Kantonugger (a.d. 1704), and Amritzar (a.d.
1704), the sacred metropolis of the Sikhs.

1. Angkor Wat 7. Terrace of the Leper Kings 13. Neak Pean 19. Prasat Kravan

2. Phom Bakheng 8. Preah Khan 14. Ta Som 20. Banteay Kdei

3. South Gate of Angkor Thom 9. Banteay Prei 15. Banteay Srei 21. Ta Prohm

4. Bayon 10. Thommanon 16. East Mebon 22. Victory Gate

5. Bauphon 11. Choasay Tevada 17. Pre Rup * Petit Circuit

6. Terrace of the Elephants 12. Ta Keo 18. Sras Srang ** Grand Circuit

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Civil Architecture

Palaces, tombs, and ghats (landing places) abound. The ghats lining the great rivers,
such as the Ganges, are typical Indian features; they are used by the Hindus as bathing
places, and consist of long ranges of steps, stopped by kiosks and backed by buildings
with ornamental facades, used as shelters, or temples.

Design process
A design process includes a series of steps followed by designers. Depending on the product or
service, some of these stages may be irrelevant, ignored in real-world situations in order to save
time, reduce cost, or because they may be redundant in the situation. Typical stages of the design
process include:
 Pre-production design

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 o Design brief - a statement of design goals
o Analysis - analysis of current design goals
o Research - investigating similar design solutions in the field or related topics
o Specification - specifying requirements of a design solution
o Problem solving - conceptualizing and documenting design solutions
o Presentation - presenting design solutions
 Design during production
o Development - continuation and improvement of a designed solution
o Testing - in-situ testing a designed solution
 Post-production design feedback for future designs
o Implementation - introducing the designed solution into the environment
o Evaluation and conclusion - summary of process and results, including constructive
criticism and suggestions for future improvements
 Redesign - any or all stages in the design process repeated (with corrections made) at any
time before, during, or after production.

Architectural drawings
Architectural drawings are used by architects and others for a number of purposes: to develop a
design idea into a coherent proposal, to communicate ideas and concepts, to convince clients of
the merits of a design, to enable a building contractor to construct it, as a record of the completed
work, and to make a record of a building that already exists.
Architectural drawings are made according to a set of conventions, which include particular
views (floor plan, section etc.), sheet sizes, units of measurement and scales, annotation and
cross referencing. Conventionally, drawings were made in ink on paper or a similar material, and
any copies required had to be laboriously made by hand. The twentieth century saw a shift to
drawing on tracing paper, so that mechanical copies could be run off efficiently.

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Green is water

Architectural design values Building a complete replica of Angkor Wat in

Minetest isn't practical without building on such a large scale that you'd
never be able to see all of it at once

Architectural design values make up an important part of what

influences architects and designers when they make their design decisions. However, architects
and designers are not always influenced by the same values and intentions. Value and intentions
differ between different architectural movements. It also differs between different schools of
architecture and schools of design as well as among individual architects and designers.

Planning
A plan is typically any procedure used to achieve an objective. It is a set of intended actions,
through which one expects to achieve a goal. Plans can be formal or informal:
 Structured and formal plans, used by multiple people, are more likely to occur
in projects, diplomacy, careers, economic development, military campaigns, combat, or in
the conduct of other business.
 Informal or ad hoc plans are created by individuals in all of their pursuits.
A lack of planning in any discipline may lead to a misallocation of resources, misunderstandings,
or irrelevant sections added to Wikipedia articles such as this one.

Building construction
Building construction is the process of preparing for and forming buildings[2] and building
systems.[3] Construction starts with planning, design, and financing and continues until the
structure is ready for occupancy. Far from being a single activity, large scale construction is a

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feat of human multitasking. Normally, the job is managed by a project manager, and supervised
by a construction manager, design engineer, construction engineer or project architect. For the
successful execution of a project, effective planning is essential.

Garden design-Landscape design

Landscape planning is a branch of landscape architecture. Urban park systems and greenways of
the type planned by Frederick Law Olmsted are key examples of urban landscape planning.
Landscape designers tend to work for clients who wish to commission construction work.
Landscape planners can look beyond the 'closely drawn technical limits' and 'narrowly drawn
territorial boundaries' which constrain design projects.
Landscape planners tend to work on projects which:
 are of broad geographical scope
 concern many land uses or many clients
 are implemented over a long period of time

In rural areas, the damage caused by unplanned mineral extraction was one of the early reasons
for a public demand for landscape planning..
Garden design is the art and process of designing and creating plans for layout and planting
of gardens and landscapes. One can imagine there being gardens at Angkor- the design may
have been done by the architects/designers themselves-or by professionals of varying levels of
experience and expertise of those days which one can imagine was much Today m Most
professional garden designers are trained in principles of design and in horticulture, and have an
expert knowledge and experience of using plants. Some professional garden designers are
also landscape architects,

Lotus at the Angkor still water moats

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God's own favourite

In the form and personality of gods and goddesses of the world, the lotus symbol has a special
and important place. Invariably the beauty and greatness of the deities are described with
reference to the lotus. Their various limbs especially hands, feet, face and eyes are likened to it.
Many of these gods also hold in their hands, besides other things, the lotus too. Still others are
depicted as being seated on a lotus. eg. Lakshmi, Sarasvati, Brahma, Vishnu. Jainism too has a
special place for the lotus and the Jain Tirthankaras are depicted as seated on the flower.

Amongst the Hindu Trinity, it is the innumerable forms of Lord Vishnu that are frequently
connected with the lotus. Many are the lotus related names of Vishnu that can be selected out of
the thousand names of the Lord eg. Pundarikaksha, Padmanabha and a host of others. Brahma's
birth place was the lotus and hence he is referred to as Kamalaja, Kamalasana, Kamali,
Kamalodhbava and so on. The lotus has a special affinity with the Sun God or Surya. Sanskritists
fondly describe the sun as a friend of the lotus (Kamalabandhu), controller of lotus
(Kamalanatha), darling of lotus (Kamalavallabha) and with many other epithets. The flower
blooms at sunrise and sets at sunset alluding to the fact that, all living beings in the world
become active with sunrise and retire for the day at sunset. The sun god is the only male deity
holding lotuses in both hands. He is also seated on a lotus. The connection between the sun god
and the lotus is also extensively dwelt upon in the literatures of various countries like Egypt,
Tibet, China, Japan and so on.

Amongst the goddesses, Lakshmi has the closest connection with the lotus. She has lotus in her
hands, wears a garland of lotuses and all her limbs are comparable to a lotus. Dr Ananda
Coomaraswamy has divided Lakshmi idols into three categories - lotus-seated (Padmasthita),

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lotus-holding (Padmagraha) and lotus-residing (Padmavasa). According to Vishnu Purana, at the
time of her emergence, Lakshmi was seated on a lotus and also held the flower in her hand.
There are numerous iconographical, sculptural and numismatic evidences and references that
depict Lakshmi and Sarasvati in relationship with the lotus. In the Sunga period sculptures, she is
shown as seated or standing on a lotus. A miniature image of the Kushana period shows her
holding a lotus and a Sunga coin shows her standing on a lotus with a flower in her hand. There
is carved image of Sarasvati seated on a lotus on the Bharhut column.

Lotus.in.Buddhist.tradition
Buddhism abounds with interesting references to the lotus. According to Buddhist beliefs,
Buddha had the sign of a lotus on his feet and at birth, wherever he placed his foot, lotuses
bloomed. Most Buddha images show him seated on a lotus in bloom. The lotus symbolizes his
other worldliness, his great compassion for creatures of the world, his immortality and
enlightenment besides his impeccable purity of mind and body.

Buddhas seated on a lotus in bloom or on a lotus-seat have been found in chaityas, viharas,
stupas and caves in many countries. Not only Buddhas but Bodhisattvas too are lotus seated and
holding a lotus. A Bodhisattva is one who has the capacity and potential and the qualities needed
to become a Buddha. One such example is the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara. He is the most
worshipful and revered Bodhisattva and very popular in China, Japan, Korea and other Eastern
countries. He holds a lotus with a long stem in his left hand and is generally seated on a lotus in
full bloom. The lotus is also associated with various other Buddhist gods and goddesses like
Tara, Paramita and Kwan Yin. Besides religion, the lotus plays a significant role in Buddhist
philosophy too.

Buddhist mandalas (yantras) depict different Buddhas and Bodhisattvas inside a lotus or on its
petals. The most revered Buddhist mantra is 'Om Mani Padme Hum' - "Oh jewel within the lotus,
we bow to you." The Buddhist Mahayana treatise is titled Sadharma Pundarika Sutra meaning,

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"the lotus, a key to the religion of truth. It is otherwise called Lotus Sutra. According to another
sutra, the image of Universal knowledge rests on a white lotus which, is also the heart
symbolizing self-bliss and ultimate bliss. A chant goes that when the white lotus descends on
earth it changes everyone's life for the better. Buddhist ages, with reference to the cosmos, are
also initiated by the appearance of a lotus. Again, it is this flower that augurs the birth of a
Buddha. If there are no blossoms, no Buddha will appear. At the beginning of the current era, the
Bhadrakalpa, there were 1000 blossoms signifying the birth of 1000 Buddhas. Four virtues are
attributed to this flower - scent, purity, softness and loveliness. While these qualities can be seen
in other flowers too, Chinese botanists at one time believed that the lotus flowered and bore fruit
at the same time, thus symbolizing the ability to transcend the limitations of time. It was this
belief that elevated it to a privileged status amongst flowers. Not only in this life but also in the
after life, the lotus has a special place in Buddhist tradition.

Lotus.and.after-life
The Lotus sect of Chinese Buddhism believes that people are freed from the cycle of birth and
death by going to a celestial sphere called the Western heaven. This paradise contains seven
treasure ponds. The bed of these is covered with gold dust and the lotuses there are as big as
carriage wheels.So whether the lotuses floated during the Hindu period or the Buddhist –
probably both!

Buddhist temple courtyards often depict the Sacred Lake of Lotuses. The significance of this
can be gauged from the following related story: "Each soul has a lotus on this lake, which will
open to receive them after death and where they will wait until the time of its opening. The
flowers thrive or droop according to the piety of the individual on earth. For the devout, they
open immediately when he dies, admitting the soul at once to the divine presence." In China, the
envelopes given to the family at a funeral are impressed with the outline.of.a.lotus.

Transportation planning
Transportation planning is the field involved with the siting of transportation facilities
(generally streets, highways, sidewalks, bike lanes and public transport lines).
Transportation planning historically has followed the rational planning model of defining goals
and objectives, identifying problems, generating alternatives, evaluating alternatives, and
developing the plan. Other models for planning include rational actor, satisficing, incremental
planning, organizational process, and political bargaining. However, planners are increasingly
expected to adopt a multi-disciplinary approach, especially due to the rising importance
of environmentalism. Today for example, the use of behavioral psychology to persuade drivers
to abandon their automobiles and use public transport instead. The role of the transport planner is
shifting from technical analysis to promoting sustainability through integrated transport policies.

Urban planning
Urban, city, and town planning is the integration of the disciplines of land use
planning and transport planning, to explore a very wide range of aspects of the built and social
environments of urbanized municipalities and communities. Regional planning deals with a still
larger environment, at a less detailed level. Another key role of urban planning is urban renewal,
and re-generation of inner cities by adapting urban planning methods to existing cities suffering
from long-term infrastructural decay.

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Immediately one can see the quality of the workmanship, with the finely carved capital of this
column, with its decoration extending to the wall above that which it supports. In the entrance is
one of the many Apsaras in Angkor Wat. Note the crown with three peaks. This is typical in
these Khmer Apsara carvings.

To Recapitulate
Points to Remember

• Angkor Wat was built over a period of 35 years in the 12th Century under the rule of King
Suryavarman II.

•It still stands as the world’s biggest religious monuments.

•It is regarded as a wonder of the world by many.

•The central tower is 700 feet high.

• The Angkor Wat layout and plan features various galleries, chambers, porches, and courtyards
on different levels, with each level being smaller than the last.

• The towers look like lotus buds.

• The five towers represent the five peaks of Mount Meru, a mountain of great importance in
Hinduism.

• The central temple of the complex faces west, which makes it a unique temple as Hindu
temples in the 12th Century typically used to face the east.
• The Angkor Wat layout and plan features counter-clockwise bas-relief progressions, instead of
the clockwise progressions typically found in 12th-century temples.

The complex, constructed during the rule of Angkor God-King Suryavarman II of the Angkor
Kingdom in the 12th century, is an architectural marvel. To this day, architects around the world

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pay their respects and homage to the Khmer people for the Angkor Wat layout and plan. While
there have been attempts to emulate the Angkor Wat layout and plan in other places of the world,
they haven’t been quite as successful as Angkor Wat.

Spectacle Angkor Wat Temple Complex

Over the course of this articale, you will find out all the things about the Angkor Wat layout and
plan that makes the temple complex special.

As you close in on the Angkor Wat temple complex, it’s hard to fathom the layout of this vast
complex. Spread out over an area of approximately 400 acres, the complex features a whole host
of architectural elements that are an overload for the senses.

However, as you take your time in exploring the temple complex, you slowly start to understand
the Angkor Wat layout and plan. Let’s talk about the plan first.

The plan, on the surface, was quite simple. Suryavarman II, the king responsible for
commissioning the temple complex’s construction, was an ambitious ruler. Unlike modern times,
back then, the region was a Hindu majority region.

People mainly used to worship Lord Shiva, one of Hinduism’s most revered deities. However,

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Suryavarman II wanted to promote the worship of Lord Vishnu, which he hoped to achieve
through the building of Angkor Wat.

It took 35 years for the toil and effort of 300,000 Khmer laborers and 6,000 elephants to bear
fruit. Once completed, the complex stood as the world’s biggest religious monument, a feat that
still hasn’t been matched. It is probably due to these facts that Angkor Wat is often regarded
unofficially as one of the world’s great wonders.

Five Towers Facing the West Bas-reliefs Recreating Mythology Scenes

The Orientation of the Temple and Its Symbolism

The central temple of Angkor Wat is what really makes the temple complex a spectacle. This
mammoth temple, featuring five towers, faces the west, which is quite unusual for a period built-
in 12th Century Cambodia.

The reason for that is simple: all Hindu temples back in those days were built to face the east.
This is due to the fact that according to Hindu beliefs, the west is symbolic of death. Many have
pondered why Suryavarman II chose this orientation, but none have come to a concrete
conclusion.

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 The Tower Resembling a Lotus Bud
In terms of symbolism, the temple’s towers represent the five peaks of Mount Meru, one of the
most important mountains in Hindu mythology. It is believed by Hindus that Mount Meru is an
abode of demigods and also the three most important gods in Hinduism; Brahma, Shiva, and
Vishnu.

The orientation of which direction the temple faces is not the only unique thing about the Angkor
Wat layout and plan. Also amazing is the fact that the temple’s bas-reliefs that recreate scenes
from some of Hindu mythology’s most celebrated events. Typically, bas-reliefs proceeded in a
clockwise direction in temples from those times. However, the Angkor Wat complex features a
counter-clockwise progression of bas-reliefs. The first thing that would really blow your mind is
what the Angkor Wat layout and plan reveals about the temple’s height. The top of the central
tower, the highest part of the entire temple complex, is a dizzying 700 feet above the ground.

As you get into the temple and start exploring, you would find that the Angkor Wat layout and
plan consists of numerous courtyards, chambers, porches, galleries, and stairways. The stairways
connect the lower levels to the higher levels and on each level, you would find a number of
galleries, porches, chambers and courtyards.

However, as you head up, you would notice that with an increase in level, the size diminishes.
Perhaps this is why in time, the royal family only permitted the very elite in the region to access
the top levels.

Every single tower resembles a lotus bud and the Angkor Wat layout and plan are so spectacular
that there are certain points within the complex from where you can see all five towers at once.

ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo

IX

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 ANGKOR-the Hindu Perspective on Town Planning

Town planning is the process of managing land resources. It involves the control of existing and
new developments, as well as strategy preparation to ensure manage future requirements. It is a
dynamic process that changes in response to policy, development proposals and local needs.
Town planners must try and balance the demands of landowners and developers, with the needs
and concerns of the community and the policy framework. If planning is successful, it can
provide protection for the environment, can promote and faciltiate regeneration, can help create
and sustain communities, and can create new and exciting places.

Town planning maintains the best of the past while encouraging creativity and innovation in
the development of a sustainable future.

Historically, the practice of urban planning and applying some level of control to
the design to communities, dates back at least as far as the third millennium BC, and the urban
designs of the Mesopotamians, Minoans, and Egyptians. Grid-like, or
orthogonal, urban plans were first used for structuring cities in the 8th century BC by the Ancient
Greeks, and the Roman Empire then dramatically expanded city planning, predominantly for
military defence, but also for public convenience, developing the ‘city centre’.
During the Middle Ages, some European cities retained the Roman ‘city centre’ idea of planning,
while others developed more organically, sometimes with little-to-
no system of planning in place.

With the Enlightenment came a fresh examination of the ideas of urban planning. As a result of
this new open-mindedness, several European cities tried to redesign their major cities; in some

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cases quite drastically, such as Paris under Baron Haussmann who introduced long and wide
boulevards.
During the Industrial Revolution, urban centres of the new industries grew at an
unprecedented rate, albeit very often with a complete lack of planning for the living and
working environments of the poorer classes. By the end of the 19th century
though, urban planners and theorists had begun to realise that this should change.
At around the same time, the Town and Country Planning Association was founded, which
heralded the start of the professionalisation of urban planning. With the emergence
of modernism in the 1920s, new ideas about how the urban environment should be planned and
organised were developed. India is a land known for its rich heritage, culture, history, and
diversity. It is one of the world's oldest civilizations and was dominated by several dynasties and
kingdoms throughout its history. While the cities might now be modern and energetic, they
nonetheless reflect hundreds of years of history and culture that now distinguish them from every
other city in the world.

Cities of Ancient India

The archaeological and historical evidences suggest that there existed an astounding number of
towns and cities in ancient India with concentrated human settlements. Many of these cities in
ancient India were well planned and are still a good example of city planning. The surviving
cities are a wonder to see. The oldest of these cities belong to the Indus valley civilisation. Some
of the ancient cities that were prominent in ancient India are mentioned below;
Ancient India Cities
1. Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro ;The two important cities each had perhaps 35,000 people at
their peak period. These cities had features which made them unique included brick and
had well-planned streets, pottery drainage ditches, large granaries, and a large bath for
ritual cleansing.

2. BadamiKalibangan-Kalibangan is a town situated in Hanumangarh district of

Rajasthan. It's located on the banks of River Ghaggar. Kalibangan is the third
important city of Indus valley civilization. The city had received its name from the
innumerable pieces of terracotta bangles that were excavated there.

3. Dholavira-Dholavira is an archaeological site in Kutch District of Gujarat that contains

ruins of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization. It is one of the five largest Harappan sites.

4. Rupar-Rupar, is a city of Punjab. It is also one of the bigger sites belonging to the Indus
Valley Civilization.

5. Rakhigarhi-Rakhigarhi is a village in Hisar District in Haryana. It was the site of an

extensive city and part of the Indus Valley Civilization.

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 6. Lothal-Lothal in Gujarat is one of the most prominent cities of the Indus valley
civilisation. The findings consist of a dock that makes Lothal the world's earliest known
port towns. It was a thriving trade centre during Indus civilization.
7. Ganeriwala-Ganeriwala is situated on the dry river of Ghaggar now a part of vast desert.
It is spread over 80 hectares and is the largest sites of the Indus Valley Civilization. It is
not excavated yet and is only identified.
8. Aror-Aror is located 8 km east of Rohri in present day Sindh, Pakistan. It had served as
the ancient capital of Sindh and was once located on the banks of Indus River. The city
was once the prime centre of commerce and trade.
9. Agroha-Agroha is an ancient town in Hisar district of Haryana. It is an Indus Valley
Civilization archeological site. Ancient structures, pot-shards, coins and seals have been
found in archaeological excavations there.
10. Kannauj-Kannauj, a district of Uttar Pradesh is of immense historical significance in
ancient India. In ancient texts it is described as a city which raised its head to the skies
and which in strength and beauty might boast of being unrivalled.

Maheshmati- the imaginary ancient Indian city made famous by the movie BAHUBALI

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11. Bairatis-Bairatis is located 52 km north of Jaipur in Rajasthan. It’s was a celebrated town
in ancient India.
12. Sagalais-Sagalais, the modern day Sialkot, in Pakistan, once served as a great centre of
trade and commerce.
13. Sravasti-Sravasti located in the Gonda district of Uttar Pradesh is associated with
Buddhism. This ancient Indian city is known to shelter Buddha for 24 rainy seasons at the
Jetvana Gardens.
14. Sitanagaram-Sitanagaram is a small ancient site located in the Guntur district in Andhra
Pradesh. It was an ancient Vedic City. The place is related to the ancient history of
Ramayana during the last Treta Yuga.
15. Hansi-Hansi is an ancient city currently in the Hisar district of Haryana. This city is
known to possess five gates to enter Delhi where from any of its gates altitude increases
gradually as one enters Delhi city.
16. Kumbhojis-Kumbhojis is the name of an ancient town located in the Kolhapur district of
Maharashtra.
17. Kalpiis-Kalpiis is located in Jalaun district of Uttar Pradesh. It is conceived as the
birthplace of sage VedVyasa, who authored Mahabharata.
18. Bhinmal-Bhinmal is a town in the Jalore district of Rajasthan, once served as the capital
of ancient Gujarat.
19. Tamraliptais-Tamraliptais identified as Tamluk is yet another ancient city, presently
coming under West Bengal.
20. Urayur-Urayur in Tamil stands for the residence is a city located in Tiruchirappalli
district of Tamil Nadu.
21. Dwaraka-Dwaraka, the ancient city, is situated in Gujarat. Its considered in Hindu
mythology as the dwelling place of Lord Krishna, which he built. Bet Dwarka, an island
in the Arabian sea off the coast of Dwarka is considered as the original residence of
Krishna is said to have partly submerged unde water. Marine archaeological explorations
in the underwater ancient city off the coast of Bet Dwarka, have found a number of
structures of different shapes, stone anchors and other artefacts. The exploration has
found sandstone walls, a grid of streets and remains of a sea port, some 70 feet beneath
the sea. The evidence appears to point to the existence of a city some 9,000 years ago that
was one of the most important and busy ports during historical and medieval periods. The
present day Dwarakadhisa Temple, is the location of Dvaraka Pitha, one of the four
peeths established by Adi Shankaracharya. This Temple dedicated to Krishna was
originally built around 2,500 years ago, but was destroyed by Mahmud Begada rulers and
subsequently rebuilt in the 16th century.
22. Bayana-Bayana is a town in Bharatpur district of Rajasthan. It was known in ancient
India as Sripatha or Sriprashtha or Shantipura.
23. Chunar-Chunar, located in the Mirzapur District of Uttar Pradesh was well-known town
in ancient India.
24. Ujjain-Ujjain is located on the banks of river Shipra in Madhya Pradesh. The ancient city
gained prominence because river Shipra has a important place in Hindu mythology.
25. sian-Osian is an ancient city located 65 km from Jodhpur. It considered as an oasis amidst
the desert of Rajasthan.

