10 Consolidation

Compressibility of Soil
Compressibility
The volume of soil mass decreases under

stress, this decrease is known as compression,
and the capacity of soil to decrease in volume
under stress is known as compressibility.
Total settlement of soil under
increased effective stress
• S t = Se + S c + S s Elastic deformation
without any change in
moisture content
• Where, St – total settlement
In saturated Se – immediate settlement or elastic settlement,
cohesive Sc – primary consolidation settlement, and
soils by
expulsion of Ss – secondary consolidation settlement
pore water
In saturated cohesive soils as a
result of plastic deformation of soil
fabric.
Occurs at constant effective stress
* Note: In the case of cohesive soils, the dry state of the soils is not considered as this state is only of temporary nature.
When the soil becomes saturated during the rainy season, the soil becomes more compressible under the same imposed
load. Settlement characteristics of cohesive soils are, therefore, considered only under completely saturated conditions.
Figure.
General time-deformation
plot during consolidation
for a given load increment
Stage I – caused mostly by

preloading
Stage II – stage of primary

consolidation. Excess pore
water pressure is gradually
transferred into effective stress
because of expulsion of pore
water
Stage II – stage of secondary

consolidation. Occurs after
complete dissipation of excess
pore water pressure.
Deformation of specimen due
to plastic deformation of soil
fabric.
Compressibility
The volume decrease of a soil under stress might be due to

• Compression of the solid matter,
• Relocation of the solid matter,
• Compression of water and air within the voids,
• Expulsion of water and/or air from the voids.
Assumptions followed in soil mechanics
 Solid grains are incompressible
 Water is incompressible
Hence the compression of saturated soil can occur only

if pore water is expelled out of voids.
The consolidation process
Pore water
Voids
(incompressible)
Skeletal Material
(incompressible) Solid
Initial State
Ds
Pore water
Voids Voids
(incompressible)
Skeletal Material
(incompressible) Solid Solid
+
Water
Initial State Deformed State

Understanding consolidation process through Spring-
piston analogy
In this system, the spring represents the soil skeleton, and the water
which fills the container represents the pore water in the soil.
q
h q
q
• No load applied • Load, q applied • Load, q applied • Long time after

• Exit closed • Exit closed • Exit open exit open,
• Excessive pore pressure • h reduces, transfers to• h reduces to 0,
head, h generated spring (soil) partially • q transfers
throughout soil sample, completely to
• q=h spring (soil)
1. The container is completely filled with water, and the hole is
closed. (Fully saturated soil)
2. A load is applied onto the cover, while the hole is still

unopened. At this stage, only the water resists the applied
load. (Development of excess pore water pressure)
3. As soon as the hole is opened, water starts to drain out

through the hole and the spring shortens. (Drainage of
excess pore water pressure)
4. After some time, the drainage of water no longer occurs.

Now, the spring alone resists the applied load. (Full
dissipation of excess pore water pressure. End of
consolidation)
Region of high Region of low

excess water Flow excess water
pressure pressure
The consolidation process is the process of the

dissipation of the excess pore pressures that occur on
load application because water cannot freely drain from
the void space.
During consolidation…
Due to a surcharge q applied at the GL,

the stresses and pore pressures are increased at A.
q kPa
..and, they vary
GL
Ds with time.
Du
A
Ds’
saturated
clay
During consolidation…
Ds remains the same (=q) during consolidation.

Du decreases (due to drainage) while Ds’ increases,
transferring the load from water to the soil.
q kPa
GL
Ds
Du Ds
A
Ds’ Du
saturated q
clay Ds’
18
Total
Stress
Time
Total
Stress
Time
Excess
Pore
Pressure
Time
Effective
Stress
Time
Effective
Stress
Time
Settlement
Time
One Dimensional Consolidation
~ drainage and deformations are vertical (none laterally)

~ a simplification for solving consolidation problems
q kPa
GL
water squeezed out
saturated clay
Terzaghi’s One Dimensional
Consolidation Theory
Assumptions
1. The soil is completely saturated (S = 100%),

