EE 615-Final Lecture Slides All

Syllabus Textbooks/References Evaluation Pattern
Control of Electrical Drives
Introductory Lecture
Dr. Sashidhar Sampathirao

School of Electrical Sciences
January 13, 2024
Indian Institute of Technology Goa
Control of Electrical Drives 1/9

1 Syllabus
2 Textbooks/References
3 Evaluation Pattern

Course Contents
Dynamics of electrical drives: Fundamental torque equations, Speed torque conventions and
multiquadrant operation, Equivalent Values of drive parameters, Loads with rotational motion,
Loads with translational motion, Measurement of moment of inertia, Components of load torques,
Nature and classification of load torques, Calculation of time and energy-loss in transient operations,
Steady state stability, Load equalisation.
Control of electrical drives: Modes of operation, Speed control and drive classifications,
Closed-loop control of drives, current limit control, closed-loop torque control, speed control,
speed control of multi-motor drives, speed and current sensing, phase-locked-loop (PLL) control,
Closed-loop position control.
Selection of motor power rating: Thermal model of motor for heating and cooling, Classes
of motor duty, Determination of motor rating, Continuous duty, Equivalent current, Torque and
power methods for fluctuating and intermittent loads, Short time duty, Intermittent periodic duty,
Frequency of operation of motors subjected to intermittent loads.
dc Motor drives: Starting, Braking, Speed control, Methods of armature voltage control, Ward
Leonard drives, Transformer and uncontrolled rectifier control, Controlled rectifier fed dc drives,
Single-phase fully-controlled and half-controlled rectifier control of dc separately excited motor,
Three-phase fully-controlled and half-controlled rectifier control of dc separately excited motor,
Multiquadrant operation of dc separately excited motor fed from fully-controlled rectifier, Rectifier
control of dc series motor, Control of fractional hp motors, Supply harmonics, power factor and
ripple in motor current, Chopper-controlled dc drives, Chopper control of separately excited dc
motor and series motor, Source current harmonics in Choppers, Converter ratings and closed-loop
control

Course Contents
Induction motor drives: Starting, Braking, Transient analysis, Voltage source inverter (VSI)
control, Variable frequency control from a current source, Current source inverter (CSI) control,
Slip power recovery, Linear induction motor and its control.
Synchronous motor and brushless dc motor drives: Synchronous motor variable speed
drives, Variable frequency control, Modes of variable frequency control, Variable frequency
control of multiple synchronous motors, Self-controlled synchronous motor drive employing load
commutated thyristor inverter, Permanent magnet ac motor drives.
Traction drives: Electric traction services, Nature of traction load, Main line and suburban train
configurations, Calculations of traction drive rating and energy consumption, Traction motors,
Conventional dc and ac traction drives, 25 kV ac traction using semiconductor converter controlled
dc motors, Polyphase ac motors for traction drives, dc traction employing polyphase ac motors, ac
traction employing polyphase ac motors.

1 Syllabus

Textbooks/References
• Bimal K. Bose, “Modern Power Electronics and AC Drives,” Prentice-Hall, Inc.,

2002.
• Gopal K. Dubey, “Fundamentals of Electrical Drives”, 2nd Edition, Alpha Science

International Ltd., 2001.
• D. W. Novotny, T. A. Lipo, “Vector Control and Dynamics of AC Drives,”

Clarendon Press, 1996.
• R. Krishnan, “Electric Motor Drives - Modelling, Analysis and Control,” 1st

Edition, Pearson Education, Inc., 2001.
• Mohamed El-Sharkawi, “Fundamentals of Electric Drive,” CL- Engineering, 1st

Edition, 2000.

1 Syllabus

Evaluation Pattern
• The following is the evaluation pattern for EE 615: Control of Electrical Drives.
Description Weightage of Marks (M)

Quiz-1 10
Quiz-2 10
Mid-Semester Exam 30
Quiz-3 10
Quiz-4 10
End-Semester Exam 30
Total Marks 100

Thank You

Fundamentals Torque Equations Multiquadrant Operation Four Quadrant Operation
Dynamics of Electrical Drives
Lecture-1

January 13, 2024
Dynamics of Electrical Drives 1 / 17

1 Fundamentals Torque Equations
2 Multiquadrant Operation
3 Four Quadrant Operation of a Motor Driving a Hoist Load

Introduction
Motor Load
ωm
T Tl
Figure 1. Equivalent motor-load system.
• A motor generally drives a load (machine) through some transmission system.
• While motor always rotates, the load may rotate or may undergo a translational
motion.

Introduction
Motor Load
ωm
T Tl
Figure 1. Equivalent motor-load system.
• A motor generally drives a load (machine) through some transmission system.
• While motor always rotates, the load may rotate or may undergo a translational
motion.
• It is convenient to represent the motor load system by an equivalent rotational

system.
• Here, J → moment of inertia of motor-load system referred to the motor shaft,

kg-m2 .
𝜔m → instantaneous angular velocity of motor shaft, rad/s.
𝜏 → instantaneous value of developed motor torque, N-m.
𝜏l → instantaneous value of load (resisting) torque, referred to motor shaft, N-m.

Introduction
• Load torque includes friction and windage torque of motor.
• Motor-load system is described by the following fundamental torque equation,
d d 𝜔m dJ
𝜏 − 𝜏l = ( J 𝜔m ) = J + 𝜔m . (1)
dt dt dt
• Eq. 1 is applicable to variable inertia drives such as mine winders, reel drives,
and industrial robots.

Introduction
• Load torque includes friction and windage torque of motor.
• Motor-load system is described by the following fundamental torque equation,
d d 𝜔m dJ
𝜏 − 𝜏l = ( J 𝜔m ) = J + 𝜔m . (1)
dt dt dt
• Eq. 1 is applicable to variable inertia drives such as mine winders, reel drives,
and industrial robots.
• For drives with constant inertia, ( dJ /dt ) = 0. Therefore,
d 𝜔m
𝜏 = 𝜏l + J . (2)
dt
• Eq. 2 shows that torque developed by the motor is counter balanced by a load
torque 𝜏l and a dynamic torque J (d 𝜔m /dt ).
• Torque component J (d 𝜔m /dt ) → dynamic torque (it is present only during the
transient operation).

Introduction
• Drive accelerates or decelerates depending on whether 𝜏 is greater or less than 𝜏l .

• During acceleration → motor should supply not only the 𝜏l but an additional
torque component J (d 𝜔m /dt ) in order to overcome the drive inertia.
• In drives with large inertia (such as electric trains) 𝜏 must exceed 𝜏l by a large
amount in order to get adequate acceleration.

Introduction
• Drive accelerates or decelerates depending on whether 𝜏 is greater or less than 𝜏l .

• During acceleration → motor should supply not only the 𝜏l but an additional
torque component J (d 𝜔m /dt ) in order to overcome the drive inertia.
• In drives with large inertia (such as electric trains) 𝜏 must exceed 𝜏l by a large
amount in order to get adequate acceleration.
• In drives requiring fast transient response → 𝜏 should be maintained at the highest

value and motor-load system should be designed with a lowest possible inertia.
• Energy associated with dynamic torque J (d 𝜔m /dt ) is stored in the form of kinetic
energy given by J 𝜔2m /2.
• During deceleration → J (d 𝜔m /dt ) is −ve sign.
• ∴ it assists the 𝜏 and maintains drive motion by extracting energy from stored
kinetic energy.


Speed Torque Conventions and Multiquadrant Operation
• Multiquadrant operation of drives → useful

ωm
to establish suitable conventions about the
signs of torque and speed.
II I
Forward Forward
braking motoring
• Motor speed is considered +ve when rotat-
ing in the forward direction. T
Reverse Reverse
motoring braking
III IV
Figure 2. Multiquadrant-operation of drives.

• Multiquadrant operation of drives → useful

ωm
to establish suitable conventions about the
signs of torque and speed.
II I
Forward Forward
braking motoring
• Motor speed is considered +ve when rotat-
ing in the forward direction. T
Reverse Reverse
motoring braking
• For drives that operate only in one direction, III IV
forward speed will be their normal speed.
• In loads involving up-and-down motions,

Figure 2. Multiquadrant-operation of drives.
the speed of motor which causes upward
motion is considered forward motion.

• For reversible drives, forward speed is chosen arbitrarily.
• The rotation in the opposite direction → reverse speed and assigned −ve sign.
• Positive motor torque is defined as the torque which produces acceleration or the
positive rate of change of speed in forward direction.

• For reversible drives, forward speed is chosen arbitrarily.
• The rotation in the opposite direction → reverse speed and assigned −ve sign.
• Positive motor torque is defined as the torque which produces acceleration or the
positive rate of change of speed in forward direction.
• According to Eq. 2, +ve 𝜏l is opposite in direction to the +ve motor torque.
• Motor torque is considered −ve if it produces deceleration.
• Motor operates in two modes → motoring and braking.
• Motoring → converted electrical energy to mechanical energy, which supports its

motion.

• Braking → it works as a generator converting mechanical energy to electrical

energy, and thus, opposes the motion.
• Motor can provide motoring and braking operations for both forward and reverse
directions.
• Power developed by a motor is given by product of speed and torque.

• Braking → it works as a generator converting mechanical energy to electrical

energy, and thus, opposes the motion.
• Motor can provide motoring and braking operations for both forward and reverse
directions.
• Power developed by a motor is given by product of speed and torque.
• In quadrant I → developed power is +ve → forward motoring.
• In quadrant II → developed power is −ve → machine works under braking

opposing the motion → forward braking.
• Quadrant III and IV → reverse motoring and braking, respectively.


Four Quadrant Operation of a Motor Driving a Hoist Load

τ τ
τl τl
ωm ωm ωm
Tl2 Tl1
Counter Motion Counter Motion
weight weight
Quadrants
Empty Loaded
cage cage
II I
Load torque with Load torque with
empty cage loaded cage
III IV τ T
τ τl
ωm
τl
ωm Motion
Motion
Empty Loaded
cage cage
Counter Counter
weight weight
Figure 3. Four quadrant operation of a motor driving a hoist load.

• Consider operation of a hoist in four quadrants as shown in Fig. 3.
• A hoist consists of a rope wound on a drum coupled to the motor shaft.
• One end of the rope is tied to a cage which is used to transport man or material
form one level to another level.

• Consider operation of a hoist in four quadrants as shown in Fig. 3.
• A hoist consists of a rope wound on a drum coupled to the motor shaft.
• One end of the rope is tied to a cage which is used to transport man or material
form one level to another level.
• Other end of the rope has a counter weight.
• Here, the weight of the counter weight is chosen to be higher than the weight of
an empty cage but lower than a fully loaded cage.
• Forward direction of the motor speed will be one which gives upward motion of
the cage.

• Load torque is shown to be constant and independent of speed.
• Gravitational torque does not change its sign even when the direction of the driving
motor is reversed.
• Load torque line 𝜏l1 in quadrants I and IV → speed-torque characteristics for the
loaded hoist.

• Load torque is shown to be constant and independent of speed.
• Gravitational torque does not change its sign even when the direction of the driving
motor is reversed.
• Load torque line 𝜏l1 in quadrants I and IV → speed-torque characteristics for the
loaded hoist.
• This torque is the difference of torques due to loaded hoist and counter weight.
• Load torque line 𝜏l2 in quadrants II and III → speed-torque characteristics for an
empty hoist.
• This torque is the difference of torques due to counter weight and the empty hoist.
• Its sign is −ve since the weight of a counter weight is always higher than that of
an empty cage.

• Quadrant-I operation of a hoist requires the movement of the cage upward, which
corresponds to the positive motor speed which is in anticlockwise direction here.
• This motion will be obtained if the motor produces +ve torque in anticlockwise
direction equal to the magnitude of 𝜏l1 .
• Since the developed motor power is +ve → forward motoring operation.

• Quadrant-I operation of a hoist requires the movement of the cage upward, which
corresponds to the positive motor speed which is in anticlockwise direction here.
• This motion will be obtained if the motor produces +ve torque in anticlockwise
direction equal to the magnitude of 𝜏l1 .
• Since the developed motor power is +ve → forward motoring operation.
• Quadrant IV operation is obtained when a loaded cage is lowered.
• Since the weight of a loaded cage is higher than that of a counter weight, it is able
to come down due to the gravity itself.
• To limit the speed of cage within safe value, motor must produce a +ve torque
𝜏 = 𝜏l2 in anticlockwise direction.
• As both power and speed are −ve → drive is operating in reverse braking.

• Operation in quadrant II is obtained when an empty cage is moved up.
• Since a counterweight is heavier than an empty cage, it is able to pull it up.
• In order to limit the speed within a safe value, the motor must produce a braking
torque equal to 𝜏l2 in clockwise (−ve) direction. Since speed is +ve and developed
power −ve → forward braking operation.

• Operation in quadrant II is obtained when an empty cage is moved up.
• Since a counterweight is heavier than an empty cage, it is able to pull it up.
• In order to limit the speed within a safe value, the motor must produce a braking
torque equal to 𝜏l2 in clockwise (−ve) direction. Since speed is +ve and developed
power −ve → forward braking operation.
• Operation in quadrant III is obtained when an empty cage is lowered.
• Since an empty cage has a lesser weight than a counter weight, the motor should
produce a torque in clockwise direction.
• Since speed is −ve and developed power +ve → reverse motoring operation.

References

2002.




Edition, 2000.

Thank You

Loads with Rotational Motion Loads with Translational Motion Moment of Inertia Load Torques
Lecture-2

January 13, 2024

1 Loads with Rotational Motion
2 Loads with Translational Motion
3 Moment of Inertia
4 Components of Load Torques

Equivalent Values of Drive Parameters
• Different parts of a load → coupled through different mechanisms such as gears,

V-belts and crankshaft.
• These parts have different speeds and different types of motions → rotational and
translational.
Loads with Rotational Motion:
• Consider a motor driving two loads, one coupled directly to its shaft and other
through a gear with n and n1 teeth.
• Let the moment of inertia of motor and load directly coupled to its shaft be J0 ,
motor speed and torque of the directly coupled load be 𝜔m and 𝜏l0 , respectively.
• Let the moment of inertia, speed and torque of the load coupled through a gear be
J1 , 𝜔m1 and 𝜏l1 , respectively.