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26. Sopara-Sopara- was an ancient port town located in Thane district of Maharashtra. This
town flourished from the 3rd century BC to the 9th century AD. The finding of the relics
in a stupa and the rock edicts of Ashoka in 1882 prove the importance of this port town.

The image depicts of the celebrations in Dwarka as Krishna along with Balrama arrives in his capital
after having spent several months in Indraprastha as the guest of the Pandavas, witnessing the mighty
Rajasuya Sacrifice that established Yudhisthira as the Chakravartin or the World Emperor. After
spending an amicable time with his hosts in Indraprastha, Krishna and Balrama set off in their
chariot, driven by four steeds and commandeered by his charioteer Daruka.

The artwork captures the scene as narrated by Sage Narada as the people of Dwarka welcome their
King. As Krishna arrives in Dwarka, he sounded his Conch Panchajanya upon which the guards
throw open the city gates and the citizens of Dwarka rush to greet him. They greet their King along
with his elder brother Balrama as Narada is mesmerized by the splendors of the Yadava Capital.
Narada sees Sages and Brahmins chanting their prayers, and people showering flowers, as Krishna
dismounts from his Chariot and starts walking on the road. Behind them he sees flower gardens,
orchards, lakes filled with lotuses, and hermitages. Marble mansions lined the city's almost countless
broad avenues, laid out symmetrically and graced by great jeweled arches. Flags and festoons
adorned the buildings, and the gateways were decorated with colorful signs and garlands. Scented
water was sprinkled on the spotless paved roads. The streets were bustling with citizens, great
elephants swayed back and forth as they walked along the roads, warriors were decked out in shining
armor standing alongside the huge ramparts that ran around the city, their weapons at the ready.
Vishwakarma indeed had utilized the best of his skills in creating the metropolis.

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However Dwarka would not last long, it would be consumed by the sea upon the death of Krishna
forcing his lineage to disperse, the primary lines of which would go back to Mathura, and the now
vacated Indraprastha and rule from there, they would form several dynasties like the Jadaun, Bhatis,
Chudasamas, Jadejas that will last for centuries, and be immortalized in history. The artwork is
"Entering Dwarka" as created by Giampaolo Tomassetti, from his visual art series of the
Mahabharata.

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27. Kurukshetra-Kurukshetra located in Haryana was an important place as the War of
Mahabharata was fought here and during the time of war Bhagavad Gita was preached
there.
28. Paithan-Paithan is in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra. The city was the capital of the
Satavahana Empire that ruled from 2nd century BC to 2nd century AD. It is one of the
few inland towns mentioned in the famous 1st century AD Greek book, Periplus Maris
Erytharaei
29. Vallabhi-Vallabhi s an ancient city located in Saurashtra in Gujarat. It was the capital of
the ancient Maitraka dynasty.
30. Kalinjar-Kalinjar is a fortress-city is located in Banda district of Uttar Pradesh. The
fortress contains several temples, dating as far back as the Gupta dynasty of the 3rd-5th
centuries. It served several of Bundelkhand's ruling dynasties.
31. Tirunelveli-Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu is an ancient settlement. It was a seat of rule of the
early Pandyas, the medieval and later Cholas, the later Pandyas, the Ma'bar and
Tirunelveli sultanates.
32. Ayodhya-Ayodhya is situated adjacent to Faizabad city in Uttar Pradesh. It is also known
as Saket. This ancient city is believed to be the birthplace of the Lord Vishnu’s avatar
Rama, and setting of the epic Ramayana.
33. Swat-Swat is in the present-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa region of Pakistan. It is thought to
be the probable birthplace of Vajrayana Buddhism.
34. Kausambi-Kaushambi is one of the districts of Uttar Pradesh. In ancient India it was the
capital of the Vatsa Mahajanapada, one of the 16 such states.
35. Taxila-Taxila is a town and an important archaeological site in Rawalpindi; Pakistan. The
city dates back to the Gandhara period and contains the ruins of the Gandharan city of
Takshashila which was an important Hindu and Buddhist centre.
36. Kapilavastu-Tilaurakot archaeological site in Nepal is identified as a possible location for
Kapilavastu. It is widely accepted that Buddha spent the first 29 years of his life in the
vicinity of Kapilavastu.
37. Lumbini-Lumbini is located in the Rupandehi district of Nepal. It is largely regarded as
the birth place of Gautama Buddhha.
38. Kusinagara-Kushinagar is a town in Kushinagar district of Uttar Pradesh. It’s where
Gautama Buddha died.
39. Sarnath-Sarnath is located 13 kilometres from Varanasi, in Uttar Pradesh. It’s where
Gautama Buddha first taught the Dharma, and where the Buddhist Sangha came into
existence.
40. Bodh Gaya-Bodh Gaya is in the Gaya district of Bihar. It is known as the place where
Gautama Buddha is said to have obtained Enlightenment
41. Sankassa-Sankassa is now identified to be in Farrukhabad district of Uttar Pradesh. The
city came into prominence at the time of Gautama Buddha. King Ashoka developed this
place and installed one of his famous Pillars. He also built a stupa and a temple
commemorating the visit of the Buddha.
42. Nalanda-Nalanda is located in Bihar and was an ancient centre of higher learning from
the fifth century AD to 1197 AD.
43. Varanasi-Varanasi is a city on the banks of the river Ganga in Uttar Pradesh. Varanasi is
the oldest living city on earth. In ancient India it was the city of learning. Scholarly books
have been written in the city, including the Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas.

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44. Mathura-Mathura is a city in Uttar Pradesh. Its associated with the birthplace of Lord
Krishna. Mahabharata and Bhagavata Purana epics, tells that Mathura was the capital of
the Surasena Kingdom, ruled by Kansa, the maternal uncle of Shri Krishna. During the
ancient India, Mathura was an economic hub as it was located at the junction of important
caravan routes.
45. Vaisali-Vaishali was an ancient city located in current Vaishali District, Bihar. It was the
capital city of the Licchavi, one of the world's first republics during mahajanapada
period, in the 6th century BC. It was here the 24th Jain Tirthankara Mahavira was born in
599 BC. At Vaishali, Buddha preached his last sermon before his death in 483 BC.
46. Pataliputra-The modern-day Patna was in ancient India known as Pataliputra. It was
originally built by Ajatashatru in 490 BC. It became the capital of the ancient
Mahājanapadas kingdom of Magadha and served as the seat of power of the Murya and
the Gupta empires.
47. Bairat-Bairat is in Jaipur district of Rajasthan. Its history goes back to the time of
Mahajanapada (kingdom) when it served as the capital of Machcha or Matsya. It also
finds mention in the Mahabharata.
48. Kanyakubja-(Kannauj)- Kannauj is in Uttar Pradesh. Kannauj is an ancient city, in earlier
times the capital of emperor Harshavardhan. It was called Calinipaxa during the reign of
Alexander.

Expansion of the Khmer Empire, 802–1203

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 The Khmer Empire, or the Angkorian Empire

The Khmer Empire, or the Angkorian Empire, is a term used by historians to refer
to Cambodia from the 9th to the 15th centuries, when the nation was a Hindu-Buddhist empire
in Southeast Asia. The empire grew out of the former civilizations of Funan and Chenla, which
at times ruled over and/or vassalised most of mainland Southeast Asia and parts of Southern
China, stretching from the tip of the Indochinese Peninsula northward to the
modern Yunnan province of China, and from Vietnam westward to Myanmar. At its peak, the
Khmer Empire was larger than the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire), which existed
around the same time.

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Perhaps its most notable legacy is the site of Angkor, now in Cambodia, the Khmer capital
during the empire's zenith. The majestic monuments of Angkor, such as Angkor Wat and Bayon,
bear testimony to the Khmer Empire's immense power and wealth, impressive art and culture,
architectural technique, aesthetic achievements, and the variety of belief systems that it
patronised over time. Satellite imaging has revealed that Angkor, during its peak in the 11th to
the 13th centuries, was the most extensive pre-industrial urban complex in the world.
Researchers have also concluded that the Khmer Empire invented the world's first healthcare
system which included 102 hospitals.
The beginning of the era of the Khmer Empire is conventionally dated to 802, when
King Jayavarman II declared himself chakravartin ("universal ruler", a title equivalent to
"emperor") in the Phnom Kulen mountains. The end of the empire is marked with the Siege of
Angkor by the Siamese Ayutthaya Kingdom, in 1431. The reason that the Khmer Empire
collapsed is considered a mystery. Researchers have determined that a period of strong monsoon
rains was succeeded by a drought in the region, which caused damage to infrastructure.
Variability between droughts and flooding was also a problem. The collapse of the water system
may have caused people to abandon the city of Angkor.
1. https://www.academia.edu/83916391/
The_Many_Pur_as_of_the_Khmer_Empire_Dr_Uday_Dokras
2. https://www.academia.edu/74026698/CENTERING_of_KHMER_CITIES
3. https://www.scribd.com/document/536612538/Cities-and-Capitals-of-The-Khmer-Empire

Wat is the Khmer word for "temple grounds", also derived from Sanskrit/Pali vāṭa (Devanāgarī:
वाट), meaning "enclosure". The original name of the temple was Vrah Viṣṇuloka or Parama
Viṣṇuloka meaning "the sacred dwelling of Vishnu." In everyday language in Thailand, a "wat"
is any place of worship. There are rich Hindu textual resources that one can draw upon to create
an environmentally friendly city. Ideas about cities in pre-colonial India were closely linked with
the concept of kingship and polity. Classical Sanskrit texts on polity and kingly duties (dharma)
not only speak of a king’s moral duty to protect his kingdom and his people but also require him
to care for the environment.

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This is clearly articulated in the coronation oaths in texts such as the Yajurveda Samhita (9.22)
and the Mahabharata (Santi Parva 59. 106.107) which stipulate that the king should act as a
trustee of natural resources and protect his subjects: ‘To you [state is given.] for agriculture, for
well-being for prosperity, for development’ (Yajurveda Samhita). A king who does not protect
his subjects gets severe treatment (Mahahbarata (Santi Parva 61.32.5) and in Manusmriti (8.307).
Even if a king was driven by economic motives, it was his dharma to protect his people and the
environment. There are numerous other texts, which call for veneration of all aspects of creation.
There are hymns to the Earth in the Atharava Veda– hymns asking the Earth to give us
wealth(12:44) but at the same time respect for and protection of the Earth is expressed. That we
should not cause injury to the Earth is made clear: Whatever I dig up of you, O Earth, may you
of that have quick replenishment! O purifying one, may my thrust never reach into your vital
points, your heart! (12:35).

The word for city in Sanskrit is nagara. A nagarika was a city person – a person of refined taste
and culture and one who enjoyed the good things of life.

While the term nagara was used for the town, mahanagara was used for a considerably larger
well- established wealthy, politically significant city, and grama for village, the smallest
settlement. A market town situated along a coast was referred to as pattana or pattinam. The
evolution and growth of towns did not follow a uniform pattern. Their development was
influenced by a variety of factors. Some towns began as commercial, educational, administrative,
or pilgrim centres. In some cases, the name of the town indicated the main occupation of its
inhabitants. Each city had distinctive features and differed from the characteristics of another
city.

Nagara and grama are not to be seen as mutually exclusive locations – the relation between the
two has been rather fluid. It was mainly during the colonial period that the distinction between
nagara and village became marked, and with the rapid industrialization that occurred soon after
Indian Independence, the polarity between the two was all the more visible.

City and its Functions

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Cities in pre-colonial India were not only centres of trade and commerce but also of learning,
religion, art and culture. The city/village is seen as the locale for the encounter between gods and
humans. In other words, a traditional nagara or city is one where the sacred and the secular
mingle. Temples have been an essential part of city/village life, and the link between the cosmic
and the human is made visible through art, worship, poetry, music, dance and so forth. Temples
were not simply places of worship, but also centres of cultural, educational and social life. The
Hindu god Shiva, the Lord of the Dance, is the patron of arts, and even to this day classical
dancers invoke his blessings. In this connection mention needs to be made of Bharata’s Natya
Shastra (about second century BCE), a comprehensive and foundational work on dance, music,
drama, poetry and other subjects. Debates and discourses among scholars, music and dance
performances, as well as the meeting of the local assembly to discuss civic matters including
elections to local bodies took place, within the temple premises. The temple also played a
significant part in the economy of the village. Generous donations to the temple made it possible
for temples to advance money to needy farmers and others as well as give employment not only
to ritual specialists but also to teachers, musicians, dancers, tailors, accountants, florists and
many others.

With the emergence of various religious movements in the seventh and eighth centuries,
educational activity pervaded the urban ethos and culture. The Buddhist university at Nalanda
which attracted scholars from China and other places was in existence even before the
universities of Oxford and Cambridge were founded (Sen 2005: 354). Schools or
pathashalas were attached to temples where pupils were taught subjects such as literature,
philosophy and ethics. Jain centres for advanced religious education, Hindu Sanskrit colleges of
brahmanical learning (ghatikas) and Hindu monastic institutions (mathas) were in vogue.
The mathas functioned not simply as monastic centres of education but also as feeding centres
and rest houses for pilgrims. Chatrams, traditional centres of hospitality in pre-colonial India,

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which were established by kings, were open to common people – pilgrims, the sick and the
needy were taken care of – but with the advent of colonial rule these institutions of hospitality
were deprived of their traditional role. What was seen as an act of religious duty (dharma) came
to be seen as a waste of resources by colonial administrators and kings were discouraged from
using the revenue to maintain hospitality centres.

Vatsyayana, the author of the Kamasutra (composed between first and fourth centuries BCE)
saw urban living as the epitome of civilization and civilized life. The Kamasutra, which deals
with the art of love making, courtship, marriage and family life, offers some valuable insights
into the daily life of a well-do-to and refined city person (nagarika). In Vatsyayana’s city, as
Thapar puts it ‘comfortable if not luxurious surroundings were provided to harmonize with
moods conducive to poetry, painting and recitals of music, in all of which the young city
dilettante was expected to excel. The young man had also to be trained in the art of love. The
courtesan was a normal feature of urban life, neither romanticized nor treated with contempt.
Judging by the training given to a courtesan, it was among the more demanding professions, for,
unlike the prostitute, she was a cultured and sociable companion similar to the geisha of Japan or
the hetaera of Greece’. Courtesans attached to royal courts were highly accomplished in art,
music, poetry, dance and literature. In fact, courtesans enjoyed certain privileges which were not
within the reach of ordinary women. Some eminent courtesans were patrons of the arts and were
actively engaged in literary pursuits and were held in high esteem.

City in literary and epic narratives

The city finds a prominent place in various sacred and literary texts – in Sanskrit epics such as
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, and Tamil epic poems such as
Silappadigaram and Manimegalai, as well as in Kalidasa’s play Shakuntala and Vatsyayana’s
Kamasutra, the last two the most well-known in Europe. For example, in the Tamil epic
Silappadikaram, Kaveripattinam (also known as Pukar or Puhar) figures as a city of technical
order – vibrant, wealthy and a heterogeneous city which is hospitable to strangers and
immigrants in search of fortune.

In Kautliya’s Arthashastra, a treatise on statecraft and polity, one finds the image of a well-
planned city where people of diverse occupations interact, although within the given framework.
Both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata show an advanced stage of city-life, although we find
some poetic or mythical descriptions of the city. Valmiki’s Ramayana abounds in descriptions of
the physical features of the city of Ayodhya and Sri Lanka, such as the existence of city-gates,
moats, streets of different sizes, street-lights, recreational places (parks and forest groves), and
the modes of transport within the cities (by elephant, horse and the chariot). One also finds
shops, markets and storehouses, and even eating-houses. Being active centres of trade and
commerce, the cities were prosperous. One gets the impression that the cities were repositories of
wealth. Besides a couple of descriptions of the city as a desolate place, the image is one of
prosperity. The author of the epic paints an idealized picture of the city. The city of Ayodhya
(now the scene of conflict) is seen as a symbol of the ideal moral or cosmic order and the king as
the ideal monarch whose rule is just and fair.

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 A perfect kingdom is where all live in peace and prosperity. It is worth recalling Gandhi’s
constant reference to the ideal kingdom of Rama (rama rajya) in his efforts to establish a society
where there would be equality, justice and peace.

City as a site of liberation and alienation

The city plays a significant role in providing the locale for the pursuit and fulfilment of the four
aims of life (purusharthas) enumerated in Hindu texts: dharma (duty, righteousness, morality)
kama (pleasure), artha (wealth) and moksha (liberation).

In some brahmanical texts, the city is also seen as a place to be avoided (Apastamba)
Dharmasutra (I, 32,21). Some see the quest for liberation as impossible in a city. The
Bauddhayana declares that: “It is impossible for one to obtain salvation, who lives in a town
covered with dust” (II, 3, 6, 33). Although there are negative images of the city as a dreadful
place, the contrast between the city and forest/country is not as stark in early Sanskrit or Tamil
literature as it is in later epic and courtly narratives. In Kalidasa’s play Shakuntala, a person
from the country is referred to as gramya, a person who is not acquainted with the courtly
language (Sanskrit), norms and way of life of a city person. While the epics celebrate city life,
one can see the contrast between the city and forest in the Forest sections of the Ramayana and
the Mahabharata, and the fourth stage in the life of a householder (the other three being student,
forest dweller and renunciate). The contrast between the city and forest do not necessarily imply
discontinuity between the two.

The idea of a sacred city or temple as the centre is not simply confined to one geographical
location, although some sacred locations such as Benares are seen as exemplifying in a more
powerful manner the connection between the human and the cosmic order. Since most Hindus
believe that this universe is a manifestation of an eternal order, Truth or Divine, they perceive a
link between the human and the cosmic order. Although the infinite is seen as formless, beyond
all forms, it is seen as manifesting itself through forms, thus providing a link between the
formless and form, the divine and the human. Sacred cosmologies have been recreated in various
places outside India. One of most significant forms of expression of the inter-connectedness is
exemplified in the construction of traditional/classic style Hindu temples in Sydney, Pittsburgh,
and in Birmingham where stands the newly constructed Balaji Venkateswara temple.

City and Environment in Arthashastra

Despite its Machiavellian traits, the Arthashastra offers sound ideas on environmental
management which was necessary to protect natural resources and promote the well being
people, especially when empires were involved in warfare. The concerns included maintaining a
proper irrigation system, construction of dams and bridges, as well as planting trees and plants,
and taking care of infirm animals. Kautliya’s text also provides valuable information about
farming and crop rotation and also about botanical matters ranging from seed collection to
plant/tree classification, from diagnosis and treatment to landscaping. Superintendents appointed
to oversee different departments of the state were required to have not only management skills

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but also expert knowledge in these matters. The Arthashastra takes a cautionary step not only
with regard to the protection of natural resources from excessive use but also with protecting
humans from natural calamities such as floods, fires disease, famine and by making the
necessary provisions at such times. As a text that is concerned with the economic and political
order of the society, the Arthashastra has a contemporary ring. It offers a blueprint for how the
state and private ventures could conserve, cultivate and safeguard the earth and its natural
resources. Although the text is concerned with political and economic gain, it gives serious
attention to the welfare of the less fortunate or disadvantaged who are part of society.

Trees and gardens were an important aspect of town planning in pre-colonial India.
Archeologically speaking, the genesis of Indian gardening and landscape tradition can be traced
back to the Indus valley civilization where there is some evidence that some specific trees held in
reverence were protected. References to and descriptions of gardens are found in various Hindu
texts. The Mahabharata gives a graphic account of pleasure gardens. In a Hindu text
on astronomy, Brihatsamhita, gardens are seen as the dwelling places of gods. We have a vivid
description of the private garden of wealthy people in the Kamasutra. A good wife is expected to
take delight in gardening. She should surround the house with not only vegetable, fruit and
herbal garden but also with beautiful flower garden as well as make it recreational by having a
tank or pond and seats (Kamasutra 5. 1). Recreational gardens and parks were an integral part of
city life. There were trained experts who maintained the garden, and in Kautilya’s period an
efficient system of managing public parks and gardens was in place. Some remarkable gardens
were maintained by Indian princes in the late nineteenth century, one of them being Sajjan Niwas
Bagh, created under the royal patronage of a the Hindu prince of Udaipur in Rajasthan and later
maintained by his successors. They were keen that the garden should have economic,
educational, recreational and botanical value to the state.

The Purnanas and other texts speak about the

value and significance of tree planting. The tree planting ceremony (Vanamahotsa) has a long
history in the Hindu tradition. It is being revived now by certain temple organizations such as the
Sri Venkateswara temple in Tirupathi in southern India, which offer tree saplings as
prasada (blessed food) and invite donations to conserve the environment by the planting of trees.
Such steps are being taken by the temples in diaspora such as the Balaji Venkateswara temple in
Birmingham. The Hindu reverence’ for trees and plants has been based partly on utility, but
mostly on religious duty and mythology. Hindu ancestors considered it their duty to save trees;
and in order to do that they attached to every tree a religious sanctity’ (Dwivedi 1990:206).

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Textual sources are clear that one should not exploit natural resources without any consideration
for the environment. If one does, one is going against the ethical injunctions prescribed in the
texts. Ahimsa (non-injury) is seen as the highest and the noblest form of dharma. It is one’s duty
to abstain from violence, and, where inevitable, violence should be minimal. The Puranas
draw attention to the dire consequences (going to hell) for those who fail to plant trees. The
Arthashastra, although motivated by economic rather than religious interests does not undermine
the value of sacred trees, and in fact imposes fines on those who cause injury to plant and
trees: ‘For cutting off the tender sprouts of fruit trees, flower plants or shady trees in the
parks near a city, a fine of 6 panas shall be imposed; for cutting off the minor branches of the
same trees, 12 panas, and for the cutting of the big branches of the same tree, 24 panas shall
be levied…’

The emperors of old such as Ashoka (who embraced Buddhism), known for their love of nature
and concern for the environment, planted banyan trees along the roads to give shade to people
and animals as well as provided rest houses and watering facilities. The king’s dharma came to
be undermined during the colonial period. With the loss of political authority under the colonial
rule, and with the introduction of new land reforms and the emergence of a market-oriented
economy, the traditional role of the king/state as the protector of resources and his people had
little value. However, we have some contemporary examples of model environmentalists such as
Vansh Pradip Singh, a twentieth century ruler of Sawar in North India who is known for his
kingly duty (rajadharma) of caring for the environment.