2. The soil grains and water are virtually incompressible,
3. The compression is one-dimensional (clay is laterally confined),
4. The flow of water in the soil voids is one-dimensional,
5. Darcy’s law is strictly valid,
6. Certain soil properties such as permeability and modulus of
volume change are constant; these actually vary somewhat with
pressure. (k and mv are independent of pressure).
7. The time lag of consolidation is due entirely to the low
permeability of the soil (and not due to evaporation or any other
reason).
Derivation of consolidation governing equation
1. Water flow (due to consolidation)
v z The consolidation phenomenon is

vz  Dz
z essentially a problem of non-steady
flow of water through a
porous mass (flow rate isn’t constant).
Dz Elevation
vz Rate at which water leaves the

element can be given by
v
DzA
Plan z
Area A
2. Deformation of soil element (due to change in effective
stress)
Rate of volume decrease

Dz  v
Elevation DzA
t
where,
εv is the volumetric strain and
De
v 
1  e0 for initial voids ratio e0
Plan
Area A
Assume: Soil particles and water incompressible
Soil volume decreases by an amount equal to the volume
of water which flows out
Rate at which water Rate of volume decrease

leaves the element of soil element
v
=
DzA  v
DzA
z t
Assume: Soil particles and water incompressible
Rate at which water Rate of volume decrease

leaves the element of soil element
v
=  v
DzA DzA
z t
v  v
Storage Equation  (3)
z t
3. Flow of water (due to consolidation)
Assume Darcy’s law
h
v  kv (4)
z
Note that because only flows due to consolidation are of

interest the head is the excess head, and this is related
to the excess pore pressure by
u
h  (5)
w
4. Stress, strain relation for soil
Assume soil behaves elastically
Elastic response  v  mv Ds ' (7)
where, mv is the coefficient of volume compressibility or

coefficient of volume change,
av is the coefficient of compressibility, and
∆σ’or Ds is the effective stress increment
av De 1
mv   (8)
1  e 0 Ds' 1  e 0
5. Principle of effective stress
s  su
' (11)
Note that these are changes in stress due to consolidation
v  v
Storage Equation 
z t
+
h
Darcy’s law v  kv
z
+
Elastic response v  mv Ds 
Equation of 1-D Consolidation

 kv  u s  u
[ ]  mv[  ] (12)
 z w  z t t
for situation wherein total applied stress, σ, remains constant

with time (constant load for long duration)
 kv  u u
[ ]   mv[ ] (13)
 z w  z t
for situation wherein permeability and unit weight of
water, remains constant with time (constant load for long
duration)
for homogeneous soil
Governing equation
 2 u u
cv  (14)
z 2
t
where, cv is the coefficient of consolidation and is given by
kv
cv  (15)
mv w
• cv has units L2/T and can be estimated from an oedometer

test.
• The coefficient of volume decrease mv can be measured
from the oedometer test.
• The value of kv is difficult to measure directly for clays but
can be inferred from the expression for cv.
Solution of consolidation equation for 2 way drainage
Uniformly distributed surcharge Δp (stress increment)
Z Homogeneous Saturated Clay Layer free 2H

to drain at Upper and Lower Boundaries
Governing Equation
 2u u
cv  (14a)
z 2
t
Governing Equation
 2u u
cv  (14a)
z 2 t
Boundary Conditions
u = 0 when z = 0 for t > 0

(14 b,c)
u = 0 when z = 2H for t > 0
Governing Equation
 2u u
cv  (14a)
z 2 t
Boundary Conditions
u = 0 when z = 0 for t > 0

(14 b,c)
u = 0 when z = 2H for t > 0
Initial Condition
u = Δp when t = 0 for 0 < z < 2H (14d)

Solution

1
u  2Dp sin( n Z)e   2n Tv
0 n
where
1
n  (n  ) (15)
2
and
z
Drainage path ratio
Z  H is the maximum
H distance to drainage
surface
cv t
Time factor
Tv 
H2
General form of solution
u/Δp = f(T, Z) (16)
To determine how far the consolidation process under the

increment of load Δp has progressed at a time t
corresponding to the time factor T at a given depth z, the
term U, is used.
U denotes the Degree of consolidation or Consolidation ratio
U is defined as the ratio of the amount of consolidation

which has already taken place to the total amount which is to
take place under the load increment
The stress in the soil skeleton is represented by AC and the stress in water by
CB. AB represents the original excess hydrostatic pressure ui= Δp.
The degree of consolidation Uz % at a depth z is then