Loads with Rotational Motion

J0
ωm
ωm
Load J1
Motor
n
Tlo Load
n1
ωml
Tl1
( a ) Load with rotational motions
Gear
J0
ωm Load
Motor Rotational to Linear
Tlo Motion transmission
Mass
Mt vl
Force
Fl
( b ) Load with translational and rotational and linear motions
Figure 1. (a) Loads with rotational motion and (b) loads with transnational and rotational motion.
• Now,
𝜔m1 n
= = a1 . (1)
𝜔m n1
Where, a1 is the gear tooth ratio.
• If the losses in transmission are neglected, then the kinetic energy due to equivalent
inertia must be the same as the kinetic energy of various moving parts. Thus,
1 1 1
J 𝜔2m = J0 𝜔2m + J1 𝜔2m1 (2)
2 2 2
• From Eqs. 1 and 2,
J = J0 + a21 J1 . (3)
• Power at the loads and motor must be the same. If transmission efficiency of the
gears be 𝜂1 , then
𝜏 𝜔
𝜏l 𝜔m = 𝜏l0 𝜔m + l1 m1 . (4)
𝜂1
Where, 𝜏l is the total equivalent torque referred to the motor shaft.
• From Eqs. 1 and 4,
a 𝜏
𝜏l = 𝜏l0 + 1 l1 . (5)
𝜂1

• If in addition to load directly coupled to the motor with inertia J0 there are m
other loads with moment of inertias J1 , J2 , ......., Jm and gear teeth ratios of a1 ,
a2 , ....... am then
J = J0 + a21 J1 + a22 J2 + ........... a2m Jm . (6)
• If m loads with torques 𝜏l1 , 𝜏l2 , ........, 𝜏lm are coupled through gears with teeth
ratios a1 , a2 , ....... am and transmission efficiencies 𝜂1 , 𝜂2 , ........., 𝜂m , in addition
to one directly coupled, then
a1 𝜏l1 a2 𝜏l2 am 𝜏lm
𝜏l = 𝜏l1 + + + ........ + . (7)
𝜂1 𝜂2 𝜂m
• If loads are driven through a belt drive instead of gears, neglecting slippage, the
equivalent inertia and torque can be obtained from Eqs. 6 and 7.

3 Moment of Inertia

Loads with Translational Motion
• Consider a motor driving two loads, one coupled directly to the shaft and the other
through a transmission system converting rotational motion to linear motion.
• Let the moment of inertia of the motor and load directly coupled to it be J0 ,
𝜏l directly coupled to motor be 𝜏l0 , and mass, velocity and force of load with
translational motion be M1 (kg), v1 (m/s) and F1 (N), respectively.
• If the transmission losses are neglected, then kinetic energy due to equivalent
inertia J must be the same as kinetic energy of various moving parts. Thus,
1 1 1
J 𝜔2m = J0 𝜔2m + M1 v12 . (8)
2 2 2
or 2
v1
J = J0 + M1 . (9)
𝜔m

Loads with Translational Motion
• ∥ly, power at the motor and load should be the same, thus if efficiency of
transmission be 𝜂1
F1 v1
𝜏l 𝜔m = 𝜏l0 𝜔m + (10)
𝜂1

F1 v1
𝜏l = 𝜏l0 + . (11)
𝜂1 𝜔m
• If, in addition to one load directly coupled tot he motor shaft, there are m other
loads with translational motion with velocities v1 , v2 , ......vm and masses M1 , M2 ,
......Mm , respectively, then
2 2 2
v1 v2 vm
J = J0 + M1 + M2 + ...... + Mm . (12)
𝜔m 𝜔m 𝜔m
and
F1 v1 F2 v2 Fm vm
𝜏l = 𝜏l0 + + + ...... + . (13)
𝜂1 𝜔m 𝜂2 𝜔m 𝜂m 𝜔m

3 Moment of Inertia

Measurement of Moment of Inertia
• Moment of inertia is calculated if dimensions and weights of various parts of the

load and motor are known.
• Measured experimentally → retardation test.
• In retardation test → drive runs at a speed slightly higher than rated speed and
then the supply to it cut off.
• Drive continues to run due to kinetic energy stored in it and decelerates due to
rotational mechanical losses.
• At any speed 𝜔m , power P consumed in supplying rotational losses is given by

d 1 2 d 𝜔m
P = J 𝜔m = J 𝜔m . (14)
dt 2 dt
• From retardation test d 𝜔m /dt at rated speed is obtained.

• Now, drive is connected to the supply and run at rated speed and rotational
mechanical power input P to the drive is measured.
• However, the rotational mechanical losses cannot be measured accurately since

the core losses and rotational mechanical losses cannot be separated.
• Hence, the retardation test on a dc separately excited motor or a synchronous

motor is carried-out with field on.
• Now, core loss is included in the rotational loss, which is the difference between
armature power input and armature copper loss.
• In case of a wound rotor IM → retardation test can be carried-out by keeping the

stator supply and opening the rotor winding connection.

P ,ω ωm0
P vs ωm
P vs t curve
ωm1
p1 A ωm vs t
P1
ωm1 t1 t ωm
Figure 2. Graphical method of determination of the equivalent moment of inertia.
• J can be determined more accurately by obtaining the speed time curve from the
retardation test and also rotational versus speed plot shown in Fig. 2.
• Using these two plots, rotational losses versus time plot can be obtained.
• Area A enclosed between the rotational loss versus t plot and the time axis (shaded
area) → kinetic energy dissipated during retardation test.
• If the initial speed of the drive during retardation test is 𝜔m0 then
1
J 𝜔2m0 = A. (15)
2
3 Moment of Inertia

Components of Load Torques
• Load torque 𝜏l → friction torque 𝜏f and windage torque 𝜏W .
• (i) Friction torque, 𝜏f : Friction will be present at the motor shaft and also in
various parts of the load. 𝜏f is equivalent value of various friction torques referred
to the motor shaft.
• (ii) Windage torque, 𝜏w : When a motor runs, wind generates a torque opposing
the motion.
• (iii) Torque required to do the useful mechanical work, 𝜏l : This torque depends on
the particular application. It may be constant and independent of speed. It may
depend on the position or path followed by load.


ωm ωm
Tc
Tv
Ts
0
0 Tf Torque
Ts
Tc
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Friction torque and its components.
• Variation of friction torque with speed as shown in Fig. 3. Its value at standstill is
much higher than its value slightly above zero speed.
• Friction at zero speed → stiction or static friction.
• Friction torque is resolved into three components.
• Component 𝜏v which varies lineraly with speed is called viscous friction and given
as,
𝜏v = B 𝜔m . (16)
Where, B is the viscous friction coefficient.

• Another component 𝜏c which is independent of speed → Coulomb friction.
• Third component 𝜏s accounts for additional torque present at standstill. Since 𝜏s

is present only at standstill, it is not taken into account in the dynamic analysis.
• Windage torque 𝜏w is given as
𝜏w = C 𝜔2m . (17)
Where, C is constant.
• For finite speed,
𝜏l = 𝜏l + B 𝜔m + 𝜏c + C 𝜔2m . (18)
• In many applications 𝜏c + c 𝜔2m is very small compared to B 𝜔m and neglisable
compared to 𝜏l .
• In order to simplify the analysis, term 𝜏c + C 𝜔2m is accounted by updating the

value of viscous friction coefficient B. Then,
d 𝜔m
𝜏 = J + 𝜏l + B 𝜔m . (19)
dt


• If there is a torsional elasticity in shaft coupling the load to the motor, an additional
component of load torque known as coupling torque, will be present.
• Coupling torque 𝜏e is given as
𝜏e = Ke 𝜃 e . (20)
Where, 𝜃 e is the torsion angle of coupling (radians) and Ke the rotational stiffness
of the shaft (N-m/rad).
• In most applications, shaft can be assumed to be perfectly stiff and 𝜏e can be

neglected.
• There is potential energy associated with coupling torque and kinetic energy with
dynamic torque.
• Exchange of energy between these two energy storage tends to produce oscillations
which are damped by viscous friction torque b 𝜔m .
• When B is small → oscillations occur producing noise.

Nature and Classification of Load Torques
ωm ωm ωm ωm
0 0 0 0
Tl Tl Tl (d) Constant power load Tl
(a) Tl α ω2m (b) High speed hoist (c) Traction load
• A low speed hoist → torque is constant and independent of the speed.
• Paper mill drive → torque is independent of speed.
• Fans, compressors, aeroplanes, centrifugal pumps, ship-propellors, high speed

hoists, traction → load torque is a function of speed.

• Fans, compressors, aeroplanes → windade dominates → 𝜏L ∝ 𝜔2 shown in Fig. 4

(a).
• Windage is the opposition offered by air to the motion.
• Similar nature of 𝜏L an be expected when the motion is opposed by any other fluid,
example, by water in centrifugal pumps and ship-propellors → Fig. 4 (a).
• High speed hoist → viscous friction and windage also have appreciable magnitude,
in addition to gravity → Fig. 4 (b).
• Traction load → since its heavy mass, the stictiuon is large → → Fig. 4 (c).
• Torque in a coiler drive → hyperbolic in nature → Fig. 4 (d). The developed

power is nearly constant at all speeds.

• Load torque → active and passive loads.
• Load torques which have the potential to drive the motor under equilibrium
condition are called active load torques.
• Such load torques usually retain their sign when the direction of the drive rotation
is changed.
• Torque due to gravitational force, tension, compression and torsion, undergone by

elastic body, comes under this category.
• Load torques which always oppose the motion and change their sign on the reversal
of motion are called passive load torques.
• Such torques are due to friction, windage, cutting etc.

References

2002.




Edition, 2000.

Thank You

Time and Energy-Loss Steady State Stability
Lecture-3

January 15, 2024

1 Time and Energy-Loss
2 Steady State Stability

Calculation of Time and Energy-Loss in Transient Operations

• Transient operations → starting, braking, speed change and speed reversal.
• The time taken and energy dissipation in motor during the transient operations
can be evaluated by solving Eq. 1 along with motor circuit equations.
d 𝜔m
𝜏 = J + 𝜏l + B 𝜔m . (1)
dt
• When 𝜏 and 𝜏l are constants or ∝ 𝜔2 → Eq. 1 is first order linear differential
equation → can be solved analytically.
• When 𝜏 and 𝜏l is neither constant nor ∝ 𝜔2 → non-liner differential equation →

can be solved by Runga-Kutta method.
• The transient operation is considered to be over when 95 % change in speed has

taken place.
• When speed changes from 𝜔m1 to [𝜔m1 + 0.95 (𝜔me − 𝜔m1 )] is considered to
be equal to transient time.

Calculation of Time and Energy-Loss in Transient Operation

• Transient time and energy loss can also be computed with satisfactory accuracy
using steady-state torque and speed-current curves of motor and speed-torque
curve of load.
• This is because the mechanical time constant of a drive is usually very large
compared to the electrical time constant of motor.
• Consequently, electrical transients die down very fast and motor operation can
occur along the steady-state speed-torque and speed-current curves.
J d 𝜔m
dt = . (2)
𝜏(𝜔m ) − 𝜏l (𝜔m )
Where, 𝜏(𝜔m ) and 𝜏l (𝜔m ) indicate that the motor and load torques are functions
of drive speed 𝜔m .
• Time taken for drive speed to change from 𝜔m1 to 𝜔m2 is obtained by
∫ 𝜔m2
d 𝜔m
t = J . (3)
𝜔m1 𝜏(𝜔 m − 𝜏l (𝜔m )
)

T(ωm) - Tl(ωm)
J
t=shaded area
0
ωm1 ωm2 ωme ωm
• The area between the reciprocal of the acceleration J /[𝜏(𝜔m ) − 𝜏l (𝜔m )] versus
𝜔m curve and 𝜔m -axis shown in Fig. 1.
• The transient time can be evaluated by measuring this area.

• When 𝜔m2 is an equilibrium speed 𝜔me → the reciprocal of acceleration will

become infinite at 𝜔me .
• Consequently, time evaluated this way will be infinite.
• ∴ transient time is computed by measuring the area between speeds 𝜔m1 and
𝜔m1 + 0.95 (𝜔m2 − 𝜔m1 ).
• Energy dissipated in a motor winding during a transient operation is given by

∫ t
E = R i 2 dt. (4)
0
Where, R is the motor winding resistance and i is the current flowing through it.
• The area enclosed between the curve and time axis multiplied by R → gives
energy dissipated in the motor winding.

1 Time and Energy-Loss
2 Steady State Stability

Steady State Stability
ωm ωm ωm ωm
T T T Tl Tl T
Tl
A
Δωm
B Tl
C D
0 0
Torque Torque 0 Torque 0 Torque
• Equilibrium speed of a motor-load system is obtained when 𝜏m = 𝜏l .
• Drive will operate in steady-state at this speed, provided it is the speed of stable
equilibrium.
• In most drives, the electrical time constant of the motor is negligible compared to
its mechanical time constant.
• ∴ during transient operation, motor is assumed to be in electrical equilibrium,

implying that steady-state speed curves are also applicable to the transient operation.

• Steady state stability of equilibrium point A → stable, when the operation will
restored to it after a small departure from it due to a disturbance in the motor or
load.
• Let the disturbance cause a reduction of ∆ 𝜔m in speed.
• At new speed, 𝜏m > 𝜏l → motor will accelerate and operation will be restored to
A.
• Similarly, an increase of ∆ 𝜔m in speed caused by a disturbance will make 𝜏l >

𝜏m → deceleration and restoration of operation to point A.
• Hence, the drive is steady-state stable at point A.
• Examine equilibrium point B which is obtained when the same motor drives
another load.
• A decrease in speed causes the 𝜏l to become > 𝜏m → drive decelerates and

operating point moves away from B.