There are also clear injunctions against polluting land, air and water, but whether they are put
into practice is another matter. However, texts clearly warn against disposal of waste into sacred
rivers such as the Ganges: ‘One should not perform these 14 acts near the holy waters of the river
Ganga: i.e., remove excrement, brushing and gargling, removing cerumen from body, throwing
hairs, dry garlands,… washing clothes, throwing dirty clothes, thumping water and swimming
(Parvacitta Tatva 1.535). The point is that one is not supposed to wash oneself in sacred rivers
but to have a holy dip. It is ironic that those who profess faith in the cleansing power of the
sacred rivers tend to pollute it.

To sum up, the Hindu tradition has a rich treasure of textual sources which are relevant to
contemporary concerns and could be used in constructive ways. A good city is one that embodies
the concept of the welfare of all humans as well as the created order (sarva-bhuta-hita). A good
city is one that is dharmic – where (truth, righteousness, morality, duty) prevails; where all
activities benefit both the individual and the community; where there is concern for the
environment; where there is room for trust and hope; and where people from diverse
1
backgrounds and cultural traditions can live in peace and harmony.

Sacredness is many times a dynamic, emerging and largely a cultural and social process. It is
inseparably embedded in peoples' life. If we approach the sacred heritage from the perspective
of its people, it is a living thing which is constantly created, maintained and modified by
associated people and their belief systems

The Concept of the WAT

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A wat is a type of Buddhist temple and Brahminical temple in Cambodia, Laos, East Shan
State, Yunnan and Thailand. The word wat is a thai word that was borrowed
from Sanskrit vāṭa (Devanāgarī: वाट), meaning 'enclosure'. The term has varying meanings in
each region, sometimes referring to a specific type of government-recognised or large temple,
other times referring to any Buddhist or Brahminical temple.

Wat Mahathat, Luang Prabang

Strictly speaking, a wat is a Buddhist sacred precinct with vihara (quarters for bhikkhus), a
temple, an edifice housing a large image of Buddha and a facility for lessons. A site without a
minimum of three resident bhikkhus cannot correctly be described as a wat although the term is
frequently used more loosely, even for ruins of ancient temples. As a transitive or intransitive
verb, wat means to measure, to take measurements; compare templum, from
which temple derives, having the same root as template.
In Cambodia, a wat is any place of worship. "Wat" generally refers to a Buddhist place of
worship, but the precise term is wat putthasasana. Angkor Wat means 'city of temples'.
In everyday language in Thailand, a "wat" is any place of worship except a mosque or
a synagogue . Thus, a wat chin or san chao is a Chinese temple (either Buddhist or Taoist), wat
khaek or thewasathan is a Hindu temple and bot khrit or wat farang (วั ด ฝ รั่ ง ) is
a Christian church, though Thai bot may be used descriptively as with mosques.

The facade of Phra Wihan Luang (meeting hall), Wat Suthat, Bangkok

According to Thai law, there are two types of Thai Buddhist temples:

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 Wats are temples which have been endorsed by the state and have been
granted wisungkhammasima (วิสุงคามสีมา), or the land for establishing central hall, by
the king. These temples are divided into
o Royal Temples-: phra aram luang ): established or patronised by the king or his family
members.
o Public temples- wat rat established by private citizens. Despite the term "private",
private temples are open to the public and are sites of public religious activities.
 Samnak song : are temples without state endorsement and wisungkhamasima.

Thai temple art and architecture

Royal stupa (preăh chêdei) of Kuntha Bopha was built by using Khmer architectural style during
the Angkor period in the form of temple shrine, Silver Pagoda, Phnom Penh

The main chedi in Wat Phra Mahathat, Nakhon Si Thammarat/Pha That

Luang, Vientiane, Laos/Wat Chaiyamangkalaram, George Town, Malaysia
A typical Buddhist wat consists of the following buildings:

 Bell tower
 Bot uposatha or sim the holiest prayer room, also called the "ordination hall" as it is where
new monks take their vows. Architecturally it is similar to the vihara. The main difference is
the eight cornerstones placed around the bot to ward off evil. The bot is usually more
decorated than the wihan. In Cambodia nowadays, this type of building is considered to
be Vihear. It was previously called Ubaosathakea or Rorng
Ubaosoth Chedei or Chedi from Sanskrit: chaitya, temple or that (It is also known as a stupa.
Usually conical or bell-shaped buildings, but many Cambodian stupas are constructed in the
style of temple shrine. They often contain relics of Buddha. The urns containing the ashes of
the cremated dead are kept here and serve as memorials for those ancestors.
 Chantakhara a room in which fire and water are kept.

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 Drum tower Thai:
 Hong Song Nam toilet.
 Ho trai library where Buddhist texts are kept.
 Kappapiya Kudi utility and storage room.
 KodKut, Kutti, Kuti or Kati the living quarters of monks separated from the sacred buildings.
 Mondop or Sanskrit Mandapa: usually an open, square building with four arches and a
pyramidal roof, used to worship religious texts or objects.
 Pond Sa Nam: is rectangular in shape and sometimes decorated with lotus flowers, the
emblematic flower of Buddhism. In addition, some wats illustrate the figure of Buddha being
sheltered by a seven headed naga, named Mucalinda (Khmer: មុជ្ជលិន្ទ), in the middle
of the pond. The pond itself is called Mucalinda Pond.
 Sala from the Sanskrit word शाला, cognate of Hindi शाल, meaning hall, large room or shed.
A pavilion for relaxation and miscellaneous activities. In Cambodia, the sala also serves as
the Buddhist educational center in a wat, but not every wat has one. It can be found outside
the wat proper.
o Oupadthan Sala or Sala Bonn or Sala Wat - a hall for people gathering together to make
a donation or for ceremonies.
o Sala Baley or Sala Putthikakseksa (Khmer: សាលាបាលី ឬ សាលាពុទ្ធិកសិក្សា):
literally means 'Pali school' or 'Buddhist educational school', is the place to teach
Buddhist Dharma and other subjects in both Pali and Khmer languages. Sala Baley is
divided into three levels. They are: Buddhist elementary school Putthikakpathamaseksa;
and Buddhist university Putthikaksakalvityealay. Beside Buddhist Dharma, Buddhist
university includes subjects such as philosophy, science, information
technology, Sanskrit, and other foreign languages. These schools may be constructed
outside the wat and laypersons are also permitted to study there.
o Sala Chhann, Sala Bat or Ho Chan: cafeteria for monks.
o Sala Chhatean, Sala Klang Yan or Sala Rong Tham is usually smaller than other halls
and can be built outside the wat, especially along the roads or even in the center of
villages. It is used to celebrate Buddhist events as well as for dining and relaxation.
o Sala Kan Parian or Ho Chaek study hall, In the past this hall was restricted to monks.[
o Sala Song: the room where monks receive holy water blessings.
o Sala Thormmasaphear or Thormmasala, Sala Fang Tham: Dharma assembly pavilion,
however some assume this hall to be Sala Bonn.
o Sala Tha Nam pier pavilion.
 Vihear or wihan Sanskrit: vihara: a meeting and prayer room.
 Wachak Kod toilet.

Almost all Buddhist temples in Cambodia were built in Khmer architectural style. Most
temples were finely decorated with a spiked tower (bosbok) some temples have three or five
spiked towers; some have none) on the rooftop along with pediments, naga heads, and chovear(a
decorative ridge-piece that is placed at each topmost edge of the roof, just above the tip of each
pediment). Below the edge of the roof and at the top of external
columns, garuda or kinnari figures are depicted supporting the roof. There are a pair of guardian
lions and one head or several (three, five, seven, or nine). naga sculptures are beside each

177
entrance of the temple. Inside the main temple (vihara) and the multipurpose hall (lunch hall),
mural paintings depict the life of Gautama Buddha and his previous life.
The roofs of Thai temples are often adorned with chofas.
Some well-known wats include:
Cambodia
At the end of 2017, there were 4,872 wats with 69,199 Buddhist monks supporting Buddhism in
Cambodia By 2019, it was illustrated that 97.1 percent of the Cambodian population was
Buddhist making Cambodia to be one of the most predominant Buddhist nations in the world.

 Angkor Wat, Siem Reap

 Wat Preah Keo, Phnom Penh
 Wat Botum Vattey, Phnom Penh
 Wat Moha Montrey, Phnom Penh
 Wat Ounalaom, Phnom Penh
 Wat Phnom, Phnom Penh
 Wat Bakan, Pursat
Laos
Pha That Luang, Vientiane, Laos

 Wat Xieng Thong, Luang Prabang

Malaysia
Wat Buppharam, Penang

 Wat Chayamangkalaram, Penang

 Wat Chetawan, Selangor
 Wat Phothivihan, Kelantan
Despite having only 3.8 percent Buddhists in Kelantan, the northern Malaysian state
of Kelantan has numerous Thai wats.[7]
Singapore[edit]

 Wat Ananda
 Wat Palelai
Thailand
As of 2016 Thailand had 39,883 wats. Three hundred-ten were royal wats, the remainder were
private (public). There were 298,580 Thai Buddhist monks, 264,442 of the Maha Nikaya order
and 34,138 of the Dhammayuttika Nikaya order. There were 59,587 Buddhist novice monks.[8]

 Wat Suthat, Bangkok, Thailand

 Wat Benchamabophit (The Marble Temple)
 Wat Ratchanatdaram
 Wat Phra Kaew

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 Wat Arun
 Wat Bowonniwet Vihara
 Wat Pho
 Wat Saket
 Wat Phra That Doi Suthep, Chiang Mai
 Wat Chiang Man, Chiang Mai
 Wat Chedi Luang, Chiang Mai
 Wat Phra Singh, Chiang Mai
 Wat Phra That Lampang Luang, Lampang
 Wat Phumin, Nan, Thailand
 Phra Pathommachedi, Nakhon Pathom
Wat Pah Nanachat (Bung Wai International Forest Monastery), established in 1975 by Ajahn
Chah as a training community for non-Thais and foreigners, the primary language of instruction
is English.

Nagar can refer to:

 Nagar, Rajshahi Division, a village

 Nagar, Barisal Division, a settlement
India
Nagar taluka, Ahmednagar, Maharashtra State

 Nagar, Murshidabad, a village in West Bengal

 Nagar, Rajasthan, a town in Rajasthan
 Nagar, Uttar Pradesh, a pargana in Basti district

Dr. Sharada Sugirtharajahttps://www.sanskritimagazine.com/indian-religions/hinduism/makes-good-

city-hindu-perspective/

Aruna Rajapakse , RECONCEPTUALIZING SACRED CITY MEANING: THE SACRED CITY OF

ANURADHAPURA 2019.Conference: PGIHS Research Congress,: University of Peradeniya, Kandy, Sri
Lanka.
Iran

 Nagar, Iran, a village in East Azerbaijan Province

Pakistan

 The Nagar Valley in northern Pakistan

o Nagar, Pakistan, a town
o Nagar District, an administrative unit
o Nagar (princely state), a former autonomous princely state
Syria

179
 Nagar, Syria, an ancient city

Varanasi (Benares), known as the microcosm of India and the most sacred city of Hindu
religion, has maintained its cosmic layout which developed in the historical past. The passage
from macrocosmos (heaven) into mesocosmos (earth) and further down into microcosmos (the
temple, or body) is made spatially visible and is regulated by the network of pilgrimage routes -
this is what we call pilgrimage mandala. In Varanasi five of the various pilgrimage circuits are
well developed; taken as a sequence leading from outer to inner space, they reveal parallels
between macro-, meso- and microcosmos and the related transcendental powers. Moreover, the
spatial arrangement of the 56 shrines of Ganesha ("Elephant-headed God") and the routes
following Vinayaka's pilgrimage journey, also form a mandala representing the product of 8
directions and 7 layers of atmosphere, thus the number 56. These aspects are described and the
notion of cosmogonic integrity is discussed.
Nagara also known as Dionysopolis was an ancient city in the northwest part of Indian
subcontinent, distinguished in Ptolemy. It also appears in sources as Nagarahara, and was
situated between the Kabul River and the Indus, in present-day Afghanistan.
From the second name which Ptolemy has preserved, we are led to believe that this is the same
place as Nysa (Νύσα) or Nyssa (Νύσσα), which was spared from plunder and destruction
by Alexander the Great because the inhabitants asserted that it had been founded by Dionysus,
when he conquered the area and he named the city Nysa and the land Nysaea (Νυσαία) after his
nurse and also he named the mountain near the city, Meron (Μηρὸν) (i.e. thigh), because he
grew in the thigh of Zeus. When Alexander arrived at the city, together with his Companion
cavalry went to the mountain and they made ivy garlands and crowned themselves with them, as
they were, singing hymns in honor of Dionysus. Alexander also offered sacrifices to Dionysus,
and feasted in company with his companions.
On the other hand, according to Philostratus although Alexander wanted to go up the mountain
he decided not to do it because he was afraid that when his men will see the vines which were on
the mountain they would feel home sick or they will recover their taste for wine after they had
become accustomed to water only, so he decided to make his vow and sacrifice to Dionysus at
the foot of the mountain.
The site of Nagara is usually associated with a site now called Nagara Ghundi, about 4
kilometres (2.5 mi) west of Jalalabad, south of the junction of the Surkhäb and Kabul rivers,
where ancient ruins have been found.
Archaeologist Zemaryalai Tarzi has suggested that, following the fall of the Greco-
Bactrian cities of Ai-Khanoum and Takht-i Sangin, Greek populations were established in the
plains of Jalalabad, which included Hadda, around the Hellenistic city of Dionysopolis, and that
they were responsible for the Buddhist creations of Tapa Shotor in the 2nd century C
Angkor, which is a Khmer version of the Sanskrit term nagara ("city"), was in fact a succession
of sacred cities that served as the capital of the rulers of an empire from the ninth to the fifteenth
centuries. Each pyramidal-shaped structure or temple that we so associate with Angkor was a re-

180
creation in stone of the cosmology by which the Khmer rulers ordered their lives and that of their
subjects. Through such buildings, the rulers of Angkor sought to bring the world of strife and
struggle into harmony with ultimate order. The identification of the kind with a Hindu (or
Buddhist) deity become complete at the time of the King's death. The shrine he had built during
his lifetime become, after his death, his immortal body. Members of the royal family and the
aristocracy emulated the ruler by erecting many more shrines in the capital and provincial
centers. The cult of Visnu did not survive for very long as the exclusive religion but the change
to Buddhism did not lead Jayavarman VII to make a radical break with the architectural and
______________________________________________________________________
A Cosmic Layout of the Hindu Sacred City, Varanasi (Benares) ,Rana P.B. Singh, rch. 8
Comport. /Arch. 8 Behav., Vol. 9, no. 2, p. 239-250 (1993)

inconographic traditions that had preceded his reign. His city, Angkor Thom, still centered on a
representation of the sacred Mt. Meru, but he added new Buddhist elements to his shrine-
basreliefs

The culmination of the pyramid-temple form, which represents in stone and space he sacred
center of the universe, Mt. Meru, was realized in the twelfth century with the construction of
unquestionably the most well-known monument at Angkor, Angkor Wat. Although the name
Angkor Wat means "pagoda of the capital," it was not, in its original conception, a Buddhist
temple (wat), but was, rather, dedicated to to god Visnu.

The cult of Visnu did not survive for very long as the exclusive religion of Angkor. King
Jayavarman VII (1181 to the early thirteenth century), the best remembered king of the
Angkorean period, sought (apparently form his wife's influence) religious inspiration from
Mahayana Buddhism rather than from Hinduism. This inspiration. These are not, however,
scenes from the lives of Visnu or Rama; rather they are scenes from the world of humans, the
most important of the worlds in the Buddhist realm of feeling and desire, Aside from their
religious meaning, these murals tell us much about life in Angkor at the time. The higher
elevations of the shrine represent the realm of the gods, a realm dominated by the Bodhisattva,
Lokesvara, whose compassion for all humans can assist them in achieving ultimate salvation.

The images of Lokesvara that dominate the Bayon have long captured the attention of visitors.
Pierre Loti, in his Pélerin d'Angkor, wrote: "I looked up at the tree-covered towers which
dwarfed me, when all of a sudden mu blood curdled as I saw an enormous smile looking down
on me, and then another smile on another wall, then three, then five, then ten appearing in every
direction." The faces represent not only the Bodhisattva alone; they are also of Jayavarman VII,
who has become the Buddharaja, the king who is also a Buddha. The images looking in many
directions were indicative of Jayavarman VII's control over a vast domain. While Jayavarman's
authority may have been extended over a larger territory than his predecessors, the Angkorean
world had long included much of what today is not only Cambodia, but also most of northeastern
and much of central Thailand, central and southern Laos, and southern Vietnam.

The account of Chou Ta-kuan, a Chinese envoy to Angkor at the end of the thirteenth century,
reveals that much of the populace as well as many in the elite adhered to that form of Buddhism

181
known as the "Way of Elders," Theravada, although the Chinese themselves termed it Hinayana
(the "lesser vehicle") in contrast to their own from of Buddhism, Mahayana (the "greater
vehicle"). With the adoption of Theravada Buddhism, much of the rational for the monumental
architecture of Angkor disappeared since people found greater appeal in the rituals performed in
small shrines by Buddhist monks than in those performed by kings and priests in large temples.

As the rational for Angkorean civilization was undermined, so too did the military power of
Angkor decline. In the fourteenth century a number of new states were formed by Tai-speaking
peoples in what is today Thailand and Laos. Although the Tai from Ayutthaya attacked and
defeated Angkor in the fifteenth century, it is more appropriated to see Ayutthaya as one of a
number of successor states to Angkor - including also those of Lan Xang (Laos) and Phnom
Penh - rather than as an aggressor intent on destroying Khmer culture. The court of these new
Tai kingdoms, like that of Phnom Penh, derived most of their ideas about statecraft from Angkor.
Angkor TODAY as compared to YESTERDAY

182
183
ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo

IX

The largest Hindu Temples on the

planet?
Angkor is undoubtedly the most impressive and best known temple, Angkor Wat is the best preserved of
all the Angkor monuments. The temple is an object of pride for Cambodia, its depiction appears on the
national flag.However since its conversion to a Buddhist Stupa( though not structurally) it may forfeit its
right as a HINDU TEMPLE.

184
Suryavarman II

It was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century in Yaśodharapura (Khmer:
យសោធរបុរៈ, present-day Angkor), the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple and
eventual mausoleum. Breaking from the Shaiva tradition of previous kings, Angkor Wat was instead
dedicated to Vishnu.

It is a richly decorated, very large temple; the total temple area including the moat measures 1.5
kilometers long by 1.3 kilometers wide, or a total of about 2 square kilometers. Angkor Wat is the biggest
Hindu temple in Cambodia.Height of architectural skills of the Khmer :

The temple represents the height of architectural skills of the Khmer builders. Its very detailed carved bas
reliefs that cover much of the temple shows impressive craftsmanship. Unlike other Angkor temples,
Angkor Wat is oriented towards the West and dedicated to Vishnu, where previous temples face East and
are dedicated to Shiva.

Angkor Wat was the state temple of King Suryavarman II, who built the temple during the first half of the
12th century. He was one of Angkor’s greatest Kings who ruled for almost 40 years and expanded the
Khmer empire. Some historians believe that the temple also served as a funerary temple for the King.
This could explain its orientation to the West; the setting sun (in the West) symbolizes the end of the
cycle of life.

Mount Meru, the center of Hindu cosmology :

Angkor Wat is a mountain temple build to represent Mount Meru, the center of the world in Hindu
cosmology. The temple’s five prasats or sanctuary towers represent the peaks of the sacred mountain,
while the moats represent the oceans that surround Mount Meru.

The temple’s three tiers are surrounded by large galleries, that were introduced in earlier temples like the
Ta Keo. One of Angkor Wat’s major attractions are the many intricate and well preserved bas reliefs with

185
depictions of scenes from the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, as well as many hundreds of statues of
female devatas(Devis, Female Hindu Deities)

Surrounding the temple complex is a 190 meter wide moat. At the Western end is a 12 meter wide bridge,
in front of which is a terrace where lions and Naga snakes guard the temple. Crossing the bridge the
visitor approaches the impressive Western gate, which was build to resemble the front view of the temple
itself.

The structure consists of long galleries with a three part gopura topped by towers that have partly
collapsed. At both ends of the structure is a pavilion, large enough to enable elephants to go through. The
Western gate contains apsaras and devatas as well as magnificent carvings on its lintels showing Vishnu,
Garuda, warriors and scenes from the epic Ramayana. Only after passing the Western gate, the Angkor
Wat temple comes in sight.

Behind the Western gate is a 350 meter long processional walkway elevated about 1½ meters above the
ground towards the temple. On either side of the walkway is a library building. Past the libraries are two
lakes, reflecting the silhouette of the of Angkor Wat’s towers. The temple itself is build on raised
platform about 330 meters long and 255 meters wide. The structure comprises of three rectangular tiers
each higher one smaller than the one below it encircled by long galleries with corner towers and a gopura
in the center of its sides.

Bas reliefs galleries of the third tier :

The third tier is surrounded by long concentric galleries. Its walls contain some of the finest and best
preserved bas reliefs of Angkor Wat, including:

The battle of Lanka, a story from the epic Ramayana, where Rama fights Ravana who abducted his wife
Sita

The battle of Kurukshetra from the epic Mahabharata, between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, depicting
soldiers and commanders on elephants or riding chariots

A 90 meter panel of the Royal Procession. Two sections depict King Suryavarman II and a procession of
court ladies, another section shows a procession of soldiers on foot or on horses and elephants and a
parade of Brahmin priests

The Heavens and Hells and the Judgement of Sinners by Yama, the Hindu God of Death. Depictions of
the 37 heavens with palaces with servants and the 32 hells and the punishments and tortures received
there, each one for a specific sin committed

The churning of the ocean of milk, a 50 meter long panel. This story from the Mahabharata tells how an
elixir of immortality over which the Gods and the demons fight is produced by churning the ocean with
Mount Meru used as the churning rod

 Vishnu and his incarnation Krishna

 The victory of Vishnu over the asuras
 The abduction of Sita by Ravana
 Other scenes from the Ramayana
Within the third enclosure, right after passing the main entrance on the West end are galleries that delimit
four courtyards. Its walls are decorated with devatas, apsaras and rishis, while the pediments contain

186
carvings of Vishnu and Krishna, one of Vishnu’s incarnations. The galleries also contain a number of
Buddha images, placed there after Angkor Wat was converted into a Buddhist temple.