AC Dp  u u
Uz %  100  100  (1  ) 100
AB Dp Dp
Excess pore water pressure

dissipated
Excess pore water pressure

remaining
Variation of Excess pore pressure with depth

Dimensionless Time Tv
10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10
0.00
Relation of degree of
settlement and time
0.25
U 0.50
U is the average degree of consolidation
over the entire stratum for a factor Tv
0.75
1.00
Approximate Expressions for Degree of Consolidation
Taylor (1948)
 2
Tv  U ( U z  60%)
4
Tv  1.781  0.933 log(100  U%) ( U z  60%)

Relationship between U and T
Relationship between U and T (Special cases)
Example 1: Calculation of settlement at any given time
Soil Profile
Gravel
Clay 4m Final settlement=100mm

cv=0.4m2/year
Sand
Final settlement=40mm
Clay Clay 5m cv=0.5m2/year
Impermeable
Example 1: Calculation of settlement at a given time
For the upper layer

cvt 0 .4  1
Tv    0 .1
H2 22
Now using Figure 5 with Tv = 0.1

10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10
0.00
settlement and time
0.25
U 0.50
0.75
1.00
For the upper layer

cvt 0 .4  1
Tv    0 .1
H2 22
U = 0.36
so
ΔH = 100  0.36 = 36mm
as U = ΔH/S
where, S is total settlement and ΔH is the settlement at any
given time
For the lower layer
cvt 0 .5  1
Tv    0 . 02
H2 52

10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10
0.00
settlement and time
0.25
U 0.50
0.75
1.00
0.02 0.05
For the lower layer
cvt 0 .5  1
Tv    0 . 02
H2 52
U = 0.16
so
ΔH = 40  0.6 = 6.4 mm
Example 2: Scaling
Oedometer U=0.5 after 2 minutes. 2 way drainage, H = 5 mm
Calculate time for U= 0.5 for 10 m thick layer of the same clay,
1 way drainage
Example 2: Scaling
1 way drainage
cvt cv  2
Oedometer Tv    80000c v
H2 0.005 2
Example 2: Scaling
1 way drainage
cvt cv  2
H2 0.005 2
cv t cv  t cv  t
Soil layer Tv   
H2 10 2 100
Tv (oedometer) = Tv (soil layer)

hence t = 80000000 mins = 15.2 years
Example 2: Scaling
1 way drainage
cvt cv  2
H2 0.005 2
cv t cv  t cv  t
Soil layer Tv   
H2 10 2 100
Consolidation Test
settlement Increment of load

dial gauge
Topcap
water confining
ring
sample porous stone
Oedometer/Consolidometer
Consolidation Test
Test procedure - IS:2720 (Part XV)—1986:
Seating pressure - 5 kN/m2
Pressure variation
25, 50,100,200,400, 800 and 1600 kN/m2.
Dial gauge readings at
1/4, 1/2, 1,2,4, 8, 15, 30, 60, 120, 240, 480 and 1440
minutes
24 hour reading
Figure.
General time-deformation
plot during consolidation
for a given load increment
Stage I – caused mostly by

preloading
Stage II – stage of primary

consolidation. Excess pore
water pressure is gradually
transferred into effective stress
because of expulsion of pore
water
Stage II – stage of secondary

consolidation. Occurs after
complete dissipation of excess
pore water pressure.
Deformation of specimen due
to plastic deformation of soil
fabric.
Calculations 1. Height of solids method
Step 1: calculate the initial height of solids, Hs, in the soil specimen
height of solids mass of dry soil (g)
Ws Ms
H s (cm)  
Gs  w A Gs  w A cross sectional area of soil specimen
(cm2)
specific gravity of soil grains
density of water (1gm/cc)
Step 2: calculate the initial height of voids, Hv as
Hv = H – Hs
where, H = initial height of the specimen
Step 3: calculate the initial void ratio, e0, of the specimen
𝑉𝑣 𝐻𝑣 𝐴 𝐻𝑣
𝑒0 = = =
𝑉𝑠 𝐻𝑠 𝐴 𝐻𝑠
Step 4: calculate the change in voids ratio
For the first incremental loading, σ1(total load/unit area of specimen),