• Similarly, when working at B, an increase in speed will make 𝜏m < 𝜏l , which
will move the operating point away from B.
• Thus, B is an unstable point of equilibrium.
• Hence, an equilibrium point will be stable when as increase in speed causes 𝜏l

to exceed 𝜏m , i.e., at the equilibrium point, the following condition is satisfied.
d 𝜏l d𝜏
> . (5)
d 𝜔m d 𝜔m
• Let a small perturbation in speed, ∆𝜔m , results in ∆ 𝜏 and ∆ 𝜏l perturbations
in 𝜏 and 𝜏l , respectively. Then,
d (𝜔m + ∆𝜔m )
(𝜏 + ∆ 𝜏) = (𝜏l + ∆ 𝜏l ) + J (6)
dt
or
d 𝜔m d ∆𝜔m
𝜏 + ∆ 𝜏 = 𝜏l + ∆ 𝜏l + J +J . (7)
dt dt
• Substracting Eq. 1 from 11 and rearranging terms gives
d ∆𝜔m
J = ∆𝜏 − ∆𝜏l . (8)
dt

• For small perturbations, the speed-torque curves of the motor and load can be
assumed to be straight lines.
d𝜏
∆𝜏 = ∆𝜔m . (9)
d 𝜔m
d 𝜏l
∆𝜏l = ∆𝜔m . (10)
d 𝜔m
Where, d 𝜏/d 𝜔m and d 𝜏l /d 𝜔m are slopes of steady-state speed-torque curves of
motor and load at operating point under consideration.
• Substituting Eqs. 9 and 10 into 8 and rearranging the terms yields

d ∆𝜔m d 𝜏l d𝜏
J + − ∆𝜔m = 0. (11)
dt d 𝜔m d 𝜔m
• This is a first-order linear differential equation. If the initial deviation in speed at
t = 0 be (∆𝜔m )0 , then the solution of Eq. 11 will be

1 d 𝜏l d𝜏
∆𝜔m = ∆𝜔m 0 exp − − t . (12)
J d 𝜔m d 𝜔m
• An operating point will be stable when ∆𝜔m approaches zero as t approaches
infinity.
References

2002.




Edition, 2000.

Thank You

Load Equalisation
Lecture-4

January 13, 2024

Load Equalisation
1 Load Equalisation

Load Equalisation
Load Equalisation
• In some drive applications, 𝜏l fluctuates widely within short intervals of time.
• In pressing machines, a large torque of short duration is required during pressing

operation. Otherwise, the torque is nearly zero.
• Electric hammer, steel rolling mills and reciprocating pumps drive → motor is
required to supply peak torque demanded by load, the first motor rating has to be
high.
• Secondly, the motor will draw a pulsed current from the supply.
• When the amplitude of pulsed current forms an appreciable proportion of supply

line capacity, it gives rise to line voltage fluctuations, which adversely affect other
loads connected to the line.
• In some applications, peak load demanded may form major proportion of the
source capacity itself, as in blooming mills, then load fluctuations may also
adversely affect the stability of the source.

Load Equalisation
Load Equalisation
Tlh
Tl Tl
ωm
A B
ωmo
ωm ωm
ωmr
Tmax T T
C
Tmin
tl th
Tll
0
Tr Tmax T
0
t
Figure 1. Shapes of motor speed torque curves for
fluctuating loads. Figure 2. Variation of motor and load torques and
speed for a periodic load for a drooping
motor speed-curve.

Load Equalisation
Load Equalisation
• The problems of fluctuating loads are overcome by mounting a flywheel on the

motor shaft in non-reversible drives.
• Motor speed-torque characteristic is made drooping (characteristic AC in Fig. 1).
• Alternatively, by closed loop current control torque is prevented from exceeding a

permissible value (characteristic ABC in Fig. 1).
• During high load period, 𝜏l will be much larger compared to 𝜏m .
• Deceleration occurs, producing a large dynamic torque component ( J d 𝜔m /dt ).
• Dynamic torque and motor torque together are able to produce torque required by
the load.

Load Equalisation
Load Equalisation
• Due to deceleration, the motor speed falls.
• During light load period, 𝜏m exceeds the 𝜏l , causing acceleration and speed is
brought back to the original value before the next high load period.
• Variation of motor and load torques, and speed for a periodic load and for a
drooping motor speed-torque curve (AC in Fig. 1) are shown in Fig. 2.
• It shows that peak torque required from the motor has much smaller value than
the peak 𝜏l .
• Hence, a motor with much smaller rating than peak load can be used and peak
current drawn by motor from the source is reduced by a large amount.
• Fluctuations in motor torque and speed are also reduced.
• Since power drawn from the source fluctuates very little → load equalisation.

Load Equalisation
Load Equalisation
• In variable speed and reversible drives, a flywheel cannot be mounted on the motor
shaft, Fig. 2 as it will increase transient time of the drive by a large amount.
• If motor is fed from a motor-generator set (Ward-Leonard Drive), then flywheel

can be mounted on the shaft of the motor-generator set.
• This arrangement equalizes load on the source, but not the load on motor.
• Consequently, a motor capable of supplying peak-load torque is required.
• Moment of inertia of the flywheel required for load equalisation is calculated as

follows:
• Assuming a linear motor-speed-torque curve in the region of interest (drooping

characteristic AC of Fig. 1)
𝜔m0 − 𝜔mr
𝜔m = 𝜔m0 − 𝜏. (1)
𝜏r
Where, 𝜔m0 , 𝜔mr and 𝜏l are no-load speed, rated speed and rated torque, respec-
tively.

Load Equalisation
Load Equalisation
• The slow response due to large inertia, motor can be assumed to be in electrical
equilibrium during transient operation of the motor-load system. In that case Eq.
1 will be
d 𝜔m J (𝜔mo − 𝜔mr ) d 𝜏
J = − (2)
dt 𝜏r dt
d 𝜔m d𝜏
J = − 𝜏m . (3)
dt dt
J ( 𝜔mo − 𝜔mr )
Where, 𝜏m = 𝜏r , is the mechanical time constant of the motor.
• It is the time required for the motor speed to change by (𝜔m0 − 𝜔mr ) when 𝜏m is
maintained constant at rated value 𝜏r .
d𝜏
𝜏m + 𝜏 = 𝜏l . (4)
dt

Load Equalisation
Load Equalisation
• Consider now a periodic load torque, a cycle of which consists of one high load
period with torque 𝜏lh and duration th and one light load period with torque 𝜏ll
and duration tl (Fig. 2).
• For high load period (0 ≤ t ≤ th ) solution of Eq. (2.35) is
𝜏 = 𝜏lh ( 1 − e − t /𝜏m ) + 𝜏min e − t /𝜏m for 0 ≤ t ≤ th . (5)
Where, 𝜏min is motor torque at t = 0, which is also the instant when heavy load
𝜏lh is applied.
• If motor torque at the end of heavy load period is 𝜏max , then from Eq.
𝜏max = 𝜏lh ( 1 − e − th /𝜏m ) + 𝜏min e − th /𝜏m . (6)

• Solution of Eq. 4 for the light load period (th ≤ t ≤ th + tl ) with the initial
motor torque equal to Tmax is
′ ′ ′
𝜏 = 𝜏ll ( 1 − e − t /𝜏m ) + 𝜏max e − t /𝜏m for 0 ≤ t ≤ tl . (7)
′
Where, t = t − th .

Load Equalisation
Load Equalisation
• When operating in steady-state, motor torque at the end of a cycle will be the same
as at the beginning of the cycle.
′
• Hence at t = tl , 𝜏 = 𝜏min . Substituting in Eq. 7 gives
𝜏min = 𝜏ll ( 1 − e − tl /𝜏m ) + 𝜏max e − tl /𝜏m . (8)

• Eq. 6,
th
𝜏m = . (9)
𝜏lh − 𝜏min
log 𝜏lh − 𝜏max
• From 𝜏m = J ( 𝜔mo − 𝜔mr )

𝜏r and Eq. 9,
 
th
𝜏r  
J = . (10)
 

− 𝜔mr

𝜔m0  log 𝜏lh − 𝜏min 

 𝜏lh − 𝜏max 

Load Equalisation
Load Equalisation
• Also from Eq. 8,

 
tl
 
=  . (11)
 
𝜏m
 log 𝜏max − 𝜏ll 

 𝜏min − 𝜏ll 
• From 𝜏m = J ( 𝜔mo − 𝜔mr )

𝜏r and Eq. 11,
 
tl
𝜏r  
J = . (12)
 

− 𝜔mr

𝜔m0  log 𝜏max − 𝜏ll 

 𝜏min − 𝜏ll


• Moment of inertia of the flywheel required can be calculated either from Eq. 10
or 12.
• Further,
J = W R2 , kg − m2 . (13)
Where, W is the weight of the flywheel (kg) and R is the radius (m).

Load Equalisation
References

2002.




Edition, 2000.

Load Equalisation
Thank You

Modes of Operation Speed Control Closed-Loop Control
Lecture-5

February 5, 2024
Control of Electrical Drives 1 / 20

1 Modes of Operation
2 Speed Control and Drive Classifications
3 Closed-Loop Control of Drives

Modes of Operation
• An electrical drive operates in three modes:

(a) steady-state,
(b) acceleration including starting, and
(c) deceleration including stopping.
• According to Eq. 1,
d 𝜔m
𝜏 = 𝜏l + J , (1)
dt
steady-state operation takes place when 𝜏 = 𝜏l .
• The steady-state operation for a given speed is realised by the adjustment of

steady-state motor speed-torque curve such that 𝜏 = 𝜏l at this speed.
• Change in speed is achieved by varying the steady-state motor speed torque curve
so that 𝜏 equals 𝜏l at the new desired speed.

Modes of Operation
• In Fig. 1, when the motor parameters

are adjusted to provide speed torque
curve 1 → drive runs at the desired
speed 𝜔m1 . ωm Tl
ωm1
• Speed is changed to 𝜔2 when the mo- 1
tor parameters are adjusted to provide ωm2
speed-torque curve 2. 2
• When 𝜏l opposes motion, the motor

works as a motor operating in quadrant
I or III depending on the direction of 0
rotation. Figure 1. Principle of speed control.
• When the load is active, it can reverse

its sign and act to assist the motion.

Modes of Operation
• For example, when a loaded hoist is lowered or an unloaded hoist is lifted, the net
load-torque acts to assist the motion.
• Steady-state operation for such a case can be obtained by adding a mechanical

brake which will produce a torque in a direction to oppose the motion.
• The steady state operation is obtained at a speed for which braking torque equals
𝜏l .
• Drive operates in quadrant II or IV depending on the direction of rotation.
• Disadvantages of mechanical braking: frequent maintenance and replacement of

brake shoes, lower life, braking power is dissipated as heat.
• Electrical braking → motor is made to work as a generator converting mechanical

energy to electrical energy and producing torque in a direction so as to oppose the
motion.

Modes of Operation
• Even when electrical braking is employed, mechanical brakes may also be provided
to ensure the reliable operation of the drive.
• Mechanical brakes → employed to hold the drive at stand-still since many braking
methods are not able to produce torque at stand-still.
• Acceleration and deceleration modes → transient operations.
• Drive operates in acceleration mode whenever an increase in its speed is required.
• Hence, the motor speed-torque curve must be changed so that 𝜏 > 𝜏l .
• Time taken for a given change in speed → depends on the inertia of motor-load
system and the amount by which 𝜏 exceeds 𝜏l .
• ↑ in 𝜏 is accompanied by an ↑ in motor current, i .

Modes of Operation
• Restrict i within a value that is safe for both motor and power modulator.
• In applications involving acceleration periods of long duration → current must

not be allowed to exceed the rated value.
• When acceleration periods are of short duration → current higher than the rated
value (is allowed during acceleration).
• In closed-loop drives requiring fast response → i may be intentionally forced to

the maximum value to achieve high acceleration.
• Torque developed by an ac motor for a given current → function of motor control

method employed.
• In high-performance drives, methods that produce high torque per ampere of

motor current are employed.

Modes of Operation
ωm
Electric braking Motoring
1
ωm2 B E1
D3 2
ωm1 D2 A
D1
Deceleration 3 ωm
Tl
4
ωm3
E2 C
E3 5
-T 0 T
Figure 2. Speed transition paths (1 to 5 are motor speed torque curves).

Modes of Operation
• Fig. 2 shows the transition from operating point A at speed 𝜔m1 to operating
point B at a higher speed 𝜔m2 , when 𝜏 is held constant during acceleration.
• The path consists of A D1 E1 B. In Fig. 2, 1 to 5 are motor speed-torque curves.
• Starting is a special case of acceleration where a speed change from 0 to a desired

speed takes place.
• When starting takes place at no-load or light loads → methods with low starting
torque can be employed.
• When the motor must start with substantial 𝜏l (around rated torque) or when fast
start is required → methods with high starting torque must be used.
• In applications, the motor should accelerate smoothly (without any jerk) → starting
torque can be increased steplessly from its zero value → soft start.

Modes of Operation
• Motor operation in deceleration mode is required when a decrease in its speed is

required.
• When 𝜏l > 𝜏 → deceleration occurs.
• In those applications where 𝜏l is always present with substantial magnitude, enough

deceleration can be achieved by simply reducing 𝜏 to zero.
• In those applications where 𝜏l may not always have a substantial amount or where
simply reducing 𝜏 to zero does not provide enough deceleration, mechanical
brakes may be used to produce the required magnitude of deceleration.
• Alternatively, electric braking may be employed. Now both 𝜏 and 𝜏l oppose the
motion, thus producing larger deceleration.
• During electric braking motor current tends to exceed the safe limit.
• When electric braking may persist for long periods, maximum current is usually
restricted to the rated value.

Modes of Operation
• When electric braking occurs for short durations, maximum current is allowed to
exceed the rated value.
• Higher the braking torque → greater the deceleration.
• In high-performance closed loop schemes, motor current may be intentionally

forced to the maximum permissible value during deceleration.
• Figure 2 shows paths followed during transition from point A at speed 𝜔m1 to a
point C at a lower speed 𝜔m3 .
• When deceleration is carried out using electric braking at a constant braking torque
→ operating point moves along the path A D3 E3 C.
• When sufficient 𝜏l is present or when mechanical braking is used → operation

takes place along the path A D2 E2 C.

Modes of Operation
• Stopping is a special case of deceleration where the speed of a running motor is

changed to zero.
• All the discussions about deceleration are applicable to stopping also.
• In applications requiring frequent, quick, accurate or rapid emergency stops, the

electric braking is usually employed.
• It allows smooth and quick stops without subjecting the mechanical parts to unduly
large stresses, e.g. in suburban electric trains quick stops are required.
• Use of electric braking allows a smooth stop, and increases the life of track and
wheels allowing a substantial saving in cost.