The platform with 5 lotus bud shaped towers

The second tier measuring 100 by 115 meters is enclosed by galleries. On each of its four corners are
towers that have partly collapsed. On top of the structure is a square platform about 55 meters wide that
contains five towers shaped like lotus buds. The platform is surrounded by galleries, with a sanctuary
tower on each if its corners.

In the middle stands the 42 meter high central sanctuary on each side opening to a vestibule in which
Buddha statues are found. The walls of the tower are decorated with well preserved devatas. Inside is the
cella, a chamber that enshrined a large statue of Vishnu.

The classic Seven Wonders of the Ancient World list includes only monuments around the Mediterranean
Sea. There are several other wonders of the world lists, among them wonders of nature, engineering and
the industrial world. Although not on any of these lists, Angkor Wat is often considered “the 8th Wonder
of the World”.

list of World’s largest Hindu Temples in terms of area

R
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n temple (m²) ntry
k

Angkor Wat is a temple complex

at Angkor, Cambodia. It is the largest
religious monument in the world, on a site
measuring 162.6 hectares (1,626,000 m2; 402
C acres) which was built for king Suryavarman
1,626,0
1 Angkor Wat ambod II in the early 12th century as his state temple
00
ia and capital city. As the best-preserved temple
at the site, it is the only one to have remained
a significant religious center since its
foundation — first Hindu, dedicated to the
god Vishnu, then Buddhist.

187
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The BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir in

Robbinsville in Central New Jersey is a Hindu
place of worship built by the BAPS
Swaminarayan Sanstha and consecrated
by Pramukh Swami Maharaj. The BAPS
Swaminarayan Sanstha, led by Mahant Swami
Maharaj, is a denomination of
New
Swaminarayan the Swaminarayan branch of Hinduism. The
Jersey
Akshardham 660,00 mandir is built of hand-carved Italian Carrara
2 U
(North 0[3] marble, Turkish limestone, and Indian pink
nited
America) stone. The mandir was constructed according
States
to guidelines outlined in ancient Vedas, or
Hindu scriptures. According to The Times of
India, 2,000 artisans in Rajasthan are hand-
crafting the temples in Italian and Rajasthani
marble. The finished pieces are then
assembled in New Jersey by a team of master
craftsmen.

3 Sri 631,00 Tiruch Srirangam temple is often listed as the largest

Ranganathasva 0 irapall functioning Hindu temple in the world (the
my Temple i still larger Angkor Wat being the largest
existing temple). The temple, located in Tamil
In Nadu, occupies an area of 156 acres (631,000
dia m²) with a perimeter of 4,116m (10,710 feet)
making it the largest temple in India[4] and one
of the largest religious complexes in the
world. The temple is enclosed by seven
concentric walls (termed prakarams (outer
courtyard) or mathil suvar) with a total length
of 32,592 feet or over six miles. These walls
are enclosed by 21 Gopurams. The
Ranganathanswamy Temple complex with 49
shrines, all dedicated to Lord Vishnu, is so
huge that it is like a city within itself.
However, the entire temple is not used for the
religious purpose, the first three out of seven
concentric walls are used by private
commercial establishments such as
restaurants, hotels, flower market, and
residential homes.[5] Taking this detail into
account, still the temple ranks third to in the
list of large Hindu temples after Thillai

188
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Nataraja Temple,
Chidambaram and Tiruvannamalai Annamalai
yar Temple. The temple was awarded with
UNESCO Asia Pacific Award for Cultural
Heritage Conservation Program in the year
2017 for the category 'Award of Merit'.

The temple was established in 1974, by Baba

Sant Nagpal ji, who died in 1998. His samadhi
shrine lies in the premises of the Shiv-Gauri
New Nageshwar Mandir within the temple
Delhi complex. This temple was considered as the
Chhatarpur 280,00 In biggest temple in India and second largest in
4
Temple 0 dia the world, before the Akshardham
Temple was created in 2005 in Delhi. This
temple is totally constructed from marble and
on all the facets there is jaali (perforated stone
or latticed screen) work. It can be classified
a vesara style of architecture.

Akshardham is a Hindu temple complex

in Delhi, India.[8] Also referred to as Delhi
Akshardham or Swaminarayan Akshardham,
the complex displays millennia of traditional
Delhi Indian and Hindu culture, spirituality, and
240,00
5 Akshardham architecture. The building was inspired and
0
India moderated by Pramukh Swami Maharaj, the
spiritual head of the Bochasanwasi Shri
Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha,
whose 3,000 volunteers helped
7,000 artisans construct Akshardham

6 Besakih 200,00 Bali Besakih Temple is a pura complex in the

Temple 0[10] village of Besakih on the slopes of Mount
Indon Agung in eastern Bali, Indonesia. It is the
esia most important, the largest and holiest temple
of Hindu religion in Bali, and one of a series
of Balinese temples. Perched nearly 1000
meters up the side of Gunung Agung, it is an
extensive complex of 23 separate but related

189
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temples with the largest and most important

being Pura Penataran Agung. The temple is
built on six levels, terraced up the slope. The
entrance is marked by a candi bentar (split
gateway), and beyond it the Kori Agung is the
gateway to the second courtyard

Belūr Maṭh or Belur Mutt is the

headquarters of the Ramakrishna Math and
Mission, founded by Swami Vivekananda, a
chief disciple of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa.
H It is located on the west bank of Hooghly
Belur Math,
160,00 owrah River, Belur, West Bengal, India and is one of
7 Ramakrishna
0 the significant institutions in Calcutta. This
temple
India temple is the heart of the Ramakrishna
Movement. The temple is notable for its
architecture that
fuses Hindu, Christian and Islamic motifs as a
symbol of unity of all religions

Thillai Natarajah Temple, Chidambaram -

Chidambaram Thillai Natarajar-Koothan
Kovil or Chidambaram temple is
a Hindu temple dedicated to Lord
Shiva located in the centre of the temple town
Chida
of Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu in east-
Thillai Nataraja mbara
160,00 central South India. Chidambaram is a temple
8 Temple, m
0 complex spread over 40 acres (160,000 m2) in
Chidambaram
the heart of the city. It is truly a large temple
India
which is completely used for religious
purpose. The main complex to Lord
Shiva Nataraja also contains shrines to deities
such as Sivakami Amman, Ganesh, Murugan
and Vishnu in the form Govindaraja Perumal.

190
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Candi Prambanan or Candi Rara

Jonggrang is a 9th-century Hindu
temple compound in Central Java, Indonesia,
dedicated to Shiva. It also houses shrines of
Vishnu, Brahma and their consorts. The
temple compound is located approximately 17
kilometres (11 mi) northeast of the city
Yogya of Yogyakarta on the boundary between
Prambanan, karta Central Java and Yogyakarta provinces.
152,00
9 Trimurti temple
0 The temple compound, a UNESCO World
compound Indon
esia Heritage Site, is the largest Hindu temple site
in Indonesia, and one of the biggest in
Southeast Asia. It is characterized by its tall
and pointed architecture, typical of Hindu
temple architecture, and by the towering 47-
metre-high (154 ft) central building (Shiva
shrine) inside a large complex of individual
temples.[15] Prambanan attracts many visitors
from across the world.

Brihadeeswarar Temple also called The Big

Temple was built by Raja Raja Chola I in
1010 CE and is dedicated to Shiva. The Big
Temple is not only a magnificent edifice with
its majestic vimana, sculptures, architecture
and frescoes, but also has a wealth and
richness of Tamil inscriptions engraved on
stone in superb calligraphy. The temple is part
of the UNESCO World Heritage Site. One
Thanja wonders of how such a big temple could be
Brihadeeswarar 102,40
10 vur built in flat 6 years taking into account the
Temple 0
India amount stone and soil to be moved and the
lack of powered machinery available in those
days. The massive sized main Vimanam
(Tower) is 200 feet high, possibly the highest
in the world when it was built. The Vimanam
has 16 elaborately articulated stories, and
dominates the main quadrangle. It has a
monolithic Nandhi weighing about 25 tonnes,
and is about 12 feet high and 20 feet long.The
presiding deity of lingam is 12 feet tall

191
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Annamalaiyar Temple is a
noted Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shiva,
and it is the second largest temple (by the area
used completely for religious purpose). It has
Tiruva
got four stately towers on all the four sides
Annamalaiyar 101,17 nnama
11 and four high stone walls just like the rampart
Temple 1 lai
walls of a fort. The 11-tiered highest (217 feet
India
(66 m)) Eastern Tower is called
the Rajagopuram. The fortified walls pierced
with four gopura entrances offer a formidable
look to this vast complex
Dakshineswar Kali Temple is situated on the
eastern bank of the Hooghly River (a
distributary of the Ganga River) in
suburban Kolkata. The presiding deity of the
temple is Bhavatarini, an aspect of Kali,
K
Dakshineswar 101,17 meaning, 'She who liberates Her devotees
12 olkata
Kali Temple 1 from the ocean of existence i.e. Saṃsāra' The
India
temple was built in 1855 by Rani Rashmoni, a
philanthropist and a devotee of Kali The
temple complex is spread over 25 acres
(101,171 m2) and is one of the largest temple
in Bengal.
Rajagopalaswamy temple is a Vaishnavite
shrine located in the town of
Mannargudi, Tamil Nadu, India.[1]The Front
Temple tower is 156 feet tall. The presiding
deity is Rajagopalaswamy, a form of Lord
Krishna. The temple is spread over an area of
23 acres (93,000 m2) and The temple tank is
Manna
Rajagopalaswa called Haridra Nadhi, 1,158 feet long and 837
13 93,000 rgud
my temple feet broad 23 acres (93,000 m2) is one of the
India
important Vaishnavite shrines in India. The
temple is called Dakshina Dwarka (Southern
Dwarka) along with Guruvayoor by Hindus.
[2]. The temple is also 23 acres and the
Temple tank Haridra Nadhi is also 23 acres
making it one of the largest temple tanks in
India

192
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Ekambareswarar Temple is a Hindu temple

dedicated to Lord Shiva, located
Kanch
Ekambareswara in Kanchipuram in the state of India. It is one
14 92,860 ipura
r Temple of the five major Shiva temples or Pancha
m
Bootha Sthalams (each representing a natural
element) representing the element Earth.
Vadakkumnathan Temple is an ancient Hindu
temple dedicated to Shiva at city of Thrissur,
of Kerala state in India. This temple is a
classical example of the architectural style
Thrissur Thriss of Kerala and has one monumental tower on
15 Vadakkunnatha 81,000[ ur each of the four sides in addition to
n Temple India a kuttambalam. Mural paintings depicting
various scenes from the Mahabharata can be
seen inside the temple. The Thekkinkadu
Maidan is 65-acre (260,000 m2) in area
where Vadakkunnathan Temple is located.
Varadharaja Perumal Temple is dedicated
to Lord Vishnu located in the holy city
of Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu, India. It is one
of the Divya Desams, the 108 temples of
Kanc Vishnu believed to have been visited by the
Varadharaja
hipura 12 poet saints, or Alwars. It is located in a
16 Perumal 81,000
m suburb of Kanchipuram known as
Temple
India the Vishnu Kanchi that is a home for many
famous Vishnu temples. One of the greatest
Hindu scholars of
Vaishnava VisishtAdvaita philosophy, Raman
uja is believed to have resided in this temple.
The ancient Sri Thyagaraja temple
at Tiruvarur is dedicated to
the Somaskanda aspect of Shiva. The temple
complex has shrines dedicated to
Tiruva Vanmikanathar, Tyagarajar and the
Thyagaraja
17 80,937 rur Kamalaamba, and covers an area of over 20
Temple
India acres (81,000 m2) The Kamalalayam temple
tank covers around 16 acres (65,000 m2), one
of the largest in the country. The temple
chariot is the largest of its kind in Tamil
Nadu.

193
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The BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir

in Etobicoke, Toronto, Ontario, Canada is a
traditional Hindu place of worship that was
built by the BAPS Swaminarayan Sanstha.
The BAPS Swaminarayan Sanstha, which is
headed by Mahant Swami Maharaj, is a global
spiritual organization within
C
BAPS Shri the Swaminarayan branch of Hinduism. The
anada
18 Swaminarayan 72,843 mandir was built in 18 months and consists of
Toront
Mandir Toronto 24,000 pieces of hand-carved Italian carrara
o-
marble, Turkish limestone and Indian pink
stone.[29] The mandir is the largest of its kind in
Canada and was constructed according to
guidelines outlined in ancient Hindu
scriptures.The grounds spread over 18 acres
and in addition to the mandir, include a haveli
and the Heritage Museum

Thiruvanaikaval (also Thiruvanaikal) is

Jambukeswarar
Tiruch a Shiva temple in Tiruchirapalli, in the state
Temple,
19 72,843 irappal of India. The temple was built
Thiruvanaikava
li by Kocengannan (Kochenga Chola), one of
l
the Early Cholas, around 1,800 years ago.

20 Nellaiappar 71,000 Tirune This temple, dedicated to Shiva, was built

Temple lvel 2500–3000 years ago. The river
India Tamirabharani referred to by poets as
"Porunai" flows round the city. One of the
famous temples in India steeped in tradition
and history and also known for its musical
pillars and other brilliant sculptural splendor.
The temples were built by Muluthukanda
Rama Pandiyan. The musical pillars in the
Mani Mandapam which produce sound in
various pitches when struck, the Somavara
Mandapam, the 1000 pillared hall, and the
Tamra sabha with intricate wood work, and
the Vasantha Mandapam are some of the
noteworthy points in this temple. The temple
car belongs to this temple is the third largest

194
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temple car in India and it is more than 510

years ago and it is the oldest car festival in the
world.
Meenakshi Sundareswarar Temple or
Meenakshi Amman Temple is dedicated to
Lord Shiva — who is known here
as Sundareswarar or Beautiful Lord — and
Meenakshi Madur his consort, Parvati who is known
21 Amman 70,050 ai Indi as Meenakshi. The temple forms the heart and
Temple a lifeline of the 2500-year-old city of Madurai.
The complex houses 14
magnificent Gopurams or towers including
two golden Gopurams for the main deities,
that are elaborately sculptured and painted.
Rising almost 100 m above the ground, the
Batu Caves temple complex consists of three
main caves and a few smaller ones. The
biggest, referred to as Cathedral Cave or
Temple Cave, has a very high ceiling and
features ornate Hindu shrines. To reach it,
visitors must climb a steep flight of 272 steps.
At the base of the hill are two more cave
temples, Art Gallery Cave and Museum Cave,
both of which are full of Hindu statues and
paintings. This complex was renovated and
opened as the Cave Villa in 2008. Many of the
M
shrines relate the story of Lord Murugan's
alaysia
65,000[3 victory over the demon Soorapadman. An
22 Batu Caves -
3]
audio tour is available to visitors. The
Gomb
Ramayana Cave is situated to the extreme left
ak
as one faces the sheer wall of the hill. On the
way to the Ramayana Cave, there is a 15 m
(50 ft) tall statue of Hanuman and a temple
dedicated to Lord Hanuman, devotee and aide
of Lord Rama. The consecration ceremony of
the temple was held in November 2001. The
Ramayana Cave depicts the story of Rama in
a chronicle manner along the irregular walls
of the cave. A 42.7-metre (140 ft) high statue
of Lord Murugan was unveiled in January
2006, having taken 3 years to construct. It is
the tallest Lord Murugan statue in the world.

195
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k

The Shri Shiva Vishnu Hindu Temple is

located in this suburb. This temple is the
largest Hindu temple in Victoria. Worship at
A the temple is centred around Lord Shiva and
Shri Shiva ustralia Lord Vishnu, the presiding deities of two
23 Vishnu Temple, 61,000 - dominant streams in the Hindu ritualistic
Victoria Victori tradition. The temple attempts to bring the two
a streams together and provide a synthesis.
Many Hindus residing in Melbourne worship
there and is most popularly known for holding
the annual Hindu festivals of Holi and Diwali
Vaitheeswaran Temple is located in India,
In
dedicated to the god Shiva. In this temple,
diaVai
Vaitheeswaran Lord Shiva is worshiped as "Vaitheeswaran"
24 60,780 theesw
Koil or the "God of medicine"; worshipers believe
aran
that prayers to Lord Vaitheeswaran can cure
Koil
diseases.
Maheswarnath Mandir (locally known as
"grand shivala Triolet") is a Hindu temple
located in the town of Triolet, Mauritius. The
presiding deity of the temple is
M Lord Shiva (one of his epithets is
auritius Maheshwarnath, meaning the great Lord).
Maheswarnath
25 41,000 Pampl The temple was founded in 1888 by Pandit
Mandir
emous Shri Sajeebunlall Ramsoondur, who came
ses from Calcutta. The temple is famous for its
association with the first pilgrimage to Ganga
Talao, the sacred lake found in the center of
Mauritius. The temple is the biggest and one
of the oldest temples on the island.
The Jagannath Temple in Puri is a
famous Hindu temple dedicated
to Jagannath (Vishnu) in the coastal town
In
Jagannath of Puri in the state of Odisha, India. The name
26 37,000 diaPur
Temple, Puri Jagannath (Lord of the Universe) is a
i
combination of
the Sanskrit words Jagat (Universe)
and Nath (Lord of)

196
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The Laxminarayan Temple (also known as

the Birla Mandir) is a Hindu temple dedicated
to Laxminarayan in Delhi, India. The temple
is built in honour of Lakshmi (Hindu
goddess of wealth) and her
consort Narayana (Vishnu, Preserver in
the Trimurti). The temple was built in 1622
by Vir Singh Deo and renovated by Prithvi
In Singh in 1793. During 1933-39, Laxmi
27 Birla Mandir 30,000 diaDel Narayan Temple was built by Baldeo Das
hi Birla of Birla family. Thus, the temple is also
known as Birla Mandir. The famous temple is
accredited to have been inaugurated
by Mahatma Gandhi in 1939. At that time,
Gandhi kept a condition that the temple would
not be restricted to the Hindus and people
from every caste would be allowed inside.
Since then, funds for further renovations and
support have come from the Birla family.
The Shri Swaminarayan Mandir, Karachi is
a Hindu temple that is the only Swaminarayan
temple in Pakistan. The temple is notable for
its size and frontage, over 32,306 square yards
(27,012 m2) on the M. A. Jinnah
Shri
Road in Karachi cityThe temple celebrated its
Swaminarayan
28 27,000 Pak anniversary of 150 years in April 2004.It is
Mandir,
Karac believed that not only Hindus but also
Karachi
hi adherents of Islam visit the temple, which
adds to its notability.There is a sacred
cowshed within the premises of this
temple.8 The temple is located at the centre of
a Hindu neighborhood in Karachi.
29 BAPS Shri 16,000 UK BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir (also
Swaminarayan Neasd commonly known as the Neasden Temple) is
Mandir London en a Hindu temple in Neasden, London, England.
Built entirely using traditional methods and
materials, the Swaminarayan mandir has been
described as being Britain's first authentic
Hindu temple. It was also Europe's first
traditional Hindu stone temple, as distinct
from converted secular buildings. It is a part
of the Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam
Swaminarayan Sanstha (BAPS) organisation
and was inaugurated in 1995 by Pramukh

197
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Swami Maharaj. The mandir was cited

in Guinness World Records 2000 as the
largest Hindu temple outside India. However,
since 2000 it has been surpassed in size by
other BAPS mandirs elsewhere. The mandir
was built and funded entirely by the Hindu
community. The entire project spanned five
years although the mandir construction itself
was completed in two-and-a-half years.
Building work began in August 1992. In
November 1992, the temple recorded the
largest concrete-pour in the UK, when 4,500
tons were put down in 24 hours to create a
foundation mat 1.8 metres (5.9 ft) thick. The
first stone was laid in June 1993; two years
later, the building was complete
Dhakeshwari National Temple is a Hindu
temple in Dhaka, Bangladesh. It is state-
owned, giving it the distinction of being
Bangladesh's 'National Temple'. The name
"Dhakeshwari" means so called "Goddess of
B Dhaka". Since the destruction of Ramna Kali
Dhakeshwari 12,140 [4
anglad Mandir in 1971 by the Pakistan Army during
30
Temple 2]
esh the Bangladesh Liberation War, the
dhaka Dhakeshwari Temple has assumed status as
the most important Hindu place of worship in
Bangladesh. It is also the largest Hindu temple
in Bangladesh. This temple is part of the
famous Shakti Peethas in Indian Subcontinent.
Here the gem of sati's crown had fallen.
31 Pashupatinath 6,000[ N The Pashupatinath Temple is a famous and
Temple epal- sacred Hindu temple complex that is located
Khatm on the banks of the Bagmati River,
andu approximately 5 km north-east
of Kathmandu in the eastern part
of Kathmandu Valley, the capital of Nepal.
The temple serves as the seat
of Pashupatinath. This temple complex was
inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage
Sites's list in 1979.[46][47] This "extensive Hindu
temple precinct" is a "sprawling collection of
temples, ashrams, images and inscriptions
raised over the centuries along the banks of
the sacred Bagmati river" and is included as

198
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one of the seven monument groups in

UNESCO's designation of Kathmandu
Valley as visit here.[48] The Pashupati area
contains Pashupatinath Temple as well as
thousands of other monuments, stupas,
temples, monasteries, and shrines covering an
area of 652 acres (264 hectares).
Planned Capacit Name C Comment
area (m2) y o
u
n
t
r
y
250,905 [49][50][51] 30,000 Vrindavan It will be the tallest
Chandroday Ind religious monument in the
a Mandir ia world once completed. At
its potential cost of ₹300
crore (US$42 million) it
is likely to be one of the
most expensive temples
in the world.
809,371 [52] 20,000 Viraat When completed, it will
Ramayan Ind be the largest religious
Mandir ia monument in the world.
The Virat Ramayan
Mandir will be almost
double the height of the
world-famous 12th
century Angkor Wat
temple complex in
Cambodia.
490,000 [53][54][55] 100,000 Ram a Hindu temple that is
Mandir, Ind being built at the
Ayodhya ia pilgrimage site of Ram
Janmabhoomi.
2,832,799 [56] 10,000 Shri It will be a large Hindu
Mayapur Ind temple which will
Chandroday ia function as a Hindu
a Mandir planetarium.

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55,000 [57] - BAPS The mandir, upon

Hindu UA completion, will be the
Mandir Abu E first traditional Hindu
Dhabi stone mandir in
the Middle East
526,091 [59] - Carolina According to its website,
Murugan US the Carolina Murugan
Temple Temple will be located,
along with “the tallest
statue of Lord Murugan in
the world” and multiple
other buildings on the
bank of the Deep River.