which causes a deformation ∆H1, calculate the change in void ratio as,
∆𝐻1
∆𝑒1 =
𝐻𝑠
(∆H1 obtained from the initial and final readings for the loading)
*Note – at end of consolidation, total stress σ1 = effective stress σ1’
Step 5: calculate the new voids ratio after consolidation caused by the
pressure increment as
𝑒1 = 𝑒0 − ∆𝑒1
For the next loading, σ2, (cumulative load per unit area of specimen),
which causes additional deformation ∆H2, the void ratio at the end of
consolidation can be calculated as
∆𝐻2
𝑒2 = 𝑒1 −
𝐻𝑠
at this moment, total stress σ2 = effective stress σ2’
Proceeding in a similar manner, void ratio at end of consolidation of all

load increments can be obtained.
Effective stress and corresponding void ratio (e) at the end of
consolidation are plotted on a semi-logarithmic graph paper
2. Change in void ratio method
consolidation
DH De change in void ratio
settlement 
Ho 1  eo
initial thickness of
initial void ratio
clay layer
Presentation and Analysis of Compression Test Data
loading
reloading
unloading
Typical plot of e vs log σ’ Plot of e vs log σ’ showing loading,

unloading and reloading branches
* Pre-consolidation stress
is the maximum
vertical effective
stress the soil
void ratio
element has
ever been
subjected to
s p’ log sv’
preconsolidation stress
Overconsolidation ratio (OCR)
original
state
eo virgin consolidation line
void ratio
svo’
s p'
OCR 
s vo '
Field s p’ log sv’

svo’
Normally consolidated and
overconsolidated clays
1. Normally consolidated clays –
a. when present effective overburden stress is the
maximum pressure that the soil was subjected to in the
past.
b. OCR = 1
2. Overconsolidated clays (or Pre consolidated

clays)–
a. when present effective overburden pressure is less
than that which the soil has experienced in the past.
b. OCR > 1
Determination of pre-consolidation
pressure
horizontal at M
angle bisector of
HMT
tangent at M
Coefficient of compressibility
• denoted by av
• is the ratio of change in void ratio to the corresponding
change in stress
e
Change
change in in void
volume
 e0
Change
original in stress
volume
e1
no
units
De
av 
Ds s0 s1 s
Coefficient of volume compressibility
• denoted by mv
• is the volumetric strain per unit increase in stress
change in volume
 De
DV
original volume
V  (1  eo ) av
mv  
Ds Ds (1  eo )
- from the above data
loading
void ratio
sv’ increases &

e decreases
unloading
sv’ decreases &
e increases (swelling)
log sv’
Coefficient of consolidation,
cv calculation
• cv is evaluated from the consolidation test data by the use
of fitting method
(a) The logarithm of time fitting method
(b) The square root of time fitting method
The Log of Time Fitting Method (Casagrande)
aim is to find R50 t50 corresponding to U50%
primary consolidation
Tv corresponding
to U=50%
0.197  H 2
cv 
t 50
secondary consolidation
intersection of the tangents

The Square Root of Time Fitting Method (Taylor)
aim is to find R90
abscissa of the
curve at U=90%
is 1.15 times the
abscissa of the
extension of the
straight line
Tv corresponding
to U=90% 0.848  H 2
cv 
t 90
Compression and recompression indices
C Cc ~ compression index
r 1
void ratio
Cc
Cr ~ recompression index 1
(or swelling index)
Cr
1
log sv’
e-log p FIELD CURVES
for clays of low to medium sensitivity
for clays of low sensitivity mean slope MN parallel to AB

For clay of high sensitivity (>8)
sensitivity is defined as the ratio of unconfined compressive strengths of
undisturbed and remoulded soil samples
structural breakdown after

initial flat portion
point of inflection (sharp

drop in slope reduces)
• p0-pb must be limited,

• very dangerous type of
soil for any construction
activity,
• this type of soil belongs
mostly to volcanic
regions.
(c) Typical e-log p curve for an undisturbed sample

of clay of high sensitivity (Peck et al., 1974)
Compression Ratios
• corrected dial gauge reading, R0, differs from point Ri
(initial dial gauge reading),
• this difference R0-Ri (Initial compression) can be due to
– compression of small quantities of air in soil,
– imperfect saturation
– vertical elastic compression of the soil specimen
– lateral expansion of specimen when imperfectly moulded
Ri  R0
• Initial compression ratio r0 
Ri  Rf
R 0  R 100
rp 
• Primary compression ratio (log time) Ri  Rf
• Primary compression ratio (root time) 10 R 0  R 90
rp  ( )
9 Ri  Rf
• Secondary compression ratio, rs = 1-(r0+rp)