Speed Control and Drive Classifications
• Drives where the driving motor runs at a nearly fixed speed → constant speed of
single speed drives.
• Multi-speed drives → which operate at discrete speed settings.
• Drives needing stepless change in speed and multispeed drives → variable speed
drives.
• Multi-motor drive → when a number of motors are fed from a common converter
or when a load is driven by more than one motor.
• A variable speed drive is called constant torque drive → if the drive’s maximum
torque capability does not change with a change in speed setting.
• Constant torque → refers to the maximum torque capability of the drive and not
to the actual output torque, which may vary from no load to full load torque.

Speed Control and Drive Classifications
• Ideally, for a given speed setting, the motor speed should remain constant as 𝜏l is
changes from no load to full load.
• In practice, speed drops with an ↑ in 𝜏l .
• Quality of a speed control system is measured in terms of speed-regulation which

is defined as
No load speed − Full load speed
Speed regulation = × 100. (2)
Full load speed
• If open-loop control fails to provide the desired speed regulation, drive is operated
as a closed-loop speed control system.


Closed-Loop Control of Drives

V* Controller Converter Motor Load
+
If
-
Current
Sensor
I
0 Imax Threshold logic
circuit
Figure 3. Block diagram of current limit control.

• Feedback loops in an electrical drive may be provided to satisfy one or more of
the following requirements:
(i) Protection
(ii) Enhancement of speed of response
(iii) To improve steady-state accuracy
Current-Limit Control
• Current-limit control scheme → to limit the converter and motor current below a
safe limit during transient operations.
• As long as the current is within a set maximum value → feedback loop does not
affect the operation of the drive.
Current-Limit Control
• During a transient operation, if current exceeds the set maximum value, the
feedback loop becomes active and current is forced below the set maximum value,
which causes the feedback loop to become inactive again.
• If the current exceeds set maximum value again, it is again brought below it by
the action of feedback loop.
• Thus, the current fluctuates around a set maximum limit during the transient
operation until the drive condition is such that the current does not have a tendency
to cross the set maximum value.
• Example → during starting, current will fluctuate around the set maximum value.
• When close to the steady-state operation point, current will not have tendency to
cross the maximum value.
• Consequently, the feedback loop will have no effect on the drive operation.

References

2002.




Edition, 2000.

Thank You

Closed-Loop Torque Control Closed-Loop Speed Control Speed Sensing Current Sensing PLL Control Closed-Loop Position Control
Lecture-6

February 5, 2024

1 Closed-Loop Torque Control
2 Closed-Loop Speed Control
3 Speed Sensing
4 Current Sensing
5 Phase-Locked-Loop (PLL) Control
6 Closed-Loop Position Control

Closed-Loop Torque Control
Torque
T* Controller
Converter Motor Load
+
- T
Torque
sensor
Figure 1. Block diagram of closed-loop torque control.
• Closed-loop torque control scheme → battery operated vehicles, rail cars and
electric trains.
• Driver presses the accelerator to set torque reference 𝜏 ∗ . Through closed- loop
control of torque, the actual 𝜏 follows 𝜏 ∗ .
• Speed feedback loop is present through the driver. By applying pressure on the
accelerator, driver adjusts the speed depending on traffic, road condition, his liking,
car condition and speed limit.

3 Speed Sensing
4 Current Sensing

Closed-Loop Speed Control

Current
Reference
Δωm
I*
Speed Current
ω* Controller
Converter Motor Load
+ + Controller
ωm - I
- Current
Limiter Current
I Current Limiter
Sensor
ωm Speed
Sensor
(a) (b)
Figure 2. Block diagram of closed-loop speed control.
• Fig. 2 → closed-loop speed control scheme widely used in electrical drives.

• It employs an inner current control loop within an outer speed-loop.
• Inner current control loop is provided to limit the converter and motor current or
motor torque below a safe limit.
• In some schemes, the current is controlled directly or indirectly. For example, in a
variable frequency IM drives the current is controlled by controlling the slip.
• Inner current loop also reduces the effect on drive performance of any non- linearity
present in converter-motor system.
Closed-Loop Speed Control Operation
• An increase in reference speed 𝜔∗m produce a positive error ∆ 𝜔m .
• Speed error is processed through a speed controller and applied to a current limiter,
which saturates even for a small speed error.
• Consequently, limiter sets the current reference for inner current control loop at a
value corresponding to the maximum allowable current.
• Drive accelerates at the maximum allowable current (and in some cases 𝜏max ).
• When close to the desired speed, limiter desaturates.
• Steady-state is reached at the desired speed (with some steady-state error) and at
current for which 𝜏 = 𝜏l .
• A decrease in reference speed produces a negative speed error.
• Current limiter saturates and sets current reference for inner current loop at a value
corresponding to the maximum allowable current.

Closed-Loop Speed Control Operation
• Consequently, the drive decelerates in braking mode at the maximum allowable

current.
• When close to the required speed, current limiter desaturates. The operation is
transferred from braking to motoring.
• Drive then settles at a desired speed and at current for which 𝜏 = 𝜏l .
• In those drives where the current I does not have to reverse for braking operation,
current limiter will have the input-output characteristic shown in Fig. 2 (b).
• In those drive applications where 𝜏l is able to provide enough decelerating torque,

electric braking need not be used. Then also current limiter has the characteristic
shown in Fig. 2 (b).
• Current and speed controllers → proportional and integral (PI), proportional and
derivative (PD) or proportional, integral and derivative (PID) controller, depending
on steady-state accuracy and transient response requirements.

3 Speed Sensing
4 Current Sensing

Speed Sensing
• Sensing of speed is required for the implementation of closed-loop speed control

schemes.
• Speed is usually sensed → tachometers coupled to the motor shaft.
• A tachometer is an ac or dc generator with a high order of linearity between its

speed and output voltage.
• A dc tachometer is built with a permanent magnetic field with silver brushes to

reduce contact drop between brush and commutator.
• Typical voltage outputs are 10 V per 1000 rpm. The tachometer output voltage
consists of a ripple whose frequency depends on its speed.
• At low speeds → adequate filtering is done by a filter with a large enough time
constant to affect the dynamics of the drive.
• Special large diameter tachometers with a large number of commutator segments

are sometimes built to overcome this problem.

Speed Sensing
• Tachometers are available to measure speed with an accuracy of ± 0.1 %.
• Tachometer should be coupled to the motor with a torsionally stiff coupling →

natural frequency of the system consisting of rotor and tachometer lies well beyond
the bandwidth of the speed control loop.
• When very high-speed accuracies are required (computer peripherals and paper
mills) → digital tachometers are used.
• A digital tachometer employs a shaft encoder which gives a f ∝ 𝜔.
• In dc drives, speed can be sensed without a tachometer when field current or flux
is held constant, Eb ∝ 𝜔.
• Eb is measured by deducting a signal equal to its armature resistance drop from

motor terminal voltage.
• Method is inexpensive and provides speed measurement with an accuracy of ± 2

% of base speed.

3 Speed Sensing
4 Current Sensing

Current Sensing
CT Ac lines
+
R Filter V0
-
Figure 3. Sensing of current in three-phase ac lines.
• Current sensing → current limit control, inner current control loop of closed-loop
speed control, closed-loop torque control of a dc drive, for sensing fault conditions,
and for sensing speed in dc drives by Eb sensing method.
• To avoid interaction between control circuit (carrying low voltage and current),
and power circuit (involving high voltage and current) and sometimes harmonics
and voltage spikes → isolation must be provided between the two circuits.
• Current in three-phase ac circuits can be sensed using the circuit shown in Fig. 3.
Current Sensing
• Current transformers (CT) are used to provide isolation.
• The current transformer output is rectified, applied across resistor R, and filtered.
• Voltage drop V0 ∝ current in ac lines.
• When used in variable frequency inverters care should be taken to avoid saturation
at low frequencies.
• Major limitation of this method is that it cannot sense the phase of currents.
• In case of fully-controlled rectifiers, dc link current is ∝ ac line currents.
• ∴ dc and ac drives fed from fully-controlled rectifier → dc link current can be

sensed indirectly by sensing ac line currents of rectifier by the method of Fig. 3.

Current Sensing
Two methods are available for sensing dc current:
• (i) Use of a current sensor employing Hall-effect.
• It has the ability to sense current direction and is commercially available for a
wide range of currents (few amperes to several hundred amperes) with a typical
accuracy of 1 % up to 400 Hz.
• (ii) Use of a non-inductive resistance shunt in conjunction with an isolation

amplifier which has an arrangement for amplification and isolation between power
and control circuits.
• Limitation of shunt is that it provides only a small output voltage of the order of
7.5 to 75 mV at the rated current.
• Use of shunts of higher resistance results in increased power dissipation and drift
of resistance with temperature.

Current Sensing
• In current control loop of a variable speed drive, accurate sensing of current is not
necessary, and therefore, the drop across a suitable winding.
• Example: interpole winding in a dc machine is often used for current sensing.
• Isolation amplifier may consist of any one of the following circuits:
• Voltage drop across the shunt is filtered, amplified, modulated and then applied to
the primary of isolation transformer.
• Output of the transformer is demodulated by a phase-sensitive demodulator filtered,

buffered and applied to output terminals.
• This method allows the sensing of current direction.
• In an alternative scheme, shunt voltage drop is filtered, amplified and then

processed through an opto-isolator.
• Opto-isolator output is buffered and then brought to the output terminals. Since
opto-isolator gain is temperature-dependent and non-linear, two identical opto-
isolator are employed in a feedback loop to compensate for these non-linearities.
3 Speed Sensing
4 Current Sensing

Phase-Locked-Loop (PLL) Control

f*
Loop Voltage f
Vc
PFD filter controlled
f oscillator
Figure 4. Block diagram of Phase-Locked-Loop (PLL).
f*
Vc Loop Converter
PFD Motor Load
filter
f
Speed encoder
Figure 5. Block diagram of closed-loop speed control using PLL.

• Phase-Locked-Loop (PLL) → Phase frequency detector (PFD), loop filter and
voltage controlled oscillator (VCO).
• A PI controller ideally should provide perfect speed regulation.
• However, due to imperfections in sensing and control circuits, the closed-loop
schemes achieve a speed regulation of 0.2 %.
• PLL control → achieve a speed regulation as low as 0.002 %, which is useful in
conveyers for material handling, paper and textile mills, and computer peripherals.
• PLLs → inexpensive integrated circuits.
• Two pulse trains-reference pulse train of frequency f ∗ and the feedback pulse train
of frequency f are compared in a phase detector.
• Output of the phase detector produces a pulse-width modulated output Vc .
• Pulse-width of Vc , depends on the phase difference between the two input pulse
trains and polarity depends on the sign of phase difference (i.e., lag or load)
between them.
• The output of the phase detector is filtered by the loop filter to obtain a dc signal
and applied as control voltage to a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO), the output
is the feedback signal f .
• Since the closed-loop, VCO output frequency changes in a direction that reduces
the phase difference.
• When steady state is reached, f = f ∗ and the loop is said to have locked.


• Control voltage required by VCO to produce equal to f ∗ comes from the phase
difference between the two input signals.
• If f ∗ is altered, f will follow the change, and control voltage required by VCO will
be obtained by the adjustment of phase difference between two input signals.
• An electrical drive employing PLL control is shown in Fig. 5.
• The VCO → replaced by converter, motor and speed encoder.
• Output of the loop-filter forms the control signal for the converter.
• It alters the converter operation such that the motor speed adjusts to make the
frequency of speed encoder output signal (f) = frequency of reference signal (f ∗ ).
• By changing f ∗ → motor speed can be changed.
• Main feature → excellent speed regulation.
• Disadvantages → transient response is slow, and it has a low-speed limit below

which it becomes unstable.

3 Speed Sensing
4 Current Sensing

Closed-Loop Position Control

θm*
Position Closed-loop
Speed control
Load
+- Controller
θm
Speed
limiter
Position
θm sensor
Figure 6. Block diagram of closed-loop position control.
• A closed-loop position control scheme is shown in Fig. 4.

• It consists of a closed-loop speed control system with an inner current control
loop inside an outermost position loop.
• Current and speed-loop restrict the current and speed within safe limits, enhance
the speed of response, reduce the effects of nonlinearities in the converter, motor
and load on the transient and steady-state performance.
• Applications → feed drive in machine tools, schrew down mechanism in rolling
mills.

References

2002.




Edition, 2000.

Thank You

Selection of Motor Power Rating Classes of Motor Duty
Selection of Motor Power Rating
Lecture-7

February 5, 2024
Selection of Motor Power Rating 1 / 15

1 Selection of Motor Power Rating
2 Classes of Motor Duty

Introduction
Table 1. Insulation temperature limits
• Machine with insufficient rating is either less
reliable or fails to drive the load.
Class Temperature limit (◦ C)
• Machine with higher power rating increases 𝛾 90
initial cost and extra energy loss when operating A 105
at lower than rated power. E 120
B 130
• Machine experiences core loss, copper loss and F 155
friction loss. H 180
C Above 180
• Losses increase machine temperature until heat
outflow matches the heat generated.
ᶿ
• Windings are insulated from other parts of Cooling

the machine. Hence, they experience higher
temperature rise as compared to other parts of Heating
the machine.
• Based on temperature rise, machines are di- 0

t
vided into classes 𝛾, A, E, B, F, H, C. Figure 1. Heating and cooling curves.
Thermal Model of Machine I
• An electrical machine is a combination of intricate geometry and heterogenous

materials.
• For simplicity, we assume an electrical machine as a homogenous body. Although
inaccurate, this assumption gives a good estimate of the machine’s thermal
performance.
• Let the machine and the cooling medium has the following parameters at time t.
• p1 = Heat developed, watts.
• p2 = Heat dissipated to cooling medium, watts.
• W = Weight of active parts of machine, kg.
• h = Specific heat, Joules per kg per ◦ C.
• A = Cooling surface, m2 .
• d = Coefficient of heat transfer, joules/sec/m2 /◦ C.
• Let the machine temperature rise by d 𝜃 during the time dt . Since,
Heat stored in the machine = (Heat developed inside the machine−

Heat dissipated to sorrounding cooling medium)
or
Whd 𝜃 = p1 dt − p2 dt. (1)

Thermal Model of Machine II

• Since p2 = 𝜃 dA, Eq.1 becomes
d𝜃
Wh = p1 − dA𝜃 . (2)
dt
• Where, C = Wh (W/◦ C) is thermal capacity of machine, and D = dA (watts/◦ C)
is heat dissipation constant.
• The solution to Eq.2 is
−t
𝜃 = 𝜃 ss + Ke 𝜏 . (3)
• Where, 𝜃 ss = p1 Wh
is steady state temperature, 𝜏 =
dA dA
is thermal time constant,
and K is integration constant.
• When initial temperature is 𝜃 1 , Eq.3 becomes
−t −t
𝜃 = 𝜃 ss ( 1 − e 𝜏 ) + 𝜃 1 e 𝜏 . (4)
• Let the load on the machine is removed at temperature 𝜃 2 and cooling operation is
′ ′
started, p1 will reduce to p1 and D will increase to D . If time is measured from
the instant load is removed, then
d𝜃 ′ ′
C = p1 − D A 𝜃 . (5)
dt
Thermal Model of Machine III
• The solution to Eq.4 subject to initial condition 𝜃 = 𝜃 2 at t = 0 is
′ −t −t
𝜃 = 𝜃 ss ( 1 − e 𝜏 ′ ) + 𝜃 2 e 𝜏 ′ . (6)
′ ′
• If the machine is disconnected from supply while cooling, then p1 and 𝜃 ss is zero.
Eq.5 gives
−t
𝜃 = 𝜃2 e 𝜏′ . (7)
• Eq.4 and Eq.7 suggests that heating and cooling time constants depend on heat
dissipation constant.
• In self cooled machines, the fan is mounted on motor shafts. Hence, according to
the speed of the machine, the cooling time constant varies.
• Fig.1 shows the variation of motor temperature change with time during heating
and cooling phase. Thermal time constants are orders of magnitude larger than
electrical or mechanical time constants.