X
Comparison between Site Plans of Angkor Wat and
Borobudur temple ( Structural Elements and Architecture)
\
It is approximately 2211 km to get from Borobudur to Phnom Penh, if one is
traveling by land, it's important to know the distance from Phnom
Penh to Angkor Wat. - the trip will be a total of 191 miles (306 km). The
flying distance is 147 miles (235 km). both Burubudur and Angkor Wat are
located in 2 different countries of South East Asia- Borobudur in Indonesia
200
and Angkor Wat in Cambodia

Angkor Wat 'temple city / city of temples, located in northwest Cambodia,

is the largest religious structure (temple complex) in the world by land
area, measuring 162.6 hectares (1.626 km2; 402 acres). At the centre of the
temple stands a quincunx of four towers surrounding a central spire that
rises to a height of 65 m (213 ft) above the ground. The temple has three
rectangular galleries, each raised above the next. It lies within an outer wall
3.6 kilometres (2.2 mi) long and a moat more than 5 kilometres (3 mi) long.
The temple was built at the behest of King Suryavarman II in the early 12th
century in Yaśodharapura, present-day Angkor), the capital of the Khmer
Empire, as the state temple for the empire. Originally constructed as a
personal mausoleum for Suryaman, dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu in the
early 12th century, it was converted to a Buddhist temple towards the end of
the 12th century.

201
it combines two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture:
the temple-mountain and the later galleried temple. It is designed to
represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu and Buddhist cosmology.
Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west. Scholars
are divided as to the significance of this. The temple is admired for the
grandeur and harmony of its architecture, extensive bas-reliefs, and statues
of Buddhas and Devas that adorn its walls.
As the best-preserved temple at the site, it is the only one to have remained
a significant religious centre since its foundation. The temple is at the top of
the high classical style of Khmer architecture. It is one of the most important
pilgrimage sites for Buddhists in Cambodia and around the world. It has
become a symbol of Cambodia, appearing on its national flag, and it is the
country's main tourist attraction. Angkor Wat played a major role in
converting Cambodia into a Buddhist nation.
On the other hand, Borobudur, consists of nine stacked platforms, six
square and three circular, topped by a central dome. It is decorated with
2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. The central dome is surrounded
by 72 Buddha statues, each seated inside a perforated stupa.
Also called Barabudur (Indonesian: Candi Borobudur, Candhi Barabudhur) it
is a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple in Magelang Regency, not far
from the town of Muntilan, in Central Java, Indonesia. It is the world's
largest Buddhist temple.
Built in the 9th century during the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty, the temple
design follows Javanese Buddhist architecture, which blends
the Indonesian indigenous tradition of ancestor worship and the Buddhist
concept of attaining Nirvana. The temple demonstrates the influences

202
of Gupta art that reflects India's influence on the region, yet there are
enough indigenous scenes and elements incorporated to make Borobudur
uniquely Indonesian. The monument is a shrine to the Buddha and a place
for Buddhist pilgrimage. The pilgrim journey begins at the base of the
monument and follows a path around the monument, ascending to the top
through three levels symbolic of Buddhist cosmology: Kāmadhātu (the world
of desire), Rūpadhātu (the world of forms) and Arūpadhātu (the world of
formlessness). The monument guides pilgrims through an extensive system
of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls and
the balustrades. Borobudur has one of the largest and most complete
ensembles of Buddhist reliefs in the world.
Evidence suggests that Borobudur was constructed in the 9th century and
subsequently abandoned following the 14th-century decline
of Hindu kingdoms in Java and the Javanese conversion to Islam. Worldwide
knowledge of its existence was sparked in 1814 by Sir Thomas Stamford
Raffles, then the British ruler of Java, who was advised of its location by
native Indonesians. Borobudur has since been preserved through several
restorations. The largest restoration project was undertaken between 1975
and 1982 by the Indonesian government and UNESCO, followed by the
monument's listing as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Borobudur is the largest Buddhist temple in the world, and ranks
with Bagan in Myanmar and Angkor Wat in Cambodia as one of the great
archeological sites of Southeast Asia. Borobudur remains popular for
pilgrimage, with Buddhists in Indonesia celebrating Vesak Day at the
monument. Borobudur is Indonesia's single most visited tourist attraction.
Twin Dynasty theorey: Bosch in his book "Srivijaya, de Sailendravamsa en de
Sanjayavamsa" (1952) 1 suggested that king Sanjaya was the progenitor of
the Sanjaya Dynasty, and there were two dynasties that ruled Central Java; the
Buddhist Sailendra and the Shivaist Sanjaya dynasty. The inscription also states
that Sanjaya was an ardent follower of Shaivism. From its founding in the early 8th
century until 928, the kingdom was ruled by the Sanjaya dynasty. The first king was
Sanjaya, who ruled in the Mataram region in the vicinity of modern Yogyakarta and
Prambanan, and left the written records on the Canggal inscription. However,
around the mid 8th century, the Sailendra dynasty emerged in Central Java and
challenged Sanjaya domination in the region. 2
According to the prevailing historical interpretation the Sailendra dynasty co-
existed alongside the Sanjaya dynasty in Central Java, with a period of peaceful
co-operation. The Sailendra, with their strong connections to Srivijaya, managed
to gain control of Central Java and become overlords of the Rakai (local Javanese
lords), including the Sanjayas, thus making the Sanjaya kings of Mataram
their vassals.

1. Dr. Bosch, "Srivijaya, de Sailendravamsa en de Sanjayavamsa", 1952.

2.See our book The Amazing Shiva Temple at Prambanan-Dr Uday Dokras
https://www.academia.edu/49220670/Prambanan_Temple_BOOK_______________________________
__________________________________________

203
Little is known about the kingdom due to the dominance of the Sailendra, who
during this period constructed Borobudur, a Buddhist
monument. Samaratungga, the monarch of the Sailendra, tried to secure the
Sailendra position in Java, cementing an alliance with the Sanjayas by arranging
the marriage of his daughter Pramodhawardhani with Pikatan.
Around the middle of the 9th century, relations between the Sanjaya and the
Sailendra deteriorated. In 852, the Sanjaya ruler, Pikatan,
defeated Balaputra, the offspring of the Sailendra monarch Samaratunga and
the princess Tara. This ended the Sailendra presence in Java; Balaputra
retreated to the Srivijayan capital in Sumatra, where he became the
paramount ruler. The victory of Pikatan was recorded in Shivagrha
inscription dated 856, created by Rakai Kayuwangi, Pikatan's successor.
BUDDHIST STUPAS: Both are Buddhist constructions, one Angkor a Hindu
temple converted into a Buddhist one and the other Borobudur is a Buddhist
Stupa right from its Origin. The former thus, has greater Hindu temple
elements as compared to the latter.
Etymology: The modern name, Angkor Wat means "Temple City" or "City of
Temples" in Khmer. Angkor meaning "city" or "capital city", is a vernacular
form of the word nokor -which comes from the Sanskrit/Pali
word nagara (Devanāgarī: नगर). Wat is the Khmer word for "temple
grounds", also derived from Sanskrit/Pali vāṭa (Devanāgarī: वाट), meaning
"enclosure".
The original name of the temple was Vrah Viṣṇuloka or Parama Viṣṇuloka
means god palce which comes from the Sanskrit/Pali. Vishnu one of the three
supreme god in hindus , which was the posthumous name of its royal
founder.
In Indonesian, ancient temples are referred to as candi; thus locals refer to
"Borobudur Temple" as Candi Borobudur. The term candi also loosely
describes ancient structures, for example gates and baths. The origins of the
name Borobudur, however, are unclear, although the original names of most
ancient Indonesian temples are no longer known. The name Borobudur was
first written in Raffles's book on Javan history. Raffles wrote about a
monument called Borobudur, but there are no older documents suggesting
the same name.[ The only old Javanese manuscript that hints the monument
called Budur as a holy Buddhist sanctuary is Nagarakretagama, written
by Mpu Prapanca, a Buddhist scholar of Majapahit court, in 1365.
Most candi are named after a nearby village. If it followed Javanese
language conventions and was named after the nearby village of Bore, the
monument should have been named "BudurBoro". Raffles thought
that Budur might correspond to the modern Javanese word Buda ("ancient")
—i.e., "ancient Boro". He also suggested that the name might derive
from boro, meaning "great" or "honourable" and Budur for Buddha.

204
 However, another archaeologist suggests the second component of the
[13]

name (Budur) comes from Javanese term bhudhara ("mountain").

Another possible etymology by Dutch archaeologist A.J. Bernet Kempers
suggests that Borobudur is a corrupted simplified
local Javanese pronunciation of Biara Beduhur written in Sanskrit as Vihara
Buddha Uhr. The term Buddha-Uhr could mean "the city of Buddhas", while
another possible term Beduhur is probably an Old Javanese term, still
survived today in Balinese vocabulary, which means "a high place",
constructed from the stem word dhuhur or luhur (high). This suggests that
Borobudur means vihara of Buddha located on a high place or on a hill.
History

King Suryavarman II, the builder of Angkor Wat // 800-825

CE. King Samaratungga (r. c. 790-835 CE?) is traditionally regarded as the
Javanese king who oversaw the completion of Borobudur's construction.
Angkor Wat lies 5.5 kilometres (3.4 mi) north of the modern town of Siem
Reap, and a short distance south and slightly east of the previous capital,
which was centred at Baphuon. In an area of Cambodia where there is an
essential group of ancient structures, it is the southernmost of Angkor's main
sites.
According to a myth, the construction of Angkor Wat was ordered by Indra to
serve as a palace for his son Precha Ket Mealea. According to the 13th-
century Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan, some believed that the temple was
constructed in a single night by a divine architect
The initial design and construction of the temple took place in the first half of
the 12th century, during the reign of Suryavarman II (ruled 1113 – c. 1150).
Breaking from the Shaiva tradition of previous kings, Angkor Wat was instead
dedicated to Vishnu. It was built as the king's state temple and capital city.
As neither the foundation stela nor any contemporary inscriptions referring
to the temple have been found, its original name is unknown, but it may

205
have been known as "Varah Vishnu-lok" after the presiding deity. Work
seems to have ended shortly after the king's death, leaving some of the bas-
relief decoration unfinished. The term Vrah Viṣṇuloka or Parama
Viṣṇuloka literally means "The king who has gone to the supreme world of
Vishnu", which refer to Suryavarman II posthumously and intend to venerate
his glory and memory.
In 1177, approximately 27 years after the death of Suryavarman II, Angkor
was sacked by the Chams, the traditional enemies of the Khmer. Thereafter
the empire was restored by a new king, Jayavarman VII, who established a
new capital and state temple (Angkor Thom and the Bayon, respectively), a
few kilometers north, dedicated to Buddhism, because the king believed that
the Hindu gods had failed him. Angkor Wat was therefore also gradually
converted into a Buddhist site, and many Hindu sculptures were relaced by
Buddhist art.

Facade of Angkor Wat, a drawing by Henri Mouhot, c. 1860

206
 Sketch of Angkor Wat, a drawing by Louis Delaporte, c. 1880

Towards the end of the 12th century, Angkor Wat gradually transformed
from a Hindu centre of worship to Buddhism, which

continues to the present day. Angkor Wat is unusual among the Angkor
temples in that although it was largely neglected after the 16th century, it
was never completely abandoned. Fourteen inscriptions dated from the 17th
century, discovered in the Angkor area, testify to Japanese Buddhist pilgrims
that had established small settlements alongside Khmer locals. At that time,
the temple was thought by the Japanese visitors to be the
famed Jetavana garden of the Buddha, which was originally located in the
kingdom of Magadha, India. The best-known inscription tells of Ukondayu
Kazufusa, who celebrated the Khmer New Year at Angkor Wat in 1632.
One of the first Western visitors to the temple was António da Madalena,
a Portuguese friar who visited in 1586 and said that it "is of such
extraordinary construction that it is not possible to describe it with a pen,
particularly since it is like no other building in the world. It has towers and
decoration and all the refinements which the human genius can conceive of."
In 1860, the temple was effectively rediscovered by the French naturalist
and explorer Henri Mouhot, who popularised the site in the West through the
publication of travel notes, in which he wrote:
One of these temples, a rival to that of Solomon, and erected by some
ancient Michelangelo, might take an honorable place beside our most
beautiful buildings. It is grander than anything left to us by Greece or Rome,
and presents a sad contrast to the state of barbarism in which the nation is
now plunged.

207
There were no ordinary dwellings or houses or other signs of settlement,
including cooking utensils, weapons, or items of clothing usually found at
ancient sites. Instead, there is only evidence of the monuments themselves.

208
The grand replica of Angkor Wat in Paris Colonial Exposition (1931) represented
the immense grandeur of the French protectorate of Cambodia.

The artistic legacy of Angkor Wat and other Khmer monuments in

the Angkor region led directly to France adopting Cambodia as
a protectorate on 11 August 1863 and invading Siam to take control of the
ruins. This quickly led to Cambodia reclaiming lands in the northwestern
corner of the country that had been under Siamese (Thai) control since AD
1351 (Manich Jumsai 2001), or by some accounts, AD 1431.
Angkor Wat's aesthetics were on display in the plaster cast museum of Louis
Delaporte called musée Indo-chinois which existed in the Parisian Trocadero
Palace from c.1880 to the mid-1920s.

209
The 20th century saw a considerable restoration of Angkor Wat. [31] Gradually
teams of laborers and archeologists pushed back the jungle and exposed the
expanses of stone, permitting the sun to once again illuminate the dark
corners of the temple. Angkor Wat caught the attention and imagination of a
wider audience in Europe when the pavilion of French protectorate of
Cambodia, as part of French Indochina, recreated the life-size replica of
Angkor Wat during Paris Colonial Exposition in 1931.
The temple is a powerful symbol of Cambodia, and is a source of great
national pride that has factored into Cambodia's diplomatic relations with
France, the United States, and its neighbour Thailand. A depiction of Angkor
Wat has been a part of Cambodian national flags since the introduction of
the first version circa 1863. From a larger historical and even transcultural
perspective, however, the temple of Angkor Wat did not become a symbol of
national pride sui generis but had been inscribed into a larger politico-
cultural process of French-colonial heritage production in which the original
temple site was presented in French colonial and universal exhibitions in
Paris and Marseille between 1889 and 1937. That is what Borubudur misses
out.It is simply an tourist attraction.
In December 2015, it was announced that a research team from University of
Sydney had found a previously unseen ensemble of buried towers built and
demolished during the construction of Angkor Wat, as well as a massive
structure of unknown purpose on its south side and wooden fortifications.
The findings also include evidence of low-density residential occupation in
the region, with a road grid, ponds, and mounds. These indicate that the
temple precinct, bounded by moat and wall, may not have been used
exclusively by the priestly elite, as was previously thought. The team
used LiDAR, ground-penetrating radar and targeted excavation to map
Angkor Wat.

ARCHITECTURE
Site and plan of Angkor Wat

210
The initial design and construction of the temple took place in the first half of
the 12th century, during the reign of Suryavarman II (ruled 1113 – c. 1150).
Borobudur built between AD 780 and 840 during the reign of Syailendra
dynast in the Indian Gupta dynesty architecture reflects India's influence on
the region. However, there are enough indigenous scenes and elements
incorporated to make Borobudur uniquely Indonesian.

211
General layout of Angkor Wat with its central structure in the middle

Aerial view of Angkor Wat

Angkor Wat is a unique combination of the temple mountain (the standard

design for the empire's state temples) and the later plan of
concentric galleries. The construction of Angkor Wat also suggests that there
was a celestial significance with certain features of the temple. This is
observed in the temple's east–west orientation, and lines of sight from
terraces within the temple that show specific towers to be at the precise
location of the sunrise on a solstice. The temple is a representation of Mount
Meru, the home of the gods: the central quincunx of towers symbolises the
five peaks of the mountain, and the walls and moat symbolize the

212
surrounding mountain ranges and ocean. Access to the upper areas of the
temple was progressively more exclusive, with the laity being admitted only
to the lowest level.
The Angkor Wat temple's main tower aligns to the morning sun of the spring
equinox. Unlike most Khmer temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west
rather than the east. This has led many (including Maurice Glaize and George
Coedès) to conclude that Suryavarman intended it to serve as his funerary
temple. Further evidence for this view is provided by the bas-reliefs, which
proceed in a counter-clockwise direction—prasavya in Hindu terminology—as
this is the reverse of the normal order. Rituals take place in reverse order
during Brahminic funeral services. The archaeologist Charles Higham also
describes a container which may have been a funerary jar which was
recovered from the central tower. It has been nominated by some as the
greatest expenditure of energy on the disposal of a corpse. Freeman and
Jacques, however, note that several other temples of Angkor depart from the
typical eastern orientation, and suggest that Angkor Wat's alignment was
due to its dedication to Vishnu, who was associated with the west.
Drawing on the temple's alignment and dimensions, and on the content and
arrangement of the bas-reliefs, researcher Eleanor Mannikka argues that the
structure represents a claimed new era of peace under King Suryavarman II:
"as the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the
sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to
consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power
and to honour and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above.”
Style
Angkor Wat is the prime example of the classical style of Khmer architecture
—the Angkor Wat style—to which it has given its name. By the 12th century
Khmer architects had become skilled and confident in the use
of sandstone (rather than brick or laterite) as the main building material.
Most of the visible areas are of sandstone blocks, while laterite was used for
the outer wall and for hidden structural parts. The binding agent used to join
the blocks is yet to be identified, although natural resins or slaked lime has
been suggested.
The temple has drawn praise above all for the harmony of its design.
According to Maurice Glaize, a mid-20th-century conservator of Angkor, the
temple "attains a classic perfection by the restrained monumentality of its
finely balanced elements and the precise arrangement of its proportions. It is
a work of power, unity, and style."
Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include: the ogival,
redented towers shaped like lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden
passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the cruciform
terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple. Typical decorative
elements are devatas (or apsaras), bas-reliefs, and on pediments extensive

213
garlands and narrative scenes. The statuary of Angkor Wat is considered
conservative, being more static and less graceful than earlier work. Other
elements of the design have been destroyed by looting and the passage of
time, including gilded stucco on the towers, gilding on some figures on the
bas-reliefs, and wooden ceiling panels and doors.

Site and plan

Plan of Borobudur

Our current knowledge of the names of kings that reign the Medang
Mataram kingdom is much owed to Mantyasih inscription (dated 907), issued
by King Balitung (r. 898–910)—that contains genealogy and the reign order of
Medang Mataram kings, and he seek ancestor as far as King Sanjaya. This
inscription is also known as "Balitung charter". The motivation of Balitung's
edict has sparked various assumptions from historians—as if Balitung
eagerly seeks legitimacy of his rule, by stating his ancestral lineage. It is
highly possible that he related to the royal family and shared common
ancestry. Thus, suggested that he married to the daughter of previous king,
which made him the royal son-in-law as well as heir .

King Samaratungga (r. 819–838) was credited for the completion of massive
stone mandala, the grand monument of Borobudur (completed in 825).
Samaratungga just like Samaragrawira, seems to be deeply influenced by
peaceful Mahayana Buddhist beliefs and strive to become a pacifist and a
benevolent ruler. His successor was Princess Pramodhawardhani that betrothed
to Shivaite Rakai Pikatan, son of the influential Rakai Patapan, a landlord in
Central Java. The political move that seems as an effort to secure peace and
Sailendran rule on Java by reconciling the Mahayana Buddhist with Shivaist
Hindus.

Borobudur covers a total surface area of around 2,500 m2. The monument
is a marvel of design, decorated with 2,672 relief panels and originally 504
Buddha statues. The architecture and stonework of this temple have no
equal. It was built without using any cement or mortar! The structure is like a
set of massive interlocking Lego blocks held together without any glue. Built
with about 2,000,000 cubic feet (56,600 cubic metres) of gray volcanic
stone, Borobudur encloses a small hill and is shaped like a stepped
pyramid with three major levels—a square base, a middle level of five square
terraces, and an upper level of three circular terraces—totaling, in effect,
nine lesser sections It was built in three tiers: a pyramidal base with five
concentric square terraces, the trunk of a cone with three circular platforms
and, at the top, a monumental stupa.

Features-Outer enclosure

214
uring the visit, which began at 4 am, I was able to witness the spectacle of
the sunrise from the temple, where the bluish light of dawn slowly unveils
the mountains surrounding the temple, while a thick fog that emanates from
the Javanese jungle makes you feel like being in a not earthly place, closer to
heaven.

BOROBUDUR, THE ARCHITECTURAL MANDALA.

215
In Buddhism, the mandala represents a landscape of the universe with
Buddha in its center, and shows the different steps in the process of finding
the truth.Borobudur was built on a hill, following the layout of a giant
mandala, representing the Buddhist cosmology. It consists of nine platforms
divided into three.sections:

1.The upper three are circular platforms, called Arupadhatu, and have a
slightly curved oval shape consisting of two minor axes aligned with the
cardinal points and two major axes aligned with the intermediate directions.
2. The six lower platforms are square, called Rupadhatu,
3. Kamadhatu. a structure in the base was discovered in 1885.
4. The lower platform probably also had a structural function to prevent the
collapse of the structure. It was added after the temple was finished, as it
can be seen in one of the corners, where the older reliefs have been
exposed.

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The architectural layout leads the visitor throughout a system of stairs in
order to ascend to the platforms and reach the top of the structure, a clear
representation of the journey towards a spiritual "enlightenment". The
pilgrims walked each platform twice, in order to learn from the reliefs on
each side.
Between the latest square platform and the first circular one there is an arch
topped by an intimidating figure of a guardian. It is a reference to a
transition to a more pure place, where evil spirits had no access.The bell-

217
shaped stupas contain the figure of a Buddha..

An interesting detail is that the openings of the stupas of the first two levels
are in diamond shape, while those of the stupas of the upper platform are in
square shape. (Note the different form of the pieces of stone). Perhaps this
symbolized the path perfection, to the enlightenment that every pilgrim
aspired by climbing and meditating through the different platforms.

The last great stupa, crowned by an octagonal pinnacle, has no opening and
some people say that inside there used to be a golden Buddha, stolen by a
Dutchman explorer, but this theory has not been proved. The simplicity of its
form contrasts with the baroque richness of the reliefs that are located in the
platforms below, and I imagine that has to do precisely with the austerity
and simplicity that Buddha preached.

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ASTROLOGICAL-COSMOLOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL RELATIONS IN BOROBUDUR

The structure can be divided into three main elements: the base, the central
part and the top, which in analogy to the feet, body and head represent the
three states of mental preparation: the Kamadhatu or world of desires,the
Rupadhatu or world of forms and the Arupadhatu or formless world. A 1977
study by the professor found a ratio of 4:6:9 for the composition of both the
three parts of the temple as well as each of the temple main parts. This ratio
is equal to that found in the temples of Pawon and Mendut as well as the
impressive complex of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.