Indirect determination of permeability
k (1  e o ) k
cv  
a vw mv w
k  cvmv  w
Settlement computations
Two different ways to estimate the

consolidation settlement:
q kPa
(a) using mv
settlement = mv Ds H
Ds=q
H
(b) using e-log sv’ plot
next slide
eo, svo’, Cc, De
Cr, sp’, mv settlement  H
-oedometer
test
1  eo
~ computing De using e-log sv’ plot
If the clay is normally consolidated,

The entire loading path is along the VCL (Virgin
Compression Line).
initial
eo
s vo ' Ds '
De De  Cc log
s vo '
svo’ svo’+ Ds
If the clay is overconsolidated, and remains so by

the end of consolidation,
s vo ' Ds '
initial
De  Cr log
s vo '
eo
De
note the use of Cr
VCL
svo’ svo’+ Ds
If an overconsolidated clay becomes normally

consolidated by the end of consolidation,
s p' s vo ' Ds '
De  Cr log  Cc log
s vo ' s p'
initial
eo
De
VCL
svo’ sp’ svo’+ Ds
Empirical correlations for compression index
Cr can be taken as 0.1-0.2 of Cc
Example of Settlement Calculation
2m W.T.
Gravel 5m
A 4m
Clay
B 4m
Layered soil deposit

2m W.T. σ’pc = 120kPa

Gravel 5m
Stress increase
A 4m at A=100 KPa
Clay
4m Stress increase
B at B= 60 KPa
Layered soil deposit

Properties
Gravel
Relatively incompressible
 dry  18 kN / m 3 ;  sat  22 kN / m 3
Properties
Gravel
Relatively incompressible
 dry  18 kN / m 3 ;  sat  22 kN / m 3
Clay
e0 = 0.8
Gs = 2.7
Cc = 0.20; Cr = 0.05
Distribution of Volume
Voids Vv = e Vs = 0.8 m3
Skeletal Vs=1 m3
material
Distribution of Volume Distribution of Weight
Voids Vv = e Vs = 0.8 m3 Ww   w  Vv
 7.84 kN
Ws  Vs   w  G s
Skeletal Vs=1 m3
material  26.46 kN
 7.84 kN
Ws  Vs   w  G s
Skeletal Vs=1 m3
Ww  Ws 7.84  26.46
 sat   kN / m 3
Vv  Vs 0.8  1
 19.06 kN / m 3
 7.84 kN
Ws  Vs   w  G s
Skeletal Vs=1 m3
Ww  Ws 7.84  26.46
 sat   kN / m 3
Vv  Vs 0.8  1
 19.06 kN / m 3
or
( G s  e)  w
 sat   19.06 kN / m 3
1 e
The next step is to calculate the initial and final effective stress at
the centre of each sub-layer
 Initial State at A
Total stress szz = 218 + 3 22 + 2 19.06 = 140.12 kPa

Pore water pressure uw = 5 9.8 kPa = 49 kPa (3a)

Effective stress szz = szz - uw = 140.12 - 49 = 91.12 kPa

Effective stress szz = szz - uw = 140.12 - 49 = 91.12 kPa
Notice the initial effective stress is less than spc =120 kPa thus the
clay is initially over-consolidated.
 Final State at A
Total stress szz = 100 + 2 22 + 3 22 + 2 19.06 = 248.12 kPa

Pore water pressure uw = 7 9.8 kPa = 68.6 kPa (3b)

Effective stress szz = szz - uw = 248.12 - 68.6 = 179.52 kPa

Effective stress szz = szz - uw = 248.12 - 68.6 = 179.52 kPa
Notice that the final effective stress exceeds the initial preconsolidation
stress and thus the clay moves from being initially over-consolidated to
finally normally consolidated.
 Settlement of the first sub-layer
The soil in the first sub layer moves from being over-consolidated
to normally consolidated and so the calculation of the change in voids
ratio must be made in two stages.
 Settlement of the first sub-layer
The soil in the first sub layer moves from being over-consolidated
to normally consolidated and so the calculation of the change in voids
ratio must be made in two stages.
e Slope Cr
Slope Cc
log s’
Stage 1 Soil over-consolidated ( s < spc (initial))
De1 = - Cr  log10(spc (initial)/sI)