1 Selection of Motor Power Rating
2 Classes of Motor Duty

Classes of Motor Duty
Various classes of motor duty are:
• Continuous duty.
• Short time duty.
• Intermittent periodic duty.
• Intermittent periodic duty with starting.
• Intermittent periodic duty with starting and braking.
• Continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading.
• Continuous duty with starting and braking.
• Continuous duty with periodic speed changes.


TL TL TL
0 0 0
t t t
ᶿ ᶿ ᶿ
0 0 0
(a) t (b) t (c) t
TL TL
Starting
Running
0 0
t t
Rest
ᶿ ᶿ
0 0
(d) t (e) t
Figure 2. Some classes of motor duty.

Continuous Duty [Fig. 1 (a)]:

• It denotes the motor operation at a constant load torque for a duration long enough
for the motor temperature to reach steady-state value.
• This duty is characterized by a constant motor loss.
• Examples of continuous duty → paper mill drives, compressors, conveyers,
centrifugal pumps and fans.
Short Time Duty [Fig. 1 (b)]:

• Time of drive operation is considerably less than the heating time constant and
machine is allowed to cool off to ambinent temperature before the motor is required
to operate again.
• In this operation, the machine can be overloaded until temperature at the end of
loading time reaches the permissible limit.
• Examples → crane drives, drives for household appliances, turning bridges,
sluice-gate drives, and valve drives.


Intermittent Periodic Duty [Fig. 1 (c)]:
• It consists of periodic duty cycles, each consisting of a period of running at a
constant load and a rest period.
• Neither the duration of running period is sufficient to raise the temperature to a
steady-state value, nor the rest period is long enough for the machine to cool off to
ambient temperature.
• Examples → pressing, cutting and drilling machine drives.
Intermittent Period Duty with Starting [Fig. 1 (d)]:

• This is intermittent periodic duty where heat losses during starting cannot be
ignored.
• Thus, it consists of a period of starting, a period of operation at a constant load
and a rest period with operating and rest periods being too short for the respective
steady-state temperatures to be attained.
• Examples → metal cutting and drilling tool drives, drives for fork lift trucks, mine
hoist etc.


Intermittent Periodic duty with Starting and Braking [Fig. 1 (e)]:
• It consists of a period of starting, a period of operation with a constant load, a
braking period with electrical braking and a rest period; with operating and rest
periods being too short for the respective steady state temperatures to be attained.
• Examples → billet mill drive, manipulator drive, ingot buggy drive, schrewdown
mechanism of blooming mill, drives for electric suburban trains and mine hoist.
Continuous Duty with Intermittent Periodic Loading:

• It consists of periodic duty cycles, each consisting of a period of running at a
constant load and a period of running at no load, with normal voltage across the
excitation winding.
• Again the load period and no load period being too short for the respective
temperatures to be attained.
• This duty is distinguished from the intermittent periodic duty by the fact that a
period of running at a constant load is followed by a period of running at no load
instead of rest.
• Examples → pressing, cutting, shearing and drilling machine drives.

Continuous Duty with Starting and Braking:

• Consists of periodic duty cycle, each having a period of starting, a period of
running at a constant load and a period of electrical braking; there is no period of
rest.
• Example → main drive of a blooming mill.
Continuous Duty with Periodic Speed Changes:

• Consists of periodic duty cycle, each having a period of running at one load
and speed, and another period of running at different speed and load; again both
operating periods are too short for respective steady-state temperatures to be
attained.
• Further, there is no period of rest.

References

2002.




Edition, 2000.

Thank You

Lecture-8

February 12, 2024

Typical Parameters of an AC Compressor and Motor
- Ferrite PMs
Barrier Stator
- Al-Ni-Co PMs slot-1 tooth Stator
N Flux carriers
Table 1. Typical Parameters of an air-conditioner Magnetization Stator slots
Barrier
direction back-iron
compressor motor. S Rotor slot-2
A
Air-gap Barrier
Parameter Value slot-3
A
A
Stator tooth
at air-gap Shaft
Rated power 1000 W
Ribs
Cooling capacity 1 tonne N
Slot
Rated speed 1500 rpm S
opening
Outer diameter 112 mm
A q-axis
B
Axial length 80 mm
A
S N N S
A
A A B
S
Table 2. Fixed design parameters of the proposed N
hybrid PMa-SyRM.
A
Parameter Value
d-axis
Stator outer diameter, Dso 112 mm
A
Stator inner diameter, Dsi 61.2 mm
Rotor outer diameter, Dro 60 mm
Stack length, Lstk 80 mm Figure 1. 2-D cross-sectional view of the proposed 36-slot,
Air-gap thickness, g 0.6 mm 4-pole hybrid ferrite-Al-Ni-Co PMa-SyRM.

Thermal Analysis: Model Diagram of Lumped Parameter Thermal Network
• High temperature refrigerant fluid flowing

in the shaft of the motor necessitates ther-
mal analysis.
• Thermal resistance from rotor to magnet is Imperfections
Frame
between frame R cl
given as and stator core
Stator core
trm
Rrm = . (1) Imperfections
Krm × Arm between stator R wi
core and slot-liner Slot-liner
Where, trm and Krm are the thickness and Heat flow
Air-gap path
thermal conductivities of the air-gap imper- Rotor
fections between rotor to magnet, respec- Imperfections
between rotor R rm
tively. Arm is the area of magnet. and magnet
Magnet R sh Imperfections
Magnet R sh between shaft
and frame
• Thermal resistance from winding to stator
Shaft
core is given as
Figure 2. Model diagram of lumped parameter thermal
twi
Rwi = . (2) network of the proposed hybrid PMa-SyRM.
Kwi × Awi
Where, twi and Kwi are the thickness and
thermal conductivity of the slot-liner, re-
spectively. Awi is the slot (perimeter).

Thermal Analysis: Model Diagram of Lumped Parameter Thermal Network
• Thermal resistance from shaft to frame and stator core to frame are given as
tsh, cl
Rsh,cl = . (3)
Ksh,cl × Ash, cl
Where, tsh , tcl , Ksh and Kcl are the thickness and thermal conductivities of the
air-gap imperfections between shaft to frame and stator core to frame, respectively.
Ash and Acl are the end-flange and frame, respectively.
• Thermal capacitances of the magnet and winding of the motor are given as
Crm,cu = mrm,cu × Srm,cu . (4)
Where, m is the mass and S is the specific heat of the respective material.
• Further, thermal capacitances of stator core and frame are given as
Ccl,fr = mcl,fr × Scl,fr . (5)

• The thermal parameters of the proposed hybrid PMa-SyRMs are evaluated and
given in Table-3.

Thermal Analysis: Analytically Evaluated Thermal Parameters
Thermal capacitance of frame
Cfr
Thermal resistance shaft to frame
Rsh
Thermal resistance Thermal resistance Thermal resistance
rotor to magnet winding to stator core to frame
A B Rcl C
Rrm Rwi
Refrigerant Friction and Ambience
windage Crm Ccu Copper Core 30° C
fluid Ccl
loss loss, Pcu loss, Pcl
temperature
150° C
Figure 3. 1-D lumped parameter thermal network of the proposed hybrid PMa-SyRM.
Table 3. Analytically evaluated thermal parameters of the hybrid PMa-SyRMs considered for simulation in
Matlab/Simulink.
Symbol Value Symbol Value

Rrm 0.41 ◦ C/W trm , krm 0.1 mm, 0.031 W/(m.K)
Rsh 0.048 ◦ C/W tsh , ksh 0.1 mm, 0.031 W/(m.K)
Rwi 0.128 ◦ C/W twi , kwi 2 mm, 0.14 W/(m.K)
Rcl 0.08 ◦ C/W tcl , kcl 0.1 mm, 0.026 W/(m.K)
Crm 0.115 J/◦ C mrm , Srm 1.15 kg, 0.1 J/g
Ccu 0.57 J/◦ C mcu , Scu 1.5 kg, 0.383 J/g
Ccl 0.324 J/◦ C mcl , Scl 3.24 kg, 0.1 J/g
Cfr 0.33 J/◦ C mfr , Sfr 3.3 kg, 0.1 J/g

Steady-state Temperature Rise of Hybrid PMa-SyRMs
120 Ferrite-Nd-Fe-B PMa-SyRM

100 Ferrite-Nd-Fe-B PMa-SyRM
Ferrite-Al-Ni-Co PMa-SyRM Ferrite-Nd-Fe-B PMa-SyRM
Ferrite PMa-SyRM Ferrite-Al-Ni-Co PMa-SyRM
Ferrite-Al-Ni-Co PMa-SyRM
115 90 Ferrite PMa-SyRM
Ferrite PMa-SyRM
Temperature (° C)
Temperature (° C)
110 80
105 70
100 Magnets 60
Winding
95 50 Stator-core
90 40
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
Figure 4. Temperature at (a) magnets and (b) winding and stator-core of the hybrid PMa-SyRMs obtained
through the 1-D LPTN model.
• A higher temperature is obtained at t = 0 s at various motor parts since the ambient

temperature is far lower than the maximum refrigerant fluid temperature (150◦ C).
• Steady-state temperature rise at magnets, winding and stator-core → 97◦ , 53◦ and 47◦ C,
respectively.

Thermal 2-D FE Analysis of Hybrid PMa-SyRM
Figure 5. 2-D FE shaded temperature plot of the proposed hybrid PMa-SyRM obtained from thermal analy-
sis.
Table 4. Analytical and 2-D FE thermal comparison of the hybrid PMa-SyRM for temperature rise of various
motor parts.
Type of Temperature at Temperature at Temperature at

analysis magnets in ◦ C winding in ◦ C stator core in ◦ C
Analytical 97 53 47
2-D FE 103.1 61.7 50.1

References

2002.




Edition, 2000.

Thank You

Determination of Motor Rating Short Time Duty Intermittent Periodic Duty Frequency of Operation of Motor Subjected to Intermittent Loads
Lecture-9

February 12, 2024

1 Determination of Motor Rating
2 Short Time Duty
3 Intermittent Periodic Duty
4 Frequency of Operation of Motor Subjected to Intermittent Loads

Determination of Motor Rating
From the point of view of calculation of motor ratings, duty cycles are broadly
classified into
• Continuous duty
• Fluctuating loads
• Short time and intermittent duty
Continuous Duty:
• The maximum continuous power demand of the load is ascertained.

• The selected motor should be the next higher power rating from commercially
available ratings.
• The motor speed should match the load speed requirements.
• The selected motor rating should match the starting torque requirement.
• It should have the ability to drive the load during the normal disturbances coming
from the supply system. This condition is generally assured by the transient and
steady-state reserve torque capacity of the motor.

Equivalent current, torque and power methods for fluctuating and intermittent
Loads
• This method is based on the approximation that the actual variable motor current
is replaced by the equivalent Ieq which produces the same losses as the actual
current.
• The equivalent current can be determined as follows
• Motor loss p1 consists of two components → (i) constant loss pc , which is

independent of load which consists core loss and friction loss and (ii) load
dependent copper loss.
• Therefore for fluctuating load given in fig 4.3 consists of n values of motor current
I1 , I2 , . . . ..In for the durations t1 , t2 , . . . .. tn , respectively.
• The equivalent current Ieq is given by
2
( pc + I12 ) R) t1 + ( pc + I22 ) R) t2 + ....... + ( pc + In2 ) R) tn
pc + Ieq R = . (1)
t1 + t2 + ......... + tn
or
pc ( t1 + t2 + ......... + tn ) ( I 2 t1 + I22 t2 + .......... + In2 tn ) R
2
pc + Ieq R = + 1 .
t1 + t2 + ......... + tn t1 + t2 + ......... + tn
(2)
Load diagram of a Fluctuating Load
Figure 1. Load diagram of a fluctuating load.
Figure 2. Load diagram of a fluctuating load.

√︄
I12 t1 + I22 t2 + .......... + In2 tn
Ieq = (3)
t1 + t2 + ......... + tn
• Integral T i 2 dt represents the area between i 2 versus t curve and the time axis
∫
0
for the duration 0 to T .
• The above analysis is based on the assumption that the heating and cooling remain
the same.
• However, if the motor is running at constant RPM then the heating and cooling
are going to be unchanged.
• If the speed varies, the constant loss will be changed marginally and if forced
ventilation is used, heating and cooling can still be assumed same without the loss
of much accuracy.
• In self-ventilating machines, colling conditions remain poor at low speeds.
• After Ieq is determined motors with next higher current rating from commercially
available ratings are selected.