Section of the temple according to Professor Atmadi.Image courtesy of

Borobudur.tv

The researcher Mark Long, who has been studying the calendrical,
astronomical and cosmological relations in Borobudur for several years,
based on its own survey of the complex, proposed that the same ratio of
4:6:9 can be applied to the width of the whole monument.
North South Section, where according to Mark Long the same 4:6:9 ratio was
used, such as in the height of the temple.
It is thought that the architect of Borobudur, named Gunadharma, believed
that the plans of temples played a direct role in determining the fate of each

219
occupant of the structure, so the architect's role should be to harmonize the
forces of the microcosm that govern human life with the macrocosm that
governs the life of the gods. Gunadharma took the tala as a measurement
unit, which is the distance between the thumb and little finger when they are
stretched to their maximum separation, a system widely used in India.
Because this measure varies little from person to person it is possible that
the tala form an important person may have been employed as a method of
standardization. Mark Long has found that the extent of the tala used in the
monument was 22.9 cm.

Based on his own measurements, Long stated that the overall dimensions
are based on a number of talas that symbolize important events in the Hindu
calendar, specifically a calendar called Vatsu Purusha Mandala. In the faces
and square corners of this diagram the solstices and equinoxes are
represented. The arrangement of the stupas follows a well-studied geometric
pattern, avoiding, for example, being placed in the main diagonals of the
monument, where it was believed the important divine energies flow.

DECORATION:Borobudur aside of the symbolism in their mandalic

architectural layout displays also many references to the life of Buddha, both
in reliefs and statues.The reliefs have an educational role. The scenes
represent the history of Buddha, his various incarnations and the path that
the faithful should follow to reach Nirvana.

The Buddha statues, many of whom are maimed and some missing, are
distributed differently in the square platforms than in the circular ones.
In the five square platforms, called Rupadhatu, the Buddhas, numbering 432,
are located in niches, placed in rows in art outer part of the balustrades. The
number of Buddhas diminishes as platforms get higher. Thus, the first
platform contains 104 niches, the second 104, the third 88, the fourth 72 and
the fifth 64.

220
Details of Borobudur/ Extreme left pic Model top temple-Photo courtesy of
Davey Sarge

The upper platforms or Arupadhatu, contain 72 small latticed stupas (which

are mound-shaped structures, typical of early Buddhism) that surround a
larger stupa more. Thus, in the first level there are 32 stupas, 24 in the
second and 16 in the third level.

While at first glance the Buddhas seem to be the same. sitting lotus position,
which is sitting on crossed legs. However, the different hand position
represents various statesof meditation.
http://architecturalmoleskine.blogspot.com/2010/02/borobudur-
indonesia.html

Northern library no 1 in pic

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The outer wall encloses a space of 820,000 square metres (203 acres), which
besides the temple proper was originally occupied by the city and, to the
north of the temple, the royal palace. Like all secular buildings of Angkor,
these were built of perishable materials rather than of stone, so nothing
remains of them except the outlines of some of the streets. Most of the area
is now covered by forest. A 350 m (1,150 ft) causeway connects the western
gopura to the temple proper, with naga balustrades and six sets of steps
leading down to the city on either side. Each side also features a library with
entrances at each cardinal point, in front of the third set of stairs from the
entrance, and a pond between the library and the temple itself. The ponds
are later additions to the design, as is the cruciform terrace guarded by lions
connecting the causeway to the central structure.

Its dimensions are, 1,024 m (3,360 ft) by 802 m (2,631 ft) and 4.5 m (15 ft)
high, is surrounded by a 30 m (98 ft) apron of open ground and a moat
190 m (620 ft) wide and over 5 kilometres (3 mi) in perimeter. The moat
extends 1.5 kilometres from east to west and 1.3 kilometres from north to
south. Access to the temple is by an earth bank to the east and a sandstone
causeway to the west; the latter, the main entrance, is a later addition,
possibly replacing a wooden bridge There are gopuras at each of the cardinal
points; the western is by far the largest and has three ruined towers. Glaize

222
notes that this gopura both hides and echoes the form of the temple
proper. Under the southern tower is a statue known as Ta Reach, originally
an eight-armed statue of Vishnu may have occupied the temple's central
shrine. Galleries run between the towers and as far as two further entrances
on either side of the gopura often referred to as "elephant gates", as they
are large enough to admit those animals. These galleries have square pillars
on the outer (west) side and a closed wall on the inner (east) side. The
ceiling between the pillars is decorated with lotus rosettes; the west face of
the wall with dancing figures; and the east face of the wall with balustered
windows, dancing male figures on prancing animals, and devatas, including
(south of the entrance) the only one in the temple to be showing her teeth.

King Suryavarman II, the builder of Angkor Wat

Central structure
The temple stands on a terrace raised higher than the city. It is made of three
rectangular galleries rising to a central tower, each level higher than the last. The
two inner galleries each have four large towers at their ordinal corners (that is, NW,
NE, SE and SW) surrounding a higher fifth tower. This pattern is sometimes called a
quincunx and represents the mountains of Meru. Because the temple faces west,
the features are all set back towards the east, leaving more space to be filled in
each enclosure and gallery on the west side; for the same reason the west-facing
steps are shallower than those on the other sides.
Mannikka interprets the galleries as being dedicated to the king, Brahma, the moon,
and Vishnu.[19] Each gallery has a gopura at each of the points. The outer gallery
measures 187 m (614 ft) by 215 m (705 ft), with pavilions rather than towers at the
corners. The gallery is open to the outside of the temple, with columned half-
galleries extending and buttressing the structure. Connecting the outer gallery to
the second enclosure on the west side is a cruciform cloister called Preah
Poan (meaning "The Thousand Buddhas" Gallery). Buddha images were left in the
cloister by pilgrims over the centuries, although most have now been removed. This
area has many inscriptions relating the good deeds of pilgrims, most written

223
in Khmer but others in Burmese and Japanese. The four small courtyards marked
out by the cloister may originally have been filled with water. [59] North and south of
the cloister are libraries.
Beyond, the second and inner galleries are connected to each other and to two
flanking libraries by another cruciform terrace, again a later addition. From the
second level upwards, devatas abound on the walls, singly or in groups of up to
four. The second-level enclosure is 100 m (330 ft) by 115 m (377 ft), and may
originally have been flooded to represent the ocean around Mount Meru. Three sets
of steps on each side lead up to the corner towers and gopuras of the inner gallery.
The very steep stairways represent the difficulty of ascending to the kingdom of the
gods. This inner gallery, called the Bakan, is a 60 m (200 ft) square with axial
galleries connecting each gopura with the central shrine, and subsidiary shrines
located below the corner towers.
The roofings of the galleries are decorated with the motif of the body of a snake
ending in the heads of lions or garudas. Carved lintels and pediments decorate the
entrances to the galleries and to the shrines. The tower above the central shrine
rises 43 m (141 ft) to a height of 65 m (213 ft) above the ground; unlike those of
previous temple mountains, the central tower is raised above the surrounding
four. The shrine itself, originally occupied by a statue of Vishnu and open on each
side, was walled in when the temple was converted to Theravada Buddhism, the
new walls featuring standing Buddhas. In 1934, the conservator George Trouvé
excavated the pit beneath the central shrine: filled with sand and water it had
already been robbed of its treasure, but he did find a sacred foundation deposit
of gold leaf two metres above ground level.

The main structure can be divided into three components: base, body, and top.
[85]
The base is 123 m × 123 m (404 ft × 404 ft) in size with 4 metres (13 ft) walls.
[84]
The body is composed of five square platforms, each of diminishing height. The
first terrace is set back 7 metres (23 ft) from the edge of the base. Each subsequent
terrace is set back 2 metres (6.6 ft), leaving a narrow corridor at each stage. The
top consists of three circular platforms, with each stage supporting a row of
perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome at the
center, the top of which is the highest point of the monument, 35 metres (115 ft)
above ground level. Stairways at the center of each of the four sides give access to
the top, with a number of arched gates overlooked by 32 lion statues. The gates are
adorned with Kala's head carved on top of each and Makaras projecting from each
side. This Kala-Makara motif is commonly found on the gates of Javanese temples.
The main entrance is on the eastern side, the location of the first narrative reliefs.
Stairways on the slopes of the hill also link the monument to the low-lying plain.
Decoration
Integrated with the architecture of the building, and one of the causes for its fame is
Angkor Wat's extensive decoration, which predominantly takes the form of bas-
relief friezes. The inner walls of the outer gallery bear a series of large-scale scenes
mainly depicting episodes from the Hindu epics the Ramayana and
the Mahabharata. Higham has called these "the greatest known linear arrangement
of stone carving".From the north-west corner anti-clockwise, the western gallery
shows the Battle of Lanka (from the Ramayana, in which Rama defeats Ravana) and

224
the Battle of Kurukshetra (from the Mahabharata, showing the mutual annihilation
of the Kaurava and Pandava clans). On the southern gallery follow the only
historical scene, a procession of Suryavarman II, then the 32 hells and
37 heavens of Hinduism.
On the eastern gallery is one of the most celebrated scenes, the Churning of the
Sea of Milk, showing 92 asuras and 88 devas using the serpent Vasuki to churn the
sea under Vishnu's direction (Mannikka counts only 91 asuras, and explains the
asymmetrical numbers as representing the number of days from the winter
solstice to the spring equinox, and from the equinox to the summer solstice).[66] It is
followed by Vishnu defeating asuras (a 16th-century addition). The northern gallery
shows Krishna's victory over Bana (where according to Glaize, "The workmanship is
at its worst").
Angkor Wat is decorated with depictions of apsaras and devata; there are more
than 1,796 depictions of devata in the present research inventory. Angkor Wat
architects employed small apsara images (30 cm (12 in)–40 cm (16 in)) as
decorative motifs on pillars and walls. They incorporated larger devata images (all
full-body portraits measuring approximately 95 cm (37 in)–110 cm (43 in)) more
prominently at every level of the temple from the entry pavilion to the tops of the
high towers. In 1927, Sappho Marchal published a study cataloging the remarkable
diversity of their hair, headdresses, garments, stance, jewellery and decorative
flowers, which Marchal concluded were based on actual practices of the Angkor
period.

King's or Stone inscription

Date ruler's Capital and source of Event
name historical account

The Shaivist old Malay-

speaking family began to
Sojomerto settle in coastal Central Java,
c. 650 Santanu ? suggested of Sumatran origin
inscription (c. 670–700) (?) or native Javanese family
under Srivijayan influences
(vassal)

Batang
Dapunta (Central Sojomerto Establishing ruling family, the
c. 674 first time the name 'Selendra'
Selendra Java north inscription (c. 670–700) (Shailendra) was mentioned
coast)

Carita Parahyangan,
Kalingga,
Chinese account
somewhere
674— on Hwi-ning visits Ruling the kingdom
Shima (?) between Pek
703 to Ho-ling kingdom of Kalingga
alongan and
(664) and the reign of
Jepara
queen Hsi-mo (674)

225
 King's or Stone inscription
Date ruler's Capital and source of Event
name historical account

703— Mandiminyak Son-in-law of Shima, ruling

? Carita Parahyangan
710 (?) the kingdom of Galuh

Canggal Sanna ruled Java, but after

710— his death the kingdom fell to
Sanna ? inscription (732), Carita
717 chaotic disunity by usurper or
Parahyangan foreign invasion

Sanjaya, the nephew (or

son?) of Sanna restore the
Canggal order and ascend to throne,
717— Mataram, some early historian took this
Sanjaya inscription (732), Carita
760 Central Java event as the establishment of
Parahyangan new Sanjaya Dynasty, while
other hold that this only the
continuation of Shailendras

Raja Sankhara Rakai Panangkaran

760— Rakai Mataram, inscription, Kalasan converted from Shaivism to
Mahayana Buddhism,
775 Panangkaran Central Java inscription (778), Carita construction
Parahyangan of Kalasan temple[18]:89

Also ruled Srivijaya in

Kelurak Sumatra, construction
775— Mataram, inscription (782), Ligor of Manjusrigrha temple,
Dharanindra started the construction
800 Central Java inscription (c. 782 or of Borobudur (c. 770), Java
787) ruled Ligor and Southern
Cambodia (Chenla) (c. 790)

800— Samaragrawir Mataram, Ligor inscription (c. Also ruled Srivijaya, lost
812 a[18]:92–93 Central Java 787) Cambodia (802)

812— Samaratungg Mataram, Karangtengah Also ruled Srivijaya,

completion of Borobudur
833 a Central Java inscription (824) (825)

833— Pramodhawar Mamrati, Shivagrha Defeated and

856 dhani co-reign Central Java inscription (856) expelled Balaputra to
Srivijaya (Sumatra)
with her
husband Raka

226
 King's or Stone inscription
Date ruler's Capital and source of Event
name historical account

. Construction of Prambanan

and Plaosan temple. The

successors of Pikatan,

the series of Medang kings

from

Lokapala (850—890)
to Wawa (924—929) could be

considered as the
i Pikatan continuation

of Shailendra lineage,
although King Balitung

(898—910) in

Mantyasih inscription (907)

sought ancestor only as far

as Sanjaya, thus enforced the

Sanjaya dynasty theory.

Defeated by Pikatan-
Pramodhawardhani,

expelled from Central Java

Srivijaya, Shivagrha
833— Balaputradew
South inscription (856), Nalan ,rule
took refuge in Sumatra and
850 a Srivijaya, claim as the
Sumatra da inscription (860)
legitimate

successor of Shailendra
dynasty from Java

Śri Srivijaya,
Embassies to China Sending embassies, tribute
c. 960 Udayadityavar South
(960 and 962) and trade mission to China
man Sumatra

Srivijaya,
Haji (Hia- Embassies to China Sending embassies, tribute
c. 980 South
Tche) (980–983) and trade mission to China
Sumatra

227
 King's or Stone inscription
Date ruler's Capital and source of Event
name historical account

Sending embassies, tribute

and trade mission to China,

Embassies to China Javanese

Srivijaya, (988-992-1003), King Dharmawangsa invasio
Sri Cudamani n on Srivijaya,
c. 988 South Tanjore Inscription or
Warmadewa
Sumatra Leiden Inscription building of temple for
(1044) Chinese Emperor, gift of
village by

Raja-raja I

Sri Srivijaya, Sending embassies, tribute

Embassies to China
c. 1008 Maravijayottun South and trade mission to China
(1008) (1008)
gga Sumatra

Srivijaya, Sending embassies, tribute

Embassies to China
c. 1017 Sumatrabhumi South and trade mission to China
(1017) (1017)
Sumatra

Sangrama Srivijaya, Chola Inscription on Chola raid on Srivijaya, the

c. 1025 Vijayatunggav South the temple of Rajaraja, capital captured by Rajendra
arman Sumatra Tanjore Chola

The construction of Borobudur is said to have been started by

Dharanindra or commonly known as King Indra was the ruler of
the Sailendra dynasty who was the Emperor of Central Java and Srivijaya.
Dharanindra was the successor of Panangkaran, he ruled the kingdom in the period
775—800. He was mentioned as a great conqueror and credited for Sailendra's
overseas campaign.
He was mentioned in Kelurak inscription (dated 782) in his formal reign name Sri
Sanggrama Dhananjaya.[2]:91 In this inscription he was hailed
as Wairiwarawiramardana or "the slayer of courageous enemies". The similar title
also found in Ligor B inscription discovered in Southern Thailand Malay
Peninsula; Sarwwarimadawimathana, which suggest it referred to the same person.
Dharanindra seems to be a warlike character, as he embarked on military naval
expedition overseas and has brought Sailendras' control on Ligor in Malay

228
Peninsula. After conquering and taking Ligor back from Water Chenla, he also
launched raids against Champa in 774 and 770, and conquered Southern
Cambodia in Mekong delta in early 9th century. During this time, Jayavarman II from
Java (Malay Peninsula), was probably the commander of the Srivijayan army. [3] At
the behest of Maharaja Srivijaya (Dharaindra), Jayavarman II was installed as a new
Cambodia king and Angkor Dynasty was founded.
King Indra seems to continue the builder tradition of his predecessor. He continued
and completed the construction of Manjusrigrha temple, and according to
the Karangtengah inscription (dated 824) responsible for the construction of
Venuvana temple, connected to Mendut or probably Ngawen temple. He was also
probably responsible for the conception, planning and initiate the construction
of Borobudur and Pawon temple.

This great Temple was finished by finished by King Samaratungga was the
head of the Sailendra dynasty who ruled Central Java and Srivijaya in the 8th and
the 9th century. He was the successor of King Indra, and his name was mentioned
in Karangtengah inscription dated 824 CE as the constructor of a sacred Buddhist
building called Venuvana (Sanksrit: bamboo forest) to place the cremated ashes of
his predecessor King Indra of Sailendra. [2] During his administration, he initiated the
construction of a massive Buddhist monument Borobudur. Samaratungga
married Dewi Tara, the princess of Srivijayan ruler Dharmasetu, which created close
political alliance between the Sailendras and Srivijaya.
Samaratungga had one son by the name of Balaputra and one
daughter Pramodhawardhani. After Samaratungga died, Pramodhawardhani married
the Shivaite Rakai Pikatan from Sanjaya dynasty. Rakai Pikatan managed to usurp
Balaputra's authority over Central Java and forced the Saleidras to flee Java
for Srivijaya.
Under the reign of Samaratungga too, Jayavarman II was appointed as the governor
of Indrapura in the Mekong delta. Jayavarman later revoked his allegiance to the
Sailedras and Srivijaya to form the Khmer Empire.

Borobudur is constructed in such a way that it reveals various levels

of terraces, showing intricate architecture that goes from being heavily
ornamented with bas-reliefs to being plain in Arupadhatu circular terraces.
The first four terrace walls are showcases for bas-relief sculptures. These are
exquisite, considered to be the most elegant and graceful in the ancient
Buddhist world.
The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th-
century ancient Java, from the courtly palace life, hermit in the forest, to
those of commoners in the village. It also depicted temple, marketplace,
various flora and fauna, and also native vernacular architecture. People
depicted here are the images of king, queen, princes, noblemen, courtier,
soldier, servant, commoners, priest and hermit. The reliefs also depicted
mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras,
gods, bodhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and apsaras. The images depicted

229
on bas-relief often served as reference for historians to research for certain
subjects, such as the study of architecture, weaponry, economy, fashion, and
also mode of transportation of 8th-century Maritime Southeast Asia. One of
the famous renderings of an 8th-century Southeast Asian double outrigger
ship is Borobudur Ship. Today, the actual-size replica of Borobudur Ship that
had sailed from Indonesia to Africa in 2004 is displayed in the Samudra
Raksa Museum, located a few hundred meters north of Borobudur.

230
The Borobudur reliefs also pay close attention to Indian aesthetic discipline,
such as pose and gesture that contain certain meanings and aesthetic value.
The reliefs of noblemen, noble women, kings, or divine beings such
as apsaras, taras and boddhisattvas are usually portrayed in tribhanga pose,
the three-bend pose on neck, hips, and knee, with one leg resting and one
upholding the body weight. This position is considered as the most graceful
pose, such as the figure of Surasundari holding a lotus.
During Borobudur excavation, archeologists discovered colour pigments
of blue, red, green, black, as well as bits of gold foil, and concluded that the
monument that we see today – a dark gray mass of volcanic stone, lacking in
colour – was probably once coated with varjalepa white plaster and then
painted with bright colors, serving perhaps as a beacon of Buddhist
teaching. The same vajralepa plaster can also be found
in Sari, Kalasan and Sewu temples. It is likely that the bas-reliefs of
Borobudur was originally quite colourful, before centuries of torrential
tropical rainfalls peeled-off the colour pigments.
Borobudur contains approximately 2,670 individual bas reliefs (1,460
narrative and 1,212 decorative panels), which cover
the façades and balustrades. The total relief surface is 2,500 square metres
(27,000 sq ft), and they are distributed at the hidden foot (Kāmadhātu) and
the five square platforms (Rupadhatu).
The narrative panels, which tell the story of Sudhana and Manohara,[95] are
grouped into 11 series that encircle the monument with a total length of
3,000 metres (9,800 ft). The hidden foot contains the first series with 160
narrative panels, and the remaining 10 series are distributed throughout
walls and balustrades in four galleries starting from the eastern entrance

231
stairway to the left. Narrative panels on the wall read from right to left, while
those on the balustrade read from left to right. This conforms
with pradaksina, the ritual of circumambulation performed by pilgrims who
move in a clockwise direction while keeping the sanctuary to their right.
The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The walls of the first
gallery have two superimposed series of reliefs; each consists of 120 panels.
The upper part depicts the biography of the Buddha, while the lower part of
the wall and also the balustrades in the first and the second galleries tell the
story of the Buddha's former livesThe remaining panels are devoted to
Sudhana's further wandering about his search, terminated by his attainment
of the Perfect Wisdom.

Narrative panels distribution

No. of
Section Location Story
panels

Karmavibhangg
hidden foot wall 160
a

Lalitavistara 120
main wall
Jataka/Avadana 120
first gallery
Jataka/Avadana 372
balustrad
e
Jataka/Avadana 128

balustrad
Jataka/Avadana 100
e
second
gallery
main wall Gandavyuha 128

third gallery main wall Gandavyuha 88

232
 balustrad
Gandavyuha 88
e

main wall Gandavyuha 84

fourth gallery
balustrad
Gandavyuha 72
e

Total 1,460

The law of karma (Karmavibhangga)

The Karmavibangga scene on Borobudur's hidden foot, on the right depicting
sinful act of killing and cooking turtles and fishes, on the left those who make
living by killing animals will be tortured in hell, by being cooked alive, being
cut, or being thrown into a burning house.
The 160 hidden panels do not form a continuous story, but each panel
provides one complete illustration of cause and effect.[94] There are
depictions of blameworthy activities, from gossip to murder, with their
corresponding punishments. There are also praiseworthy activities, that
include charity and pilgrimage to sanctuaries, and their subsequent rewards.
The pains of hell and the pleasure of heaven are also illustrated. There are
scenes of daily life, complete with the full panorama of samsara (the endless
cycle of birth and death). The encasement base of the Borobudur temple was
disassembled to reveal the hidden foot, and the reliefs were photographed
by Casijan Chepas in 1890. It is these photographs that are displayed
in Borobudur Museum (Karmawibhangga Museum), located just several
hundred meters north of the temple. During the restoration, the foot
encasement was reinstalled, covering the Karmawibhangga reliefs. Today,
only the southeast corner of the hidden foot is revealed and visible for
visitors.
The story of Prince Siddhartha and the birth of Buddha
(Lalitavistara)

The story starts with the descent of the Buddha from the Tushita heaven and
ends with his first sermon in the Deer Park near Benares.[96] The relief shows
the birth of the Buddha as Prince Siddhartha, son of
King Suddhodana and Queen Maya of Kapilavastu (in Nepal).