Stage 2 Soil normally consolidated ( s = spc)

(3c)
De2 = - Cc  log10(sF/spc (initial))
Stage 2 Soil normally consolidated ( s = spc)

(3c)
De2 = - Cc  log10(sF/spc (initial))
e
Slope Cr
De1
Slope Cc
De2
log s’
spc
Now
HDe
DH  
1 e
Now
HDe
DH  
1 e
H ( De1  De 2 )
 
1  e
Now
HDe
DH  
1 e
H ( De1  De 2 )
 
1  e
4 120 . 00 179 . 52
 [ 0 . 05  log 10 ( )  0 . 2  log 10 ( )]
1.8 91 .12 120 . 00
 0 . 0911 m (3d)
Settlement of the second sub-layer is calculated in

similar fashion to the settlement of the first sub-layer
Slope Cc
log s’
Settlement of the second sub-layer is calculated in

similar fashion to the settlement of the first sub-layer
Slope Cc
log s’
The settlement is then the sum of the settlements of
each of the sub-layers
Calculation of Settlement
• To calculate the settlement it is necessary to find the
initial and final effective stress.
• The initial stress can be calculated from a knowledge

of the overburden (the weight of the overlying soil).
• The initial and final pore pressures can be

determined from the positions of the water table.
• In order to find the final total stress it is necessary to

find the increase in total stress due to the applied
loads.
• Under many circumstances this can be adequately

approximated using the theory of elasticity.
Settlement due to Secondary Compression
• The phenomenon is somewhat analogous to the creep of

other overstressed material in a plastic state,
• Highly organic soils and fresh deposits are normally
subjected to considerable secondary consolidation,
• The rate of secondary consolidation may be expressed by
the coefficient of secondary compression, C
where Cα is the slope of the straight-line portion of the e-log t curve, is
known as the secondary compression index
General expression for secondary compression
From the e-logt curve

10 Consolidation

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Compressibility of Soil

The volume of soil mass decreases under

Stage I – caused mostly by

Stage II – stage of primary

Stage II – stage of secondary

The volume decrease of a soil under stress might be due to

 Solid grains are incompressible

Hence the compression of saturated soil can occur only

Initial State Deformed State

• No load applied • Load, q applied • Load, q applied • Long time after

2. A load is applied onto the cover, while the hole is still

3. As soon as the hole is opened, water starts to drain out

4. After some time, the drainage of water no longer occurs.

Region of high Region of low

The consolidation process is the process of the

Due to a surcharge q applied at the GL,

Ds remains the same (=q) during consolidation.

~ drainage and deformations are vertical (none laterally)

water squeezed out

1. The soil is completely saturated (S = 100%),

v z The consolidation phenomenon is

vz Rate at which water leaves the

Rate of volume decrease

Rate at which water Rate of volume decrease

Rate at which water Rate of volume decrease

Assume Darcy’s law

Note that because only flows due to consolidation are of

Assume soil behaves elastically

Elastic response  v  mv Ds ' (7)

where, mv is the coefficient of volume compressibility or

Note that these are changes in stress due to consolidation

Equation of 1-D Consolidation

for situation wherein total applied stress, σ, remains constant

• cv has units L2/T and can be estimated from an oedometer

Uniformly distributed surcharge Δp (stress increment)

Z Homogeneous Saturated Clay Layer free 2H

u = 0 when z = 0 for t > 0

u = 0 when z = 0 for t > 0

u = Δp when t = 0 for 0 < z < 2H (14d)

u/Δp = f(T, Z) (16)

To determine how far the consolidation process under the

U denotes the Degree of consolidation or Consolidation ratio

U is defined as the ratio of the amount of consolidation

The degree of consolidation Uz % at a depth z is then

Excess pore water pressure

Excess pore water pressure

Variation of Excess pore pressure with depth

Tv  1.781  0.933 log(100  U%) ( U z  60%)

Clay 4m Final settlement=100mm

For the upper layer

Now using Figure 5 with Tv = 0.1

For the upper layer

Now using Figure 5 with Tv = 0.1

ΔH = 100  0.36 = 36mm

Now using Figure 5 with Tv = 0.02

Now using Figure 5 with Tv = 0.02

Tv (oedometer) = Tv (soil layer)

settlement Increment of load

sample porous stone

Seating pressure - 5 kN/m2