DC Motor
• This motor is allowed to carry the larger current than the rated current for the short
duration of time.
• This condition is known as short time overload capacity of the motor.
• A normally designed dc motor is allowed to carry up to 2 times its rated current.
• Let the ratio of maximum allowable current to the rated current be denoted by 𝜆.
Then,
Imax
𝜆 ≥ . (4)
Irated
Where, Imax is the ,maximum value of the current and Irated is the rated current of
the motor.
• If Eq. 4 is not satisfied, then the motor current rating is calculated from
Imax
Irated ≥ . (5)
𝜆

Induction and Synchronous Motors
• For stable operation maximum load torque should be well within the breakdown
torque of the motor.
• If the motor rating is selected based on Eq. 2 or 3 the the above constraint is
violated.
• In the case of induction motors with normal design the ratio of breakdown to rated
torque varied from 1.65 to 3, and for synchronous motors, from 2 to 2.25.
′
• If the ratio between breakdown to rated torque is denoted by 𝜆 , then the motor
rating is based on
Tmax
Trated ≥ ′ . (6)
𝜆
• When the load has high torque pulses selection of of motor rating based on this
will be large.

• The equivalent current method assumed constant losses to remain constant for all
operating points.
• ∴ this method must be carefully employed when these losses vary.
• This method is also not applicable to the frequency-dependent parameters in the
equivalent circuit.
• For example, in deep bar and double squirrel cage rotor motors the rotor winding
resistance and reactance vary widely during starting and braking making this
method inapplicable.
• When the torque is directly proportional to the current like dc separately excited
motor the from Eq. 2
√︄
T12 t1 + T22 t2 + ......... + Tn2 tn
Teq = . (7)
t1 + t2 + ......... + tn
• Eq. 7 can be employed to directly ascertain the motor torque rating.
• When the motor operates at nearly fixed speed its power will be ∝ torque; hence,
for nearly constant speed operation, the power rating of the motor can be directly
from, √︄
P12 t1 + P22 t2 + ......... + Pn2 tn
Peq = . (8)
t1 + t2 + ......... + tn
2 Short Time Duty

Short Time Duty
• In short time duty, time of motor operation is considerably less than the heating
time constant and motor is allowed to cool down to the ambient temperature before
it is required to operate again.
• If a motor with a continuous duty power rating of Pr is subjected to a short time

duty load of magnitude Pr then the motor temperature rise will be far below the
maximum permissible value theta per and the motor will be highly underutilized.
• ∴ motor can be overloaded by a factor K (K > 1) such that the maximum temperature
rise just reaches the permissible value 𝜃 per .
• When the duration of the running period in a duty cycle with power K Pr is tr then

from 𝜃 = 𝜃 ss 1 − e − t /𝜏 + 𝜃 1 e − t /𝜏 .

Short Time Duty
Figure 3. 𝜃 versus t curves for short time duty loads.

− tr
𝜃 per = 𝜃 ss ( 1 − e 𝜏 ) , (9)
𝜃 ss 1
= − tr
. (10)
𝜃 per 1−e 𝜏
• Note that 𝜃 ss is the steady state temperature rise which will be attained if motor
delivers a power (KPr ) on continuous basis, whereas the permissible temperature
rise 𝜃 per is also the steady state temperature rise attained when motor operates
with a power Pr on continuous basis.
• The motor losses for powers Pr and (KPr ) be P1r and P1s , respectively.
Short Time Duty

𝜃 ss p 1
= 1s = − tr
. (11)
𝜃 per p1r 1−e 𝜏
Let,
p1r = pc + pcu = pcu (𝛼 + 1) , (12)
Where,
pc
𝛼= . (13)
pcu
pc is the load independent (constant) loss and pcu is the load dependent loss. Then
KPr 2
p1s = pc + pcu × ( ) = pc + K 2 pcu . (14)
Pr
Substituting from Eq. 13
p1s = pcu × (𝛼 + K 2 ) . (15)
Substituting from Eqs. 12 and 15 into Eq. 11 gives

𝛼 + K2 1
= − tr
(16)
(𝛼 + 1) 1−e 𝜏

Short Time Duty
√︄
1+𝛼
K = − tr
− 𝛼. (17)
1−e 𝜏
• Eq. 17 allows the calculation of overloading factor K, which can be calculated

when constant and copper losses are known separately.
• When separately not known, total loss is assumed to be only proportional to
(power)2 , i.e., 𝛼 is assumed to be 0.
• K is subjected to the constraints imposed by maximum allowable current in case of
dc motors and breakdown torque limitations in case of induction and synchronous
motors.

2 Short Time Duty

Intermittent Periodic Duty
• Consider a simple intermittent load, where the motor is alternatively subjected to

′
a fixed magnitude load Pr of duration tr and standstill condition of duration ts .
• As the motor is subjected to a periodic load, after the thermal steady state is
reached the temperature rise will fluctuate between a maximum value 𝜃 max , and a
minimum value minimum value 𝜃 max .
• For this load, the motor rating should be selected such that 𝜃 max ≤𝜃 per , where
𝜃 per is the maximum permissible temperature rise of the motor.
• The temperature at the end of the working (or running) interval will be given by
tr tr
𝜃 max = 𝜃 ss 1 − e 𝜏r + 𝜃 min e − 𝜏r (18)

• Fall in temperature rise at the end of

standstill interval ts will be
ts
𝜃 min = 𝜃 max e − 𝜏s . (19)
Where, 𝜏r and 𝜏s are the thermal time

constants of motor for working and
standstill intervals.
• Combining Eqs. 18 and 19 yields,
𝜃 ss 1 − e − [ ( tr /𝜏r )+( ts /𝜏s ) ]

=
𝜃 max 1 − e − tr /𝜏r
(20)
Figure 4. Intermittent periodic load.
• For full utilization of the motor,
𝜃 max = 𝜃 per .

• Further 𝜃 per will be the motor temperature rise when it is subjected to its continuous
rated power Pr .
• The ratio 𝜃 ss /𝜃 max will be proportional to losses that would take place for two
′
values of load. If losses for load values Pr and Pr be denoted by p1r and p1s then
𝜃 ss p
= 1s . (21)
𝜃 per p1r
• The overloading factor K (= Pr′ /Pr ) is given by

√︄
1 − e − [ ( tr /𝜏r )+( ts /𝜏s ) ]
K = (𝛼 + 1) −𝛼 (22)
1 − e (− tr /𝜏r )
• K can be determined from Eq. 22 subject to the maximum current limitation of dc
motors and breakdown torque constraints of induction and synchronous motors.
• When constant and copper losses are not available separately, 𝛼 is replaced by
zero in Eq. 22.

2 Short Time Duty

Frequency of Operation of Motor Subjected to Intermittent Loads
• In applications where a motor is started and stopped frequently, it is required to

determine the maximum number of switching permissible per hour.
• In such cases, usually the time taken for starting and breaking operation are
comparable to running time, and tr and ts are very small to 𝜏r and 𝜏s , respectively.
• Let us examine the intermittent load of Fig. further. Since e − x can be approximated
by (1-x) when x is very small.

p1s tr tr ts
= + . (23)
p1r 𝜏r 𝜏r 𝜏s

𝜏r
p1s tr = p1r tr + p1r ts . (24)
𝜏s
• L.H.S of Eq. (24) represent the total loss of energy in each cycle of the intermittent
load of Fig. 4.
• R.H.S of equation can be considered to represent the amount of energy dissipated
per cycle; rate of dissipation per second being p1r during the running interval and
p1r ( 𝜏𝜏sr ) during the period of standstill.

• Thus Eq. 24. provides energy balance relation when the period of intermittent
loading is very small, compared to the thermal time constants of the machine.
• Applying relationship of Eq. 24 to intermittent loads with frequency starting and
braking, and short running intervals yields
Es + p1s tr + Eb = p1r (𝛾 tst + tr + 𝛾 tb + 𝛽ts ) . (25)
Where, Es = loss of energy during starting.

Eb = loss of energy during braking.
p1s = loss of power during running interval.
p1r = rated loss of power of the motor.
tr = length of the running interval.
tst = length of the starting interval.
tb = length of breaking interval.
ts = length of standstill interval.
𝛾 and 𝛽 are numerical constants based on measurements.
𝛽 varies between 0.3 and 0.7.

• The value of 𝛾 is assumed as 𝛾 = 1+𝛽 , and the speed changes from zero to running
2
value during starting and braking, the speed changes from zero to running value.
• ∴ effective dissipation factor can be considered as the mean of those at running

and standstill conditions.
• ts is calculated from Eq. 25. Then, the permissible frequency of switching per
hour is
3600
fmax = (26)
tst + tr + tb + ts
• Eqs. 25 and 26 suggest that the switching frequency can be increased by reducing
loss during starting, braking and running by use of efficient method of control,
and by improving heat dissipation by use of forced ventilation.
• The most efficient methods of control for dc and ac motors are armature voltage
control and variable frequency control, respectively.

References

2002.




Edition, 2000.

Thank You

Starting Braking Speed Control
dc Motor Drives
Lecture-10

January 31, 2024
dc Motor Drives 1 / 22
1 Starting
2 Braking
3 Speed Control
Starting
• Maximum current that a dc motor can safely carry during starting is limited by
the maximum current that can be commutated without sparking.
• For normally designed machines → twice the rated current can be allowed to flow,
and for specially designed machines → 3.5 times.
• At standstill, Eb is zero and the only resistance opposing flow of current is Ra ,

which is quite small for all types of dc motors.
• If a dc motor is started with full supply voltage → high current will flow → heavy
sparking at the commutator and heating of the winding.
• ∴ it is necessary to limit the current to a safe value during starting.
• When motor speed is controlled by armature voltage control → controller controls

the speed, which is used for limiting motor I during starting to a safe value.
Starting
S1 S2 S3 S4
S0
Armature
+
V - Field
Figure 1. Starting of a dc shunt motor.
ωm
• In the absence of such a controller, a ω mo
variable resistance controller is used

for starting as shown in Fig. 1.
• As the motor accelerates and Eb rises,
one section of the resistor is cut out at a
time (either manually or automatically
with the help of contactors).
• Such that current is kept within spec-
0
ified maximum and minimum values Ia min Ia max Ia
Figure 2. Speed versus armature current characteris-
(Fig. 2). tics during starting of a dc shunt motor.
1 Starting
2 Braking
Regenerative Braking
Dynamic Braking
Plugging
3 Speed Control
Braking
• In braking, the motor works as a generator developing a negative torque which

opposes the motion.
• Three types of braking → (i) regenerative braking, (ii) dynamic or rheostatic

braking and (iii) plugging or reverse voltage braking.
• In regenerative braking, generated energy is supplied to the source.
• The following condition should be satisfied
E > V and negative Ia (1)

• Field flux cannot be increased substantially beyond rated because of saturation.
• For a source of fixed voltage of rated value regenerative braking is possible only
for speeds higher than rated and with a variable voltage source it is also possible
below rated speeds.
• The speed-torque characteristics are

shown in Fig. 3 for a separately excited
motor.
ωm
Natural
• In series motor as speed ↑s → Ia , and ω mo
therefore, flux ↓s.
• Consequently, condition of Eq. 1 can-

not be achieved. Thus, regenerative Braking Motoring
braking is not possible.
• In actual supply system when the ma- Increasing V
chine regenerates its terminal voltage 0 T

rises.
Figure 3. Regenerative braking characteristics of a
separately excited motor.
• Consequently, the regenerated power
flows into the loads connected to the
supply and the source is relieved from
supplying this amount of power.
• Regenerative braking is possible → only when there are loads connected to the
line, and they are in need of power more are equal to the regenerated power.
• When the capacity of the loads is less than the regenerated power → all the
regenerated power will not be absorbed by the loads.
• The remaining power will be supplied to capacitors (including stray capacitances)

in line and the line voltage will rise to dangerous values leading to insulation
breakdown.
• Hence, regenerative braking should only be used when there are enough loads to
absorb the regenerated power.
• Alternatively, an arrangement is made to divert the excess power to a resistance

bank where it is dissipated as heat.
• Such braking → composite braking, since it is a combination of regenerative

braking and dynamic braking.
• When the source is a battery, the regenerated energy can be stored in the battery.
Dynamic Braking
A1 F1 A1 F1 F1 AF11 A1
Ia Ia If If Ia Ia
+ + + +
+ +
Rb Rb Rb Rb
- -
- - - -
A2 A2
A2 F2 F2
A2 F2 F2
(a) (b)
Figure 4. Dynamic braking of (a) dc separately excited motor and (b) series motor.
• Dynamic braking → motor armature is disconnected from the source and connected
across a resistance RB .
• The generated energy is dissipated in RB and Ra .
• Braking connections are shown in Fig. 4 (a) and (b), respectively.
Dynamic Braking
ωm ωm
Motoring Motoring
Braking Braking
0 T 0 T
(a) dc separately excited motor (b) series motor
ωm
Motoring
RB2
RB1
RB1>RB2>RB3>0
RB3
RB With few sections of RB
=0
Stepless variation of RB
0 T
(c) Separately excited motor with variable Ra
Figure 5. Dynamic braking speed-torque curves.
Dynamic Braking
• Since series machine works as a self-excited generator, the field connection is

reversed so that the field assists the residual magnetism.
• Fig. 5 (a) and (b) → speed-torque curves and transition from motoring to braking.
• When fast braking is desired → RB consists of a few sections.
• As the speed falls, sections are cut-out to maintain a high average torque, as shown
in Fig. 5 (c) for a separately excited motor.
• During braking, a separately excited motor can be converted as a self-excited

generator. This permits braking even when the supply fails.
Plugging
A1 F1
F1 A1
If
RB Ia
Ia
+ - +
- +
+
V - RB
-
+
-
A2
F2
A2 F2
Figure 6. Plugging operation of dc motors.
• For plugging, the supply voltage of a separately excited motor is reversed so that it
assists Eb in forcing Ia in the reverse direction (Fig. 6).
• A resistance RB is also connected in series with armature to limit the current.
• For plugging of a series motor, armature alone is reversed. Speed-torque curves
are shown in Fig. 7.
Plugging
ωm
ωm
Motoring
Plugging
Motoring
Plugging
0 T 0 T

Figure 7. Plugging speed-torque curves of (a) dc separately excited motor and (b) series motor.
ωm ωm
Motoring Motoring
0 0
T T
Plugging
Plugging

Figure 8. Counter-torque braking of (a) dc separately excited motor and (b) series motor.
Plugging
• Plugging for motor rotation in reverse direction arises → when a motor connected
for forward motoring, is driven by an active load in the reverse direction.
• Here again, Eb and V act in the same direction. However, the direction of torque
remains positive (Fig. 8).
• This type of situation arises in crane and hoist applications and the braking →
counter-torque braking.
• Plugging gives fast braking due to high average torque, even with one section of
braking resistance RB .
• Since T is not zero at 𝜔m = 0, when used for stopping a load, the supply must be
disconnected when close to zero speed.
• Centrifugal switches are employed to disconnect the supply.
• Plugging is highly inefficient → in addition to the generated power, the power

supplied by the source is also wasted in resistances.
1 Starting
2 Braking
3 Speed Control
Speed Control
ωm ωm
Vr Natural
V1
Vr
V1 Natural
V2
V2
0 T 0 T
Figure 9. Armature voltage control Vr > V1 > V2 .
• Speed control → (i) armature voltage control, (ii) field flux control and (iii)
armature resistance control.
• Armature voltage control is preferred → high 𝜂, good transient response and good
speed regulation.
• It provides speed control below base speed (rated speed) since the armature voltage
cannot be allowed to exceed the rated voltage.
Speed Control
ωm ωm
ϕ2
ϕ2
ϕ1
ϕ1
ϕr
ϕr Natural
Natural
0 T 0 T

Figure 10. Field flux control 𝜙r > 𝜙1 > 𝜙2 .
ωm ωm
Increasing Re
ω mo
Natural
Increasing Re
Natu
ral
0 T 0 T

Figure 11. Speed torque curves of dc motors with resistance control (Re : external resistance).
Speed Control
• For speed control above base speed → field flux control is employed.
• In a normally designed motor, the maximum speed can be allowed up to twice

rated speed and in specially designed machines it can be six times rated speed.
• Maximum torque and power limitations of dc drives operating with armature

voltage control and full field below rated speed and flux control at rated armature
voltage above rated speed are shown in Fig. 12.
• In armature voltage control at full field, T ∝ Ia consequently, the maximum

torque that the machine can deliver has a constant value.
• In the field control at rated armature voltage, Pm ∝ Ia (since E ≈ V = constant).
• ∴ maximum power developed by the motor has a constant value.
Speed Control
Maximum allowable Constant torque

torque T
Co
nst
Armature voltage an t po
control we
r
Field control
0
Base speed Maximum speed ωm
Maximum allowable
Constant power
power Pm
Armature voltage
control
e
qu
t t or Field control
t an
ns
0 Co
Base speed Maximum speed ωm
Figure 12. Torque and power limitations in combined armature voltage and field control.
Speed Control
• Separately excited motor → flux is controlled by varying Vfield .
• Series motor → flux is controlled either by varying the number of turns in the
field winding or connecting a diverter resistance across the field winding.
• In armature resistance control, speed is varied by wasting power in external

resistors that are connected in series with the armature.
• Since it is an inefficient method of speed control, it was used in intermittent

load applications where the duration of low-speed operation forms only a small
proportion of total running time (for example, traction).
• It has, however, been replaced by armature voltage control in all these applications.
References

2002.




Edition, 2000.
Thank You
Methods of Armature Voltage Control Ward Leonard Drives Transformer and Uncontrolled Rectifier Control
dc Motor Drives
Lecture-11

February 15, 2024
1 Methods of Armature Voltage Control
2 Ward Leonard Drives
3 Transformer and Uncontrolled Rectifier Control
Introduction
Variable armature voltage for speed control, starting, braking and reversing of dc
motors can be obtained by the following methods:
When the supply is ac
• Ward-Leonard schemes.
• Transformer with taps and an uncontrolled rectifier bridge.
• Static Ward-Leonard scheme or controlled rectifiers.
When the supply is dc
• Chopper control.
Chopper control can also allow a stepless variable resistance to be obtained from a
fixed resistance for dynamic braking of dc motors.
Ward Leonard Drives
• Ward Leonard Drive → consists of a separately excited generator feeding the dc

motor to be controlled.
• The generator is driven at a constant speed by an ac motor connected to 50 Hz ac

mains.
• The driving motor may be an induction or a synchronous.
• When the source of power is not electrical, generator is driven by a non-electrical

prime mover such as diesel engine or gas turbine.
• While the dc motor may be driven at low speeds → high torque and relatively
large frame size, generator being of the same voltage, current and power ratings as
the motor can run at a higher speed with a view to reduce its cost and size.
• Motor terminal voltage is controlled by adjusting the If of the generator.
• When field winding voltage is smoothly varied in either direction, the motor Vt
and therefore, speed can be steplessly varied from full +ve to full −ve.
Ward Leonard Drives
3- phase ac supply
Controlled Uncontrolled
Or controlled
rectifier rectifier
M
G
Ac motor
Figure 1. Block-diagram of Ward-Leonard drive.
Ward Leonard Drives

• Feature of this drive → inherent ability for regenerative braking down to very low
motor speed.
• This combined with the variation of armature voltage in either direction, allows
efficient operation of the drive in all four quadrants of speed-torque plane.
• For regenerative braking, the output voltage of generator G is reduced below the
induced voltage of motor M by decreasing the generator If .
• This reverses the current flowing through the armatures of machines G and M.
• Now machine M works as a generator and G as a motor.
• Mechanical energy provided to machine M, either from the kinetic energy of
rotating parts or due to an active load acting on its shaft, is converted into electrical
energy.
• Electrical energy supplied by Machine M is converted into mechanical energy by
machine G.
• The ac motor, which now works as a generator, converts the mechanical energy to
electrical energy and feeds it to the ac source.
Ward Leonard Drives
• Control of generator field is obtained by rheostats when low ratings are involved
and closed-loop control is not desired.
• Power requirement of the rheostats → order 1 to 2 % of the total input to the motor.
• For higher power applications or for closed-loop control, the field is supplied by a
power amplifier consisting of a controlled rectifier, chopper or transistor amplifier.
• Old installations may use a magnetic amplifier or amplidyne.
• For reversible drives, a power amplifier capable of supplying controlled field
current in either direction is required.
• It may, therefore, consists of a single-phase or three-phase dual converter, four-
quadrant chopper or four-quadrant transistor amplifier.
• When the drive operates only in one direction, a power amplifier capable of
supplying controlled field current only in one direction is used in order to reduce
cost.
• The power amplifier may then consists of a half-controlled rectifier, step-down
chopper or one quadrant transistor amplifier.
• In this case the field current can only be reduced to zero, but cannot be reversed.
Ward Leonard Drives
• When the field is controlled by a power amplifier capable of supplying current

only in one direction, the minimum speed obtainable is of the order 0.1 of base
speed.
• This limit on the minimum value of speed is imposed because of the residual
magnetism of generator field.
• Due to residual magnetism, even when field current is zero, enough voltage is
generated to make the motor crawl particularly when the load is light.
• To prevent crawling and to reduce the motor speed to zero, following three methods
are employed: (a) armature circuit is opened.
• (b) A differential field winding on the generator is connected across the armature
terminals.
• Such a field will oppose the residual flux, and although it will not reduce the
residual voltage to zero, it will prevent build-up of a large circulating current.
• (c) The field winding of generator is connected across armature terminals such
that the current through it produces mmf which opposes the residual mmf.
• This type of connection is commonly known as suicide connection.
Ward Leonard Drives
• The nature of speed-torque characteristics is similar to that of separately excited

dc motors.
• Drop in motor speed due to change in load torque is caused by the drop of voltage
across the Ra of the two machines.
• When motor speed, and therefore, generator output voltage is high, armature
circuit resistance drop is only a small percentage of generator output voltage.
• ∴ percentage speed regulation of the motor is good.
• At low speed, the Ra drop forms a large percentage of generator output voltage.
• This makes the percentage speed regulation not only large, the motor may stall
with even a slight increase in load torque.
• When speed control in wide range is required, control of generator output voltage
is combined with motor field control.
• Speeds below and above base speed are obtained by armature voltage control and
motor field control, respectively.
• The maximum speed obtainable by motor field control is limited to twice base
speed for normally designed and six times for specially designed motors.
Ward Leonard Drives
• Combination of field control with armature voltage control permits the ratio of
maximum to minimum available speeds to be 20 to 40.
• With closed-loop control, the range can be extended further and can be realised up
to 200.
• When field control is required, the motor field is fed from a half-controlled rectifier,
step-down chopper or a single quadrant transistor amplifier.
• When not required motor field is fed from an uncontrolled rectifier.
• For low-power applications a resistance may be connected in series with the field.
• ac motor can be an induction or a synchronous motor.
• Though cheaper than synchronous, induction motor always operates at a lagging

power factor.
Ward Leonard Drives
• The synchronous motor can be operated at a leading power factor by overexciting

its field.
• Leading reactive power produced by the motor compensates for the lagging reactive
power taken by other loads in the plant, thus improving power factor of the plant.
• Overexcitation of the field also enhances maximum torque capability of the motor.
• By employing closed-loop control of its reactive power, synchronous motor can
be made to generate leading reactive power equal to lagging reactive power of the
plant caused by other loads, making the plant power factor unity.
• The Ward-Leonard drive is used in rolling mills, mine winders, paper mills,
elevators, machine tools etc.
• When the load is heavy and intermittent, a slip-ring induction motor is employed
and a flywheel is mounted on its shaft.
• This is called the Ward-Leonard-Ilgener scheme (Fig. 2).
Ward Leonard Drives
Controlled Uncontrolled
Or controlled
rectifier rectifier
Squirrel M
Cage G
I.M Flywheel
Figure 2. Block-diagram of Ward Leonard-Ilgener drive for intermittent loads.
Ward Leonard Drives
• Rotor resistance control is used to restrict the motor current within permissible
limits and to give it a drooping speed-torque characteristic.
• When heavy load demand comes, the flywheel decelerates and gives up some of
its stored energy, thus reducing load demand from the supply.
• During light load periods, power is taken from the supply to accelerate the flywheel,
which replenishes the energy lost.
• This scheme provides two beneficial effects.
• First, it prevents heavy fluctuations in the supply current and secondly, it permits
the use of a relatively smaller size induction motor.
• This scheme finds application in the control of blooming mill drives and colliery
winder in steel and mining industries, respectively.
• Because of the large capacity of these drives (few megawatts), the fluctuations
in supply current can lead to severe fluctuations of the supply voltage, which
adversally affect other loads on the supply.
• Fluctuations can also have an adverse effect on the stability of the source.
Ward Leonard Drives

• It should be noted that when the ac motor is synchronous, supply current fluctuations
cannot be reduced by mounting a flywheel on its shaft, because it operates only at
a fixed speed.
• Therefore, a slip-ring induction motor is preferred over the synchronous when the
load is intermittent and particularly when the drive capacity is large.
Advantages of Ward-Leonard drive:
• It has inherent regenerative braking capability which allows efficient four quadrant
operation.
• It can be employed for power factor improvement by using a synchronous motor.
• Because of the inertia of rotating machines, ac supply is dynamically decoupled
from the load.
• For example, in paper mill drives, a short duration fluctuation of the supply voltage
will not have any affect.
• Further, when it is used to supply important loads such as operation theatres,
computers etc., where the continuity of supply is maintained at all costs, the inertia
makes enough time available for an uninterruptible power supply to take over in
the event of failure of the mains supply.
• In intermittent load applications the Ward-Leonard-Ilgner driver prevents load
torque fluctuations to cause source current and voltage fluctuations.
Ward Leonard Drives
Drawbacks of the Ward-Leonard drive:
• High initial cost and low 𝜂 because of the use of two additional machines of same
ratings as that of the main motor.
• Requires more frequent maintenance and produces more noise.
• It has large weight and size, and needs large floor area and foundation.
• Because of these drawbacks, the new installations mainly employ static Ward-
Leonard drive.
• Exception is made in the case of high power intermittent load applications →

blooming mill drives and mine winders, particularly when the supply system is
weak.
• It can also be made for important loads where continuity of supply must be
maintained at all costs.
Ward Leonard Drives
dc supply
Step-down Step-down
chopper chopper
Diesel
engine M
G
Figure 3. Block-diagram of diesel engine driven Ward Leonard drive.
Ward Leonard Drives
• Another form of Ward-Leonard drive employs a non-electrical prime mover to

drive dc generator, e.g. diesel electric locomotive and ship-propulsion, where the
generator is driven by a diesel engine or a gas turbine.
• The generator-motor combination works as a torque converter, like a stepless gear,
to impart to the motor speed-torque curves required by the load.
• While the motor runs at variable speed, the prime mover, and therefore, the
generator runs at a fixed higher speed which may reduce their cost and size and
optimize efficiency.
• Regenerative braking is not possible because the prime mover cannot allow the
flow of energy in the reverse direction.
• However, dynamic braking can be used. The block diagram of such a drive for
diesel-electric locomotive is shown in Fig. 3.
• Here, dc series motor is employed.
Ward Leonard Drives
• Commutator imposes a restriction on the maximum speed of a dc generator.

• This may not allow the prime mover to be driven at an optimum speed. Further,
commutator also imposes restriction on the maximum power rating of a dc
generator.
• In some large power applications, a number of motors are fed from a common
generator.
• The generator should have a size larger than what can be accomplished by a dc
generator.
• Furthermore, a dc generator also requires frequent maintenance because of
commutator.
• In view of these limitations, a synchronous generator and an uncontrolled rectifier
bridge are employed instead of a dc generator.
• Motor voltage is controlled by varying the field of the synchronous generator.
Transformer and Uncontrolled Rectifier Control
Filter
Series
motor
Uncontrolled
Transformer rectifier
with taps
Figure 4. Armature voltage control using a transformer with taps and an uncontrolled rectifier.
• Variable voltage for the dc motor control → either using an auto-transformer or

a transformer with tappings (either on primary or on secondary) followed by an
uncontrolled rectifier.
• A reactor is connected in the armature circuit → to improve the armature current
waveform.
2 a 2 a a
1 1
b b b
Output Output
(a) On tap 1 (b) Intermediate position (c) On tap2
Figure 5. On load tap changer.
• Auto-transformer can be employed only for low power ratings.

• For high power applications a transformer with tappings is employed and tap
changing is done with the help of an on load tap changer (Fig. 5) to avoid severe
voltage transients, produced due to interruption of current in open circuit transition.
• A mid-point auto-transformer is used to carry out on load tap changing.
• When on tap position 1, both the terminals of auto-transformer are connected
together.
• For changing to tap 2, terminal ‘a’ is first connected to tap 2. Terminal ‘b’ is now
disconnected from tap 1 and connected to ‘a’.
• This scheme is employed in 25 kV single-phase 50 Hz ac traction.
• Features → (a) output voltage can be changed only in steps.
• (b) Rectifier output voltage waveform does not change as the output voltage in
reduced.
• A good power factor is maintained at the source and current harmonics introduced
in the supply lines do not increase abnormally, like in the case of a controlled
rectifier when motor voltage is reduced to a small value.
• (c) Since the use of diode bridge → circuit is not capable of regeneration.
References

2002.




Edition, 2000.
Thank You
Controlled Rectifier Fed dc Drives Single-Phase Fully Controlled Rectifier Control Single-Phase Half-Controlled Rectifier Control
dc Motor Drives
Lecture-12

February 15, 2024
1 Controlled Rectifier Fed dc Drives
2 Single-Phase Fully Controlled Rectifier Control of dc Separately Excited Motor
3 Single-Phase Half-Controlled Rectifier Control of dc Separately Excited Motor
Controlled Rectifier Fed dc Drives
AC source AC source
(a) (b)
Figure 1. Single-phase controlled rectifier circuits.
• Controlled rectifiers are used to get variable dc voltage from an ac source of fixed
voltage.
• Controlled rectifier fed dc drives → Static Ward-Leonard drives.
• As thyristors are capable of conducting current only in one direction, all these
rectifiers are capable of providing current only in one direction.
Controlled Rectifier Fed dc Drives
AC source AC source
(a) (b)
Figure 2. Three-phase controlled rectifier circuits.
• Rectifiers Figs. 1 (a) and 2 (a) provide control of dc voltage in either direction
→ motor control in quadrant-I and IV → fully-controlled rectifiers.
• Rectifiers Figs. 1 (b) and 2 (b) are called half-controlled rectifiers as they allow
dc voltage control only in one direction and motor control in quadrant-I only.
• For low power applications (up to around 10 kW) → single-phase rectifier
drives are employed.
• For high power applications → three-phase rectifier drives are used.
• Exception is made in traction where single-phase drives are employed for large
power ratings.
Single-Phase Fully Controlled Rectifier Control
va va va va
ia
E
T1 T2 E ia ia
ia ia
Ra 0 α π β π +α 2π ωt 0 α π π +α 2π ωt
vs va Motor
La
−v s vs −v s vs
E
T4 T3 T1 , T 3 T2 , T 4 T1, T3 T2, T4
Figure 3. Single-phase fully-controlled rectifier fed dc separately excited motor.
• Motor is shown by its equivalent circuit and field supply is not shown.
• When field control is required, the field is fed from a controlled rectifier or an
uncontrolled rectifier. The ac input voltage is defined by
vs = Vm sin 𝜔 t. (1)
• In a cycle of source voltage, thyristors T1 and T3 are given gate signals from 𝛼 to
𝜋, and thyristors T2 and T4 are given gate signals from (𝜋 + 𝛼) to 2 𝜋.

• When Ia does not flow continuously → motor is said to operate in discontinuous
conduction.
• When Ia flows continuously → conduction is said to be continuous.
• The drive under consideration, predominantly operates in discontinuous conduc-
tion.
• Discontinuous conduction has several modes of operation. The approximate
method of analysis is obtained when only the dominant mode of discontinuous
conduction is taken into account.
• Motor terminal voltage and current waveforms for the dominant discontinuous
conduction and continuous conduction modes are shown in Fig. 3 (b) and (c).
• In discontinuous conduction mode, current starts flowing with the turn-on of
thyristors T1 and T3 at 𝜔 t = 𝛼.
• Motor gets connected to the source and its terminal voltage equals vs .
• The current, which flows against both, E and the source voltage after 𝜔 t = 𝜋,
falls to zero at 𝛽.

• Due to the absence of current T1 and T3 turn-off.
• Motor terminal voltage is now equal to its induced voltage E .
• When thyristors T2 and T4 are fired at (𝜋 + 𝛼), next cycle of the motor terminal
voltage va starts.
• In continuous conduction mode, a positive current flows through the motor, and
T2 and T4 are in conduction just before 𝛼.
• Application of gate pulses turns on forward biased thyristors T1 and T3 at 𝛼.
• Conduction of T1 and T3 reverse biases T2 and T4 and turns them off.
• A cycle of va is completed when T2 and T4 are turned-on at (𝜋 + 𝛼) causing

turn-off of T1 and T3 .
• Since ia is not perfect dc, the motor torque fluctuates.
• Since torque fluctuates at a frequency of 100 Hz, motor inertia is able to filter
out the fluctuations, giving nearly a constant speed and rippleless E .
Discontinuous Conduction
In a cycle of motor terminal voltage va , the drive operates in two intervals:
• Duty interval (𝛼 ≤ 𝜔 t ≤ 𝛽) when motor is connected to the source and va = vs .
• Zero current interval (𝛽 ≤ 𝜔 t ≤ 𝜋 + 𝛼) when ia = 0 and va = E .
Drive operation is described by the following equations:
d ia
va = Ra ia + La + E = Vm sin 𝜔 t, for 𝛼 ≤ 𝜔 t ≤ 𝛽. (2)
dt
va = E and ia = o for 𝛽 ≤ 𝜔 t ≤ 𝜋 + 𝛼. (3)
• Solution of Eq. 2 → (i) one due to the ac source ( Vm /Z sin 𝜔 t − 𝜙) and (ii)
other due to back-EMF (−E /Ra ).
Vm E
ia (𝜔 t ) = sin (𝜔 t − 𝜙) − + K1 e − t /𝜏a for 𝛼 ≤ 𝜔 t ≤ 𝛽. (4)
Z Ra
Where, √︃
Z = Ra2 + (𝜔 L2a ) . (5)
𝜙 = tan − 1 (𝜔 La /Ra ) (6)

and 𝜏a is given by E.
• Constant K1 can be evaluated subjecting Eq. 4 to the initial condition ia (𝛼) = 0.

Substituting value of K1 so obtained in Eq. 4 yields
Vm h i
ia (𝜔 t ) = sin (𝜔 t − 𝜙) − sin (𝛼 − 𝜙) e − ( 𝜔 t − 𝛼) cot 𝜙
Z
E h i
− 1 − e − ( 𝜔 t − 𝛼) cot 𝜙 , for 𝛼 ≤ 𝜔 t ≤ 𝛽. (7)
Ra
• Since ia (𝛽) = 0, form Eq. 18

Vm E E Vm
sin (𝛽 − 𝜙) − + − sin (𝛼 − 𝜙) e − ( 𝜔 t − 𝛼) cot 𝜙 = 0. (8)
Z Ra Ra Z
• 𝛽 can be evaluated by the iterative solution of Eq. 8.
• Since the voltage drop across the armature inductance due to dc component of the
armature current is zero.
Va = E + Ia Ra . (9)
Where, Va and Ia dc components of armature voltage and current, respectively.
• From Fig. 3 (b),
∫ 𝛽 ∫ 𝜋+𝛼
1
Va = Vm sin 𝜔 t d (𝜔 t ) + E d (𝜔 t ) (10)
𝜋 𝛼 𝛽
Vm ( cos 𝛼 − cos 𝛽) + (𝜋 + 𝛼 − 𝛽) E
= . (11)
𝜋
• Armature current consists of dc component Ia and harmonics. When flux is
constant, only the dc component produces steady torque.
• Harmoncs produce alternating torque components, the average value of which is
zero.
• Therefore, motor torque is given by
Vm ( cos 𝛼 − cos 𝛽) 𝜋 Ra
𝜔m = − T. (12)
K (𝛽 − 𝛼) 2
K (𝛽 − 𝛼)
• Boundary between continuous and discontinuous conduction is reached when
𝛽 = 𝜋 + 𝛼.
• Substituing 𝛽 = 𝜋 + 𝛼 in Eq. 8 gives the critical value of speed 𝜔mc which
separates continuous conduction from discontinuous conduction for a given 𝛼 as
1 + e − 𝜋 cot 𝜙

Ra Vm
𝜔mc = sin (𝛼 − 𝜙) − 𝜋 cot 𝜙 . (13)
Z KI e −1
Continuous Conduction
• From Fig. 3 (c),
∫ 𝜋+𝛼
1 2 Vm
Va = Vm sin 𝜔 t d (𝜔 t ) = cos 𝛼. (14)
𝜋 𝛼 𝜋
2 Vm Ra
𝜔m = cos 𝛼 − T. (15)
𝜋K K2
• Speed torque curves for the drive are shown in Fig. 4.
• The ideal no-load operation is obtained when Ia = 0.
• When both thyristor pairs ( T1 , T3 ) and ( T2 , T4 ) fail to fire, Ia will be zero.
• This will happen when E > vs throughout the period for which firing pulses are
present.
• ∴, when 𝛼 < 𝜋/2, E should be greater or equal to Vm and when 𝛼 > 𝜋/2, E
should be greater or equal to Vm sin 𝜔 t .
• ∴ no-load speeds are given by
Vm
𝜔m0 = , for o ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 𝜋/2 (16)
K
Vm sin 𝛼
= for 𝜋/2 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 𝜋 . (17)
K
• Maximum average terminal voltage ( 2 Vm /𝜋) is chosen equally to the rated motor
voltage.
• Ideal no-load speed of the motor when fed by a perfect direct voltage of rated
value will then be ( 2 Vm /𝜋 K ).
• It is noted that the maximum no-load speed with rectifier control is 𝜋/2 times this
value.
• Boundary between continuous and discontinued conduction is shown by the dotted

line (Fig. 4).
• For torques less than rated, a low-power drive mainly operates in discontinuous
conduction.
• In continuous conduction, the speed-torque characteristics are parallel straight

lines, whose slope, according to Eq. 15, depends on the armature resistance Ra .
• The effect of discontinuous conduction is to make speed regulation poor.
• This behaviour shown in Fig. 3 (b) and (c).
• In continuous conduction, for a given 𝛼, any increase in torque causes 𝜔m and E

to drop so that Ia and T can increase.
• Average terminal voltage Va remains constant.
• In discontinuous conduction, any increase in torque and accompanied increase in

Ia causes 𝛽 to increase and Va to drop.
• Consequently, speed drops by a larger amount.
ωm
Vm Boundary between continuous and

K discontinuous conductions
o
2Vm α=0
πK o
60
Continuous
Discontinuous conduction
conduction
0 Tr o
90 T
Rated torque
o
120
o
160
Figure 4. Speed torque characteristics of single-phase fully-controlled rectifier fed dc separately excited
motor.
• The drive operates in quadrants I (forward motoring) and IV (reverse regenerative
braking).
• These operations can be explained as follows:
• From Eq. 15, under the assumption of continuous conduction, dc output voltage
of the rectifier varies with 𝛼 as shown in Fig. 5 (a).
• When working in quadrant I, 𝜔m is positive and 𝛼 ≤ 90◦ , and polarities of Va ,
and E are shown in Fig. 5 (b).
• For positive Ia this causes rectifier to deliver power and the motor to consume it,
thus giving forward motoring.
• Polarities of E , Ia , and Va for quadrant IV operation are shown in Fig. 5 (c).
• E has reversed due to reversal of 𝜔m .
• Since Ia is still in same direction, machine is working as a generator producing
braking torque.
• Further due to 𝛼 > 90◦ , Va is negative, suggesting that the rectifier now takes
power from dc terminals and transfers it to ac mains.
• This operation of rectifier is called inversion and the rectifier is said to operate as
an inverter.
Fully-controlled
rectifier Ia Ia
Va
Motor
2Vm /π
+ + - -
π Va E Va E ω m
0 - -
α + +
-2Vm /π π/2
α < 90o , ω m > 0 α > 90o , ω m < 0
(a) Va – α curve (b) Motoring (c) Regenerative braking
Figure 5. Two-quadrant operation of the drive of single-phase fully-controlled rectifier-fed dc separately

excited motor.
• Since generated power is supplied to the source in this operation, it is regenerative
braking.
• Two quadrant operation capability of the drive can be utilised only with overhauling
loads or other active loads which can drive the motor in reverse direction.
• In a normal two-quadrant operation of a motor one needs forward motoring
(quadrant I) and forward braking (quadrant II) which cannot be provided by the
drive of Fig. 3 (a).
Single-Phase Half-Controlled Rectifier Control of dc Separately Excited Motor
ia
T1 D2 va va va va
vs vs
Ra E E
ia ia ia ia
vs va Motor
0 α π β π +α ωt 0 α π π +α
La 2π 2π ωt
T1, D1 T2, D2 T1, D1 T2, D2
E
T2 D1 D1, D2 D1, D2
Figure 6. Single-phase half-controlled-rectifier fed separately excited motor.
• In a cycle of source voltage, Ta receives gate pulse from 𝛼 to 𝜋 and T2 from

(𝜋 + 𝛼) to 2 𝜋.
• In discontinuous conduction mode, when T1 is fired at 𝛼, motor gets connected to
the source through T1 and D1 and va = vs .
• The armature current flows and D2 gets forward biased at 𝜋.
• Consequently, armature current freewheels through the path formed by D1 and
D2 , and the motor terminal voltage is zero.
• Conduction of D2 reverse biases T1 and turns it off.
• Armature current drops to 0 at 𝛽 and stays zero until T2 is fired at (𝜋 + 𝛼).
A cycle of motor terminal voltage consists of three intervals (Fig. 6 (b)):
• (i) Duty internal (𝛼 ≤ 𝜔 t ≤ 𝜋): Armature current is given as
Vm h i
ia (𝜋) = sin (𝜋 − 𝜙) − sin (𝛼 − 𝜙) e − ( 𝜋 − 𝛼) cot 𝜙
Z
E h i
1 − e − ( 𝜋 − 𝛼) cot 𝜙 .
− (18)
Ra
• (ii) Freewheeling interval (𝜋 ≤ 𝜔 t ≤ 𝛽): Operation is governed by the
following equation:
dia
ia Ra + La + E = 0. (19)
dt
• Solution of Eq. 19 subject to