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The story is preceded by 27 panels showing various preparations, in the
heavens and on the earth, to welcome the final incarnation of
the Bodhisattva. Before descending from Tushita heaven, the Bodhisattva
entrusted his crown to his successor, the future Buddha Maitreya. He
descended on earth in the shape of white elephants with six tusks,
penetrated to Queen Maya's right womb. Queen Maya had a dream of this
event, which was interpreted that his son would become either a sovereign
or a Buddha.
While Queen Maya felt that it was the time to give birth, she went to
the Lumbini park outside the Kapilavastu city. She stood under a plaksa tree,
holding one branch with her right hand, and she gave birth to a son, Prince
Siddhartha. The story on the panels continues until the prince becomes the
Buddha.
The stories of Buddha's previous life (Jataka) and other legendary
people (Avadana)
Jatakas are stories about the Buddha before he was born as Prince
Siddhartha. They are the stories that tell about the previous lives of the
Buddha, in both human and animal form. The future Buddha may appear in
them as a king, an outcast, a god, an elephant—but, in whatever form, he
exhibits some virtue that the tale thereby inculcates. Avadanas are similar to
jatakas, but the main figure is not the Bodhisattva himself. The saintly deeds
in avadanas are attributed to other legendary persons. Jatakas and avadanas
are treated in one and the same series in the reliefs of Borobudur.
The first twenty lower panels in the first gallery on the wall depict
the Sudhanakumaravadana, or the saintly deeds of Sudhana. The first 135
upper panels in the same gallery on the balustrades are devoted to the 34
legends of the Jatakamala. The remaining 237 panels depict stories from
other sources, as do the lower series and panels in the second gallery. Some
jatakas are depicted twice, for example the story of King Sibhi (Rama's
forefather).
Sudhana's search for the ultimate truth (Gandavyuha)
Gandavyuha is the story told in the final chapter of the Avatamsaka
Sutra about Sudhana's tireless wandering in search of the Highest Perfect
Wisdom. It covers two galleries (third and fourth) and also half of the second
gallery, comprising in total of 460 panels. The principal figure of the story,
the youth Sudhana, son of an extremely rich merchant, appears on the 16th
panel. The preceding 15 panels form a prologue to the story of the miracles
during Buddha's samadhi in the Garden of Jeta at Sravasti.
Sudhana was instructed by Manjusri to meet the monk Megasri, his first
spiritual friend. As his journey continues, Sudhana meets 53 teachers, such
as Supratisthita, the physician Megha (Spirit of Knowledge), the banker
Muktaka, the monk Saradhvaja, the upasika Asa (Spirit of Supreme
Enlightenment), Bhismottaranirghosa, the Brahmin Jayosmayatna, Princess

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Maitrayani, the monk Sudarsana, a boy called Indriyesvara, the upasika
Prabhuta, the banker Ratnachuda, King Anala, the god Siva
Mahadeva, Queen Maya, Bodhisattva Maitreya and then back to Manjusri.
Each spiritual friend gives Sudhana specific teachings, knowledge, and
wisdom. These meetings are shown in the third gallery.
After a second meeting with Manjusri, Sudhana went to the residence of
Bodhisattva Samantabhadra, depicted in the fourth gallery. The entire series
of the fourth gallery is devoted to the teaching of Samantabhadra. The
narrative panels finally end with Sudhana's achievement of the Supreme
Knowledge and the Ultimate Truth.

Construction techniques -ANGKOR

The monument was made out of 5 to 10 million sandstone blocks with a

maximum weight of 1.5 tons each. ] The entire city of Angkor used far greater
amounts of stone than all the Egyptian pyramids combined, and occupied an
area significantly greater than modern-day Paris. Moreover, unlike the
Egyptian pyramids which use limestone quarried barely 0.5 km (0.31 mi)
away all the time, the entire city of Angkor was built with sandstone quarried
40 km (25 mi) (or more) away. This sandstone had to be transported from
Mount Kulen, a quarry approximately 25 miles (40 km) to the northeast. The
route has been suggested to span 35 kilometres (22 mi) along a canal
towards Tonlé Sap lake, another 35 kilometres (22 mi) crossing the lake, and
finally 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) against the current along Siem Reap River,
making a total journey of 90 kilometres (56 mi).

However, Etsuo Uchida and Ichita Shimoda of Waseda

University in Tokyo, Japan have discovered in 2011 a shorter 35-kilometre
(22 mi) canal connecting Mount Kulen and Angkor Wat using satellite
imagery. The two believe that the Khmer used this route instead.

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Virtually all of its surfaces, columns, lintels, and even roofs are carved. There
are miles of reliefs illustrating scenes from Indian literature including
unicorns, griffins, winged dragons pulling chariots as well as warriors
following an elephant-mounted leader and celestial dancing girls with
elaborate hairstyles. The gallery wall alone is decorated with almost 1,000
square metres of bas reliefs. Holes on some of the Angkor walls indicate that
they may have been decorated with bronze sheets. These were highly prized
in ancient times and were a prime target for robbers. While excavating
Khajuraho, Alex Evans, a stonemason and sculptor, recreated a stone
sculpture under 4 feet (1.2 m), this took about 60 days to carve. Roger
Hopkins and Mark Lehner also conducted experiments to quarry limestone
which took 12 quarrymen 22 days to quarry about 400 tons of stone. The
labour force to quarry, transport, carve and install so much sandstone must
have run into the thousands including many highly skilled artisans. The skills
required to carve these sculptures were developed hundreds of years earlier,
as demonstrated by some artefacts that have been dated to the seventh
century, before the Khmer came to power.
There are no known records of construction or the intended purpose of Borobudur.
The duration of construction has been estimated by comparison of carved reliefs on
the temple's hidden foot and the inscriptions commonly used in royal charters
during the 8th and 9th centuries. Borobudur was likely founded around 800 AD. This
corresponds to the period between 760 and 830 AD, the peak of the Sailendra
dynasty rule over Mataram kingdom in central Java, when their power encompassed
not only the Srivijayan Empire but also southern Thailand, Indianized kingdoms
of Philippines, North Malaya (Kedah, also known in Indian texts as the ancient Hindu
state of Kadaram). The construction has been estimated to have taken 75 years
with completion during the reign of Samaratungga in 825.
There is uncertainty about Hindu and Buddhist rulers in Java around that time. The
Sailendras were known as ardent followers of Buddhism, though stone inscriptions
found at Sojomerto also suggest they may have been Hindus. It was during this time
that many Hindu and Buddhist monuments were built on the plains and mountains
around the Kedu Plain. The Buddhist monuments, including Borobudur, were
erected around the same period as the Hindu Shiva Prambanan temple compound.
In 732 AD, the Shivaite King Sanjaya commissioned a Shivalinga sanctuary to be
built on the Wukir hill, only 10 km (6.2 mi) east of Borobudur.
Construction of Buddhist temples, including Borobudur, at that time was possible
because Sanjaya's immediate successor, Rakai Panangkaran, granted his
permission to the Buddhist followers to build such temples. In fact, to show his
respect, Panangkaran gave the village of Kalasan to the Buddhist community, as is
written in the Kalasan Charter dated 778 AD. This has led some archaeologists to
believe that there was never serious conflict concerning religion in Java as it was
possible for a Hindu king to patronize the establishment of a Buddhist monument;
or for a Buddhist king to act likewise.However, it is likely that there were two rival
royal dynasties in Java at the time—the Buddhist Sailendra and the Saivite Sanjaya
—in which the latter triumphed over their rival in the 856 battle on
the Ratubaka plateau.[34] Similar confusion also exists regarding the Lara Jonggrang
temple at the Prambanan complex, which was believed to have been erected by

236
that there was a climate of peaceful coexistence where Sailendra involvement
exists in Lara Jonggrang.
Construction techniques -BOROBUDUR

At Borobudur, geometry, geomancy, and theology all instruct adherents toward

the ultimate goal of enlightenment. Meticulously carved relief sculptures mediate a
physical and spiritual journey that guides pilgrims progressively toward higher
states of consciousness. The entire site contains 504 statues of the Buddha.

Around 55,000 cubic metres of andesite stones were taken from adjacent stone
quarries to build the Borobudur temple. Each was cut to size, transported to the
site and laid without mortar. Knobs, dovetails, and indentations were used to form
joints between stones. The stone was cut to size, transported to the site and laid
without mortar. Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to form joints between
stones. The roof of stupas, niches and arched gateways were constructed in
corbelling method. Reliefs were created in situ after the building had been
completed
Angkorian builders on the other hand used brick, sandstone, laterite and
wood as their materials. The ruins that remain are of brick, sandstone and
laterite, the wood elements having been lost to decay and other destructive
processes.

Brick The earliest Angkorian temples were made mainly of brick. Good examples
are the temple towers of Preah Ko , Lolei and Bakong at Hariharalaya. Decorations
were usually carved into a stucco applied to the brick, rather than into the brick
itself.[7] This because bricks being softer material do not lend itself to sculpting as
opposed to stones of different kinds such as the SandStones or the Granites.
However, the tenets of the Sacred Architecture as enunciated in the Vedas and the
Shastras, require no adhesives to be used while building blocks are assembled one
over the other to create the Temples, as such bricks have been used only in
relatively smaller temples such as Lolei and The Preah Ko. Besides, strength of
bricks is much lesser as compared to the stones (mentioned here-in) and the former
degrade with age.
Angkor's neighbor state of Champa was also the home to numerous brick temples
that are similar in style to those of Angkor. The most extensive ruins are at Mỹ
Sơn in Vietnam. A Cham story tells of the time that the two countries settled an
armed conflict by means of a tower-building contest proposed by the Cham King Po
Klaung Garai. While the Khmer built a standard brick tower, Po Klaung Garai
directed his people to build an impressive replica of paper and wood. In the end, the
Cham replica was more impressive than the real brick tower of the Khmer, and the
Cham won the contest.

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Champa Temples.LEFT.1000 nyear old brick wall. Artisan making a clay model

238
 Preah Ko, completed in 879 CE, was a temple made mainly of brick

Ta Keo, a temple built in the 10th century, was constructed more or less entirely
from sandstone. Above pics show the carvings at LEFT and the temple itself at
RIGHT

Central sanctuary

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central prang of Angkor Wat temple symbolizes the mount Meru.

Planning of Angkor Wat unites two major principles of

Khmer architecture – principle of temple mountain and galleried temple. ...
In the middle of this large enclosure is considerably smaller (but
nevertheless giant) central temple structure which consists of three
concentric galleries divided by walls.The central sanctuary of an Angkorian
temple was home to the temple's primary deity, the one to whom the site
was dedicated: typically Shiva or Vishnu in the case of
a Hindu temple, Buddha or a bodhisattva in the case of a Buddhist temple.
The deity was represented by a statue (or in the case of Shiva, most
commonly by a linga). Since the temple was not considered a place of
worship for use by the population at large, but rather a home for the deity,
the sanctuary needed only to be large enough to hold the statue or linga; it
was never more than a few metres across. [11] Its importance was instead
conveyed by the height of the tower (prasat) rising above it, by its location at
the centre of the temple, and by the greater decoration on its walls.
Symbolically, the sanctuary represented Mount Meru, the legendary home of
the Hindu gods.
Prang
The prang is the tall finger-like spire, usually richly carved, common to much Khmer
religious architecture.
Enclosure
Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the
central sanctuary in the middle; this arrangement represented the mountain ranges
surrounding Mount Meru, the mythical home of the gods. Enclosures are the spaces

240
between these walls, and between the innermost wall and the temple itself. By
modern convention, enclosures are numbered from the centre outwards. The walls
defining the enclosures of Khmer temples are frequently lined by galleries, while
passage through the walls is by way of gopuras located at the cardinal points.

Gallery

A cruciform gallery separates the courtyards at Angkor Wat.

A gallery is a passageway running along the wall of an enclosure or along the axis of
a temple, often open to one or both sides. Historically, the form of the gallery
evolved during the 10th century from the increasingly long hallways which had
earlier been used to surround the central sanctuary of a temple. During the period
of Angkor Wat in the first half of the 12th century, additional half galleries on one
side were introduced to buttress the structure of the temple.

Gopura

Many of the gopuras constructed under Jayavarman VII toward the end of the 12th century, such as this one at Angkor

Thom, are adorned with gigantic stone faces of Avalokiteshvara.

A gopura is an entrance building. At Angkor, passage through the enclosure walls

surrounding a temple compound is frequently accomplished by means of an

241
impressive gopura, rather than just an aperture in the wall or a doorway. Enclosures
surrounding a temple are often constructed with a gopura at each of the
four cardinal points. In plan, gopuras are usually cross-shaped and elongated along
the axis of the enclosure wall.
If the wall is constructed with an accompanying gallery, the gallery is sometimes
connected to the arms of the gopura. Many Angkorian gopuras have a tower at the
centre of the cross. The lintels and pediments are often decorated, and guardian
figures (dvarapalas) are often placed or carved on either side of the doorways.
Hall of Dancers
A Hall of Dancers is a structure of a type found in certain late 12th-century
temples constructed under King Jayavarman VII: Ta Prohm, Preah
Khan, Banteay Kdei and Banteay Chhmar. It is a rectangular building
elongated along the temple's east axis and divided into four courtyards by
galleries. Formerly it had a roof made of perishable materials; now only the
stone walls remain. The pillars of the galleries are decorated with carved
designs of dancing apsaras; hence scholars have suggested that the hall
itself may have been used for dancing.
House of Fire
House of Fire, or Dharmasala, is the name given to a type of building found
only in temples constructed during the reign of late 12th-century
monarch Jayavarman VII: Preah Khan, Ta Prohm and Banteay Chhmar. A
House of Fire has thick walls, a tower at the west end and south-facing
windows.
Scholars theorize that the House of Fire functioned as a "rest house with fire"
for travellers. An inscription at Preah Khan tells of 121 such rest houses
lining the highways into Angkor. The Chinese traveller Zhou
Daguan expressed his admiration for these rest houses when he visited
Angkor in 1296 CE. Another theory is that the House of Fire had a religious
function as the repository the sacred flame used in sacred ceremonies.
Library
Structures conventionally known as "libraries" are a common feature of
Khmer temple architecture, but their true purpose remains unknown. Most
likely they functioned broadly as religious shrines rather than strictly as
repositories of manuscripts. Freestanding buildings, they were normally
placed in pairs on either side of the entrance to an enclosure, opening to the
west.
Srah and baray
Srahs and barays were reservoirs, generally created by excavation
and embankment, respectively. It is not clear whether the significance of
these reservoirs was religious, agricultural, or a combination of the two.
The two largest reservoirs at Angkor were the West Baray and the East
Baray located on either side of Angkor Thom. The East Baray is now dry.

242
The West Mebon is an 11th-century temple standing at the center of the
West Baray and the East Mebon is a 10th-century temple standing at the
center of the East Baray.
The baray associated with Preah Khan is the Jayataka, in the middle of which
stands the 12th-century temple of Neak Pean. Scholars have speculated that
the Jayataka represents the Himalayan lake of Anavatapta, known for its
miraculous healing powers.
Temple mountain

The Bakong is the earliest surviving Temple Mountain at Angkor.

 Bakong (Khmer: ប្រាសាទបាគង) is the first temple mountain of

sandstone constructed by rulers of the Khmer empire at Angkor near
modern Siem Reap in Cambodia.The structure of Bakong took shape
of stepped pyramid, popularly identified as temple
mountain of early Khmer temple architecture.
This was the dominant scheme for the construction of state temples in the
Angkorian period was that of the Temple Mountain, an architectural
representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods in Hinduism. The style
was influenced by South indian temple architecture.

XI
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 The nāgá (नाग) at Angkor
Cambodia's Hinduism can be traced back to the Funan Kingdom which
ruled between 100BC and 500AD. During this period, kings worshiped Vishnu
and Shiva. When the Khmer Empire came to power, Hinduism remained the
dominating religion until Jayavarman VII (reigned 1181-1218). It is possible
that the presence of rulers of alien faith in northern India and the withdrawal
of royal patronage from the temples and Brahmanic colleges encouraged
the spread of new, more popular forms of Hinduism. Although Thailand has
never been a majority Hindu country, it has been influenced by Hinduism.
Before Thailand was a country, the land that makes up present-
day Thailand was under the territory of the Hindu-Buddhist Khmer Empire. ...
The Thai city, Ayutthaya near Bangkok, is named after Ayodhya, the
birthplace of Rama. Hinduism in Vietnam is mainly observed by the ethnic
Cham people. Balamon Cham is one of two surviving non-Indic
indigenous Hindu peoples. Around 60,000 Hindus live in Vietnam today.
The extensive irrigation projects provided rice surpluses that could
support a large population. The state religion was Hinduism but influenced
by the cult of Devaraja, elevating the Khmer kings as possessing the divine
quality of living gods on earth, attributed to the incarnation of Vishnu or
Shiva. Originally dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu, Angkor Wat became a
Buddhist temple by the end of the 12th century. Hinduism in Southeast
Asia had a profound impact on the region's cultural development and
its history. As the Indic scripts were introduced from India, people
of Southeast Asia entered the historical period by producing their earliest
inscriptions around the 1st to 5th century CE.
Hindu civilization also transformed and shaped the social construct and
statehood of Southeast Asian regional polity. Through the formation
of Indianized kingdoms, small indigenous polities led by petty chieftain were
transformed into major kingdoms and empires led by
a maharaja with statecraft akin to India. It gave birth to the
former Champa civilisation in southern parts of Central
Vietnam, Funan in Cambodia, the Khmer
Empire in Indochina, Langkasuka Kingdom and Old Kedah in the Malay
Peninsula, the Sriwijayan kingdom on Sumatra, the Medang
Kingdom, Singhasari and the Majapahit Empire based in Java, Bali and parts
of the Philippine archipelago. The civilisation of India influenced the
languages, scripts, written tradition, literatures, calendars, beliefs system
and artistic aspects of these peoples and nations
One can see the depth of Hindu knowledge of the kings who built Angkor, yet
we do not know much about how this knowledge came to be transformed

244
into the system of sovereign reign. Therefore, Brahma Vishnu Mahwesh were
all important elements of the Khemer faith.
Vaishnavism: Suryavarman II, (died c. 1150), king of the Khmer
(Cambodian) empire renowned as a religious reformer and temple builder.
Under his rule the temple of Angkor Wat, the world’s largest religious
structure, was constructed. Suryavarman defeated rival claimants to the
throne and established sole rule over the Khmer empire by 1113, reuniting
the empire after more than 50 years of unrest. Warlike and ambitious, he
expanded the limits of the empire to include much of what is now Thailand;
his patronage stretched as far west as the frontiers of the Burmese state of
Pagan, south to the coast of the Gulf of Thailand (including part of the
eastern coast of the Malay Peninsula), and east to the kingdom
of Champa in the southern part of what is now Vietnam.

Suryavarman was formally crowned in 1113, with his guru, the powerful
priest Divakarapandita, presiding. The king was a religious reformer who
blended the mystical cults of Vishnu and Shiva, supreme Hindu deities,
and promulgated Vaishnavism as the official religion, rather than Buddhism,
which had briefly flourished under his predecessors.

The Nāga race- a semi-divine race of half-human half-serpent beings that

reside in the netherworld (Patala) and can occasionally take human form.
Were believed to have populated south Asia for at least two thousand years.
They are principally depicted in three forms: wholly human with snakes on
the heads and necks, common serpents, or as half-human half-snake They
are common and hold cultural significance in the mythological traditions of
many South Asian and Southeast Asian cultures. They are the children of
Rishi Kashyapa and Kadru.
From South India, according to legend, came the Brahmin, to Cambodia,
who defeated the ruling Naga princess and then married her. From the ninth
to the 14th centuries, successive kings built splendid temples to Siva and
Vishnu, adorned with sculptures of graceful apsaras and valorous gods,
endearing faced Nagas and upright lions.
The Nāga नाग or Nagi are divine, semi-divine deities, or a semi-divine race
of half-human half-serpent beings that reside in the netherworld (Patala) and
can occasionally take human form. Rituals devoted to these supernatural
beings have been taking place throughout south Asia for at least two
thousand years. They are principally depicted in three forms: wholly human
with snakes on the heads and necks, common serpents, or as half-human
half-snake beings in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. A female naga is a
"Nagi", "Nagin", or "Nagini". Nagaraja is seen as the king of nāgas and
nāginis.[4] They are common and hold cultural significance in the
mythological traditions of many South Asian and Southeast Asian cultures.
They are the children of Rishi Kashyapa and Kadru.

245
Kurma Avatar of Vishnu, below Mount Mandara, with Vasuki wrapped
around it, during Samudra manthan, the churning of the ocean of milk. ca
1870.
Mandara -मन्दर,on the other hand is the name of the mountain that
appears in the Samudra manthan episode in the Hindu Puranas, where it was
used as a churning rod to churn the ocean of milk. Mahadev's
serpent, Vasuki, offered to serve as the rope pulled on one side by a team
of asuras, and on the other, by a team of devas. The Puranas refer to various
sacred places on the hill that are also believed to be the abode of
god Krishna as Madhusudana or the destroyer of the demon called Madhu
who was killed by Krishna and then covered by the Mount Mandara.
Some legends identify Mandar Parvat, a hill in Banka district
(near Bhagalpur district) in Bihar with Mount Mandara.
Kalidasa's Kumarasambhava refers to foot marks of Lord Vishnu on the
slopes of Mandara. The hill is replete with relics of bygone ages. Besides
inscriptions and statues there are numerous rock cut sculptures depicting
various Brahmanical images.The hill is equally revered by the Jains who
believe that their 12th Tirthankara Shri Vasupujya attained nirvana here on
the summit of the hill.

Mandar Parvat
The depiction of the Churning of the Ocean of Milk became very popular in
Khmer art, perhaps because their creation myth involved a naga ancestor. It
is a popular motif in both Khmer and Thai art; one of the most dramatic
depictions is one of the eight friezes that can be seen around the inner wall
of Angkor Wat--the others being the Battle of Kurukshetra, Suryavarman's

246
Military Review, scenes from Heaven and Hell, the battle
between Vishnu and the asuras, the Battle between Krishna and Banasura, a
battle between the gods and asuras, and the Battle of Lanka.
In Sanskrit, a nāgá (नाग) is a cobra, the Indian cobra (Naja naja). A synonym
for nāgá is phaṇin (फणिन्). There are several words for "snake" in general,
and one of the very commonly used ones is sarpá (सर्प). Sometimes the
word nāgá is also used generically to mean "snake".The word is cognate with
English 'snake', Germanic: *snēk-a-, Proto-IE: *(s)nēg-o- (with s-mobile).
Patanjali as Śeṣa

The mythological serpent race that took form as cobras can often be found in
Hindu iconography. The nāgas are described as the powerful, splendid,
wonderful and proud semidivine race that can assume their physical form
either as human, partial human-serpent or the whole serpent. Their domain
is in the enchanted underworld, the underground realm filled with gems, gold
and other earthly treasures called Naga-loka or Patala-loka. They are also
often associated with bodies of waters — including rivers, lakes, seas, and
wells — and are guardians of treasure. Their power and venom made them
potentially dangerous to humans. However, they often took beneficial
protagonist role in Hindu mythology; in Samudra manthan folklore, Vasuki,
a nāgarāja who abides on Shiva's neck, became the churning rope for
churning of the Ocean of Milk.[8] Their eternal mortal enemies are
the Garudas, the legendary semidivine birdlike-deities.
Vishnu is originally portrayed in the form sheltered by Śeṣanāga or reclining
on Śeṣa, but the iconography has been extended to other deities as well. The
serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears in many
forms: around the neck, use as a sacred thread (Sanskrit: yajñyopavīta)
wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles,
or as a throne.[12] Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake. [13] Maehle
(2006: p. 297) states that "Patanjali is thought to be a manifestation of the
serpent of eternity".
Literature

247
The Mahabharata epic is the first text that introduces nāgas, describes them
in detail and narrates their stories. The cosmic snake Shesha,
the nāgarajas (nāga kings) Vasuki, Takshaka, Airavata and Karkotaka and
the princess Ulupi are all depicted in the Mahabharata.
Buddhism: Mucalinda sheltering Gautama Buddha (Buddha in Naga Prok
attitude) at Wat Phra That Doi Suthep in Chiang Mai, Thailand
As in Hinduism, the Buddhist nāga generally has sometimes portrayed as a
human being with a snake or dragon extending over his head. [15] One nāga,
in human form, attempted to become a monk; and when telling it that such
ordination was impossible, the Buddha told it how to ensure that it would be
reborn a human, and so able to become a monk. [16]
The nāgas are believed to both live on Nagaloka, among the other minor
deities, and in various parts of the human-inhabited earth. Some of them are
water-dwellers, living in streams or the ocean; others are earth-dwellers,
living in caverns.
The nāgas are the followers of Virūpākṣa (Pāli: Virūpakkha), one of the Four
Heavenly Kings who guards the western direction. They act as a guard upon
Mount Sumeru, protecting the dēvas of Trāyastriṃśa from attack by
the asuras.
Among the notable nāgas of Buddhist tradition is Mucalinda, Nāgarāja and
protector of the Buddha. In the Vinaya Sutra (I, 3), shortly after his
enlightenment, the Buddha is meditating in a forest when a great storm
arises, but graciously, King Mucalinda gives shelter to the Buddha from the
storm by covering the Buddha's head with his seven snake heads. [17] Then
the king takes the form of a young Brahmin and renders the Buddha
homage.[17]
In the Vajrayāna and Mahāsiddha traditions,[18] nāgas in their half-human
form are depicted holding a nāgas-jewel, kumbhas of amrita, or a terma that
had been elementally encoded by adepts.
The two chief disciples of the Buddha, Sariputta and Moggallāna are both
referred to as Mahānāga or "Great nāga".[19] Some of the most important
figures in Buddhist history symbolize nāgas in their names such
as Dignāga, Nāgāsēna, and, although other etymons are assigned to his
name, Nāgārjuna.

248
Nāga at the steps of a building in the Wat Phra Kaew in Bangkok Cambodian seven-
headed naga at the Royal Palace in Phnom Penh
Literature

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The Nāga Saṃyutta of the Pali Canon consists of suttas specifically devoted
to explaining nature of the nāgas.
In the "Devadatta" chapter of the Lotus Sutra, the daughter of the dragon
king, an eight year old longnü , after listening to Mañjuśrī preach the Lotus
Sutra, transforms into a male Bodhisattva and immediately reaches full
enlightenment.
Some say this tale appears to reinforce the viewpoint prevalent in Mahayana
scriptures that a male body is required for Buddhahood, even if a being is so
advanced in realization that they can magically transform their body at will
and demonstrate the emptiness of the physical form itself. However many
schools of Buddhism and classical, seminal Chinese exegeses interpret the
story to repudiate this viewpoint, stating the story demonstrates that women
can attain Buddhahood in their current form.
According to tradition, the Prajñapāramita sutras had been given by the
Buddha to a great nāga who guarded them in the sea, and were conferred
upon Nāgārjuna later.
In Thailand and Java, the nāga is a wealthy underworld deity.
For Malay sailors, nāgas are a type of dragon with many heads. In Laos they
are beaked water serpents.
Sri Lanka: The Naga people were believed to be an ancient tribe and
origins of Sri Lanka. There are references to them in several ancient text
such as Mahavamsa, Manimekalai and also in other Sanskrit and Pali
literature. They are generally being represented as a class of superhumans
taking the form of serpents who inhabit a subterranean world. Texts such as
Manimekalai represent them as persons in human form.
Cambodia

Stories of nāgas have existed for thousands of years in the Khmer society
since the Funan era. According to reports by two Chinese envoys, Kang
Tai and Zhu Ying, the state of Funan was established in the 1st century CE by
an Indian named Kaundinya I, who married a Nāga princess named Soma.
They are symbolized in the story of Preah Thong and Neang Neak,
respectively. Kaundinya was given instruction in a dream to take a magic
bow from a temple and defeat a Nāga princess named Soma (Chinese: Liuye,
"Willow Leaf"), the daughter of the Nāga king. They fell in love during the
battle and later married, their lineage becoming the royal dynasty of Funan.
Kaundinya later built a capital, Vyadhapura, and the kingdom came to be
known as Kambojadeśa or Cambodia.[26][27][28] The love story is the source of
many standard practices in modern-day Khmer culture, including wedding
ceremonies and other rituals. The Khmer people believe they are the
descendants of the Nāgas or the dragons. Even if there's no proof to the
existence of the Nāgas, most Khmer people still believe they exist, and will
one day reappear, coming back home bringing prosperity for their people.

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Although many temples from the Funan Era had been destroyed through
wars, nature and time, Nāgas can still be seen in ancient temples from
the Chenla Era and the Angkor Era. For example, like the temple modern day
named "The Coiled Nāgas Temple (Prasat Neak Pean) was once called,
"Emperor's Wealth Temple (Prasat Reakcha Srey).
Nāga in the Khmer culture represent rain, or a bridge between the
human realm and the realm of gods and devas (ឋានទេវតា/ឋានសួគ៌), and
they can transform into half human or fully human. They act as protectors
from invisible forces, deities, or other humans that try to harm humans.
Furthermore, Cambodian Nāga possess numerological symbolism in the
number of their heads. Odd-headed Nāga symbolize the male energy,
infinity, timelessness, and immortality. This is because, numerologically, all
odd numbers come from the number one (១). Even-headed Nāga are said to
be female, representing physicality, mortality, temporality, and the earth.
Odd headed Nāgas are believed to represent immortality and are carved and
used throughout Cambodia.
Odd-Headed Nagas,( odd numbers) its Names, Origin and
Connotations:
-1 Headed Naga: mostly seen in modern days; carved on objects as
protection, temples, monastery, King’s residence, residence of a deity
(Atitep)
Symbolizes, that even if everything in this world is gone, there’s still this
Naga left bringing victory and happiness to all
-3 Kalyak: born between the mortal realm and Devas (gods) realm, they live
at the bottom of the ocean and is the guardian of wealth, often depicted as
evil (nothing to do with the symbolism)
Symbolizes the Trimurti; (left Vishnu, middle Shiva and right Brahma) but
also the three realm [heaven (deva realm), earth (human realm) and hell
(norok realm)]. In Buddhism, the central head represents Buddha, the right
head represents the Dharma and left one represents the monks.
-5 Anontak/Sesak: born out of the elemental elements on Earth, they're
immortals
Symbolizes the directions; East, West, North, South and Middle
(Ganges river, Indus river, Yamuna river, Brahmaputra river (Brahma's Son
River), Sarasvati river). In Buddhism, the dragon heads represent the 5
Buddhas: Kadabak, Kunsontho, Koneakumno, Samnak Koudom Gautama
Buddha and Seare Metrey.
-7 Muchlentak: originated from the bottom of the Himalayas, they bring
peace and prosperity to humans, they're deities who control the seven
oceans and seven mountains called Seytontaraksatakboriphorn. They are
also the Naga that sheltered Gautama Buddha for 7 days and 7 nights. Often
depicted as guardian statues, carved as balustrades on causeways leading to

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main Khmer temples, such as those found in Angkor Wat. [34] They also
represent the seven races within Naga society, which has a mythological, or
symbolic, association with "the seven colors of the rainbow".
Symbolizes the sun, the moon and five other planets; ចន្ទ (Moon)[also
Monday] (Mars)[Tuesday] ពុធ (Mercury)[Wednesday (Jupiter)[Thursday]
សុក្រ (Venus)[Friday] សៅរ៍ (Saturn)[Saturday] អាទិត្យ (Sun)[Sunday]
-9 Vasukak: Is the king who rules the Earth. For this dragon, when carved
on both side, the front heads represent reincarnation and the behind
represent death.
Symbolizes power of the nine immortals of the universe; power of the
lighting and thunder of the East (ទិសបូព៌ា), power of the fire of the
Southeast (ទិសអាគ្នេយ៍), power of the law and order of the South
(ទិសខាងត្បូង), power of the spirits and demonic creatures of the Southwest
(ទិសនារតី), power of the rain of the West (ទិសខាងលិច), power of the wind of
the Northwest (ទិសពាយព្យ), power of the wealth and aesthetic of the North
(ទិសឧត្តរ), power of destruction of the Northeast (ទិសឥសាន្ត), power
of Brahma (creation and preservation) in the middle.

In Brahmanism and Buddhism, there are 4 different Naga race:

1) The Primitive dragons such as the European dragon who can spit fire.
2) The Spiritual dragons who are the guardians of wealth, they protect
treasure in the ocean. They can take on a half human form.
3) The Divine Nagās, who can travel to heaven, they came from Lord Indra’s
realm (the divine realm), they can take on a full human form.
4) The Supreme and Divine Nagā, like Vasuki the guardian of Lord Vishnu,
who alone can fight all the Garuda race.
All of them have great powers and can set off storms, raining, tempest and
create lands from the sea.
Mythical serpents, or nāgas, represent an important motif in Khmer
architecture as well as in free-standing sculpture. They are frequently
depicted as having multiple heads, always uneven in number, arranged in a
fan. Each head has a flared hood, in the manner of a cobra.

252
- Nagas in Cambodia Culture.

Perhaps there were many snakes in and around the jungles of the Khemer
towns or the fact that Hinduism places a premium on snakes inspired the
myrid snake carvings and sculptures in Angkor and other temples. We do not
know now.

It is said that King Preah Thorng married the daughter of the Naga, Princess
Neang Neak. Through their marraige, the Khmer people are descended from

253
the Naga. Nagas represent prosperity and the spirit of the land and water of
the Khmer.

It is not surprising based on the story that nagas are a common decoration
on Cambodian temples. They tend to appear on bridges or as seven-headed
statues.

Because the naga symbol is an important one to the Cambodians.

When Cambodia hosted the GMS Summit 2002, they chose a seven-
headed naga to symbolise the Khmer culture and the cooperation
between the countries at the summit.

In Khemer word Naga comes from the Sanskrit, and nag is still the
word for snake, especially the cobra. In myths, legends, scripture and
folklore, the category naga comprises all kinds of serpentine beings.
Under this rubric are snakes, usually of the python kind (despite the
fact that naga is usually taken literally to refer to a cobra,) deities of
the primal ocean and of mountain springs; also spirits of earth and
the realm beneath it, and finally, dragons.

In a Cambodian legend, the naga were a reptilian race of beings who

possessed a large empire or kingdom in the Pacific Ocean region. The
Naga King's daughter married the king of Ancient Cambodia, and
thus gave rise to the Cambodian people. This is why, still, today,
Cambodians say that they are "Born from the Naga.

The Seven-Headed Naga serpents depicted as statues on Cambodian

temples, such as Angkor Wat, apparently represent the seven races within
Naga society, which has a mythological, or symbolic, association with "the
seven colours of the rainbow". Furthermore, Cambodian Naga possess
numerological symbolism in the number of their heads. Odd-headed Naga
symbolise the Male Energy, Infinity, Timelessness, and Immortality. This is
because, numerological, all odd numbers come from One. Even-headed Naga
are said to be "Female, representing Physicality, Mortality, Temporality, and
the Earth."

254
The Nagas at the entrance of Angkor Wat

Nāgas are frequently depicted in Angkorian lintels. The composition of such

lintels characteristically consists in a dominant image at the center of a
rectangle, from which issue swirling elements that reach to the far ends of
the rectangle. These swirling elements may take shape as either vinelike
vegetation or as the bodies of nāgas. Some such nāgas are depicted wearing
crowns, and others are depicted serving as mounts for human riders.

To the Angkorian Khmer, nāgas were symbols of water and figured in the
myths of origin for the Khmer people, who were said to be descended from
the union of an Indian Brahman and a serpent princess from Cambodia.
[47]
Nāgas were also characters in other well-known legends and stories
depicted in Khmer art, such as the churning of the Ocean of Milk, the legend
of the Leper King as depicted in the bas-reliefs of the Bayon, and the story
of Mucalinda, the serpent king who protected the Buddha from the elements.
[48]

Nāga Bridge

255
Stone Asuras hold the nāga Vasuki on a bridge leading into the 12th
century city of Angkor Thom.

Nāga bridges are causeways or true bridges lined by

stone balustrades shaped as nāgas.
In some Angkorian nāga-bridges, as for example those located at the
entrances to 12th century city of Angkor Thom, the nāga-shaped balustrades
are supported not by simple posts but by stone statues of gigantic warriors.
These giants are the devas and asuras who used the nāga king Vasuki in
order to the churn the Ocean of Milk in quest of the amrita or elixir of
immortality. The story of the Churning of the Ocean of Milk or samudra
manthan has its source in Indian mythology.

Khmer temples were arranged as a quincunx with four elements placed as

the corners of a square and the fifth placed in the center. These represent
five peaks of Mount Meru. The five brick towers of the 10th-century temple
East Mebon, are arranged in the shape of a quincunx. The quincunx also
appears elsewhere in designs of the Angkorian period, as in the riverbed
carvings of Kbal Spean. The Borobudur temple is also built in three tiers,

256
each individually representing a sphere of the cosmic path to nirvana, while
collectively representing the physical journey to achieve it.
The temple monument combines the symbolic forms of the stupa (a Buddhist
commemorative mound usually containing holy relics), the temple mountain
(based on Mount Meru of Hindu mythology), and the mandala (a mystic
Buddhist symbol of the universe, combining the square as earth and the
circle as heaven). The central quincunx of towers symbolises the five

The temple is a symmetrical stupa, consisting of nine stacked platforms: six

square bases, three circular ones, with a central dome at the top. Four
stairways are leading up to the top. The stones are beautifully decorated by
2672 relief panels that illustrate Buddhist teachings and tales. The temple
consists of nine stacked platforms, six square and three circular, topped by a
central dome. It is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha
statues. Borobudur has one of the largest and most complete ensembles of
Buddhist reliefs in the world.
Naga in Buddhism; Came much later than Angkor. Clear that the Naga of the
Hindu era became the new symbols of the Buddhist Kings who swept Angkor
temples with a Blanket of Buddhism. For here is the story of the serpant in
Budhism:-
It is said that six weeks after Gautama Buddha began meditating under the
Bodhi Tree, the heavens darkened for seven days, and a prodigious rain
descended. However, the mighty King of Serpents, Mucalinda, came from
beneath the earth and protected with his hood the one who is the source of
all protection. When the great storm had cleared, the serpent king assumed
his human form, bowed before the Buddha, and returned in joy to his palace.

Iti’pi so bhagava araham, sammā sambuddho, vijjā caranasampanno, sugato,

lokavidhūanuttaro
puri sadammasā rathi satthā deva-manussānam, buddho, bhagavā’ti.
Dhammādāsa

‘What, O Ānanda, is the Mirror of the Dhamma?

Here a noble disciple asks the Buddha.Buddha reflecting on His virtues says:

“Thus, indeed, is the Exalted One, a Worthy One, a fully Enlightened One,
Endowed with wisdom and conduct, an Accomplished One, Knower of the worlds,
an Incomparable Charioteer for the training of individuals, the Teacher of gods and
men, Omniscient, and Holy.”

257
258
 8 WORLD RECORDS of DR Uday Dokras as World #1

Highest number of Literary ventures in Hindu Temple Architecture and Vastu ///Highest number of Literary ventures in
the world 2000 books and research Papers, Seen here with Ms. Mansse Bhandari, COO FUN and FOOD Village Nagpur,
Delhi and Uzbekisthan

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#1
ENDORSEMENTS / certifications AND
endorsements from WORLD AGENCIES as
highest writings in the world in following
categories
AGENCY TITLE
Largest Number of Religious Research papers written
by an individual-world-record
https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/largest-number-of-
religious-research-papers-written-by-an-individual-world-record-by-
uday-dokras

MOST ARTICLES ON DHAMMA

https://www.uniqueworldrecords.com/records/posts/most-articles-
on-dhamma

260
 Maximum number of books written on Hindu Temples by an Individual
https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/maximum-number-of-
books-written-on-hindu-temples-by-an-individual-world-record-by-dr-uday-
dokras#:~:text=The%20World%20Record%20For%20Maximum,The
%20Worldwide%20Book%20Of%20Records.

Highest number of articles and books written on Hindu

Buddhist Temples of Indonesia( Including
Borobudur and Prambanan)

Highest number of Research Papers/ Books (Literary endeavours)

published by an Individual- UNIQUE Book of world records

Maximum sociocultural research papers uploaded by an

individual on a single website INDIA BOOK of RECORDS
recordsmanagement@indiabookofrecords.in

Bahujan Hitai Sangh award for writing highest number of

books and Research on BOROBUDUR

https://www.academia.edu/110112500/
Bahujan_Hitai_Sangh_Fetes_dr_Uday_for_highest_number_of_Books_and
_Research_papers_written_on_BOROBUDUR

The Jain Foundation presented the Jaina Achiever Trophy to Dr

Uday Dokras for his prolific writings on historiography of Jainism
and Jain religious structures and contributing erudite articles to
numerous Jain Journals such as Nagabharana: Recent Trends in
Jainism Studies and SWASTIKA: Epigraphy, Numismatics, Religion
and Philosophy
https://www.academia.edu/110112203/
Jain Foundation Jaina_award_to_Dr_Uday_Dokras
Economic Times (20 July 2022) mentions acknowledgment
of Dr. Uday’s contribution to design of New Parliament House
of India vis-a-vis Dwarpals or door guardians.
https://www.academia.edu/109139672/
Design_components_of_the_new_Parliament_complex_of_INDIA_i
nspired_by_the_author_Dr_Uday_Dokras_work

1. https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/largest-number-of-
religious-research-papers-written-by-an-individual-world-record-
by-uday-dokras

261
2. Maximum n0. of books written on Hindu Temples by an Individual-
https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/maximum-number-of-
books-written-on-hindu-temples-by-an-individual-world-record-by-dr-
uday-dokras#:~:text=The%20World%20Record%20For
%20Maximum,The%20Worldwide%20Book%20Of%20Records.

3. https://www.uniqueworldrecords.com/records/posts/most-
articles-on-dhamma

4. Highest number of articles and books written on Hindu Buddhist

Temples of Indonesia( Including Borobudur and Prambanan

5. Highest number of Research Papers/ Books (Literary

endeavours) published by an Individual………….FREE
UNIQUEBook of world records

6. Maximum sociocultural research papers uploaded by an

individual on a single website INDIA BOOK of RECORDS
recordsmanagement@indiabookofrecords.in

7. https://www.academia.edu/109139672/
Design_components_of_the_new_Parliament_complex_of_INDIA_in
spired_by_the_author_Dr_Uday_Dokras_work

8. https://www.academia.edu/110112203/
Jaina_award_to_Dr_Uday_Dokras

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DIRECTOR (Technical)- https://smkfoundation.com/our-team/

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The HITAVADA
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 Nagpur City-Line 2023-11-22| page 3
ehitavada.com

Jain Foundation Trophy for Dr Uday Dokras

The Jain Foundation presented the Jaina Achiever Trophy to Dr Uday Dokras
originally from Dhantoli Nagpur currently living in Gurugram. The trophy was
handed over to him by Mr. Nilesh Shah, Managing Partner of BOMBAY
EMPORIUM, Nagpur and his brother Vasant Shah on his visit to Nagpur. Dr
Uday Dokras who has frequently graced the news headlines for his prolific
writings on historiography and religious structures has contributed erudite
articles to numerous Jain Journals such as Nagabharana: Recent Trends in
Jainism Studies and SWASTIKA: Epigraphy, Numismatics, Religion and
Philosophy

When the work on the new Parliament complex was progressing, the government
had invited bids for ‘dvarpalas’ or guardian statues to be installed at the entrance
of Parliament. The culture ministry’s high-power committee that finalized the
building considered the Dwarpal concept of Jain Temples on which Dr Uday Dokras
is a knowledgeable person. According to the Economic Times “ Historiographer
and Indologist Dr. Uday Dokras has pointed out in his research that dvarapalas are
an important part of temple architecture, and are specific to the temple deity.
Many of them find mention in various scriptures as revered protectors of the
sanctum sanctorum and are a part of the assessment for dwarpals in the new
Parliament house pictured herein.

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 Authors-DR Uday DOKRAS
Dr. Uday Dokras
B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, India
Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada,
Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden,
Vastu,Temple Construction and Management and Efficacy Consultant,
India/Bangkor------------------------------------------------------------------------

Reviews of the Book PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT

The authors highlight the benefits of paying attention to

human resources and offer success and failure factors
guideline for a variety of potential practitioners and students
in global project marketplace.

Ms.Ylva Arnold, Head HR- Norstedts Publishers, Stockholm

SWEDEN

From the Newspaper Times of India March 24, 2018

270
Iceland & Sweden- both countries use the English Text
SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in which is about Dr Uday
Dokras

271
Prof. S.Deshpande,President of the Indian Institute of
Architects, New Delhi INDIA releasing the book of Dr Dokras
HINDU TEMPLES on the web in CARONA times( May 2020)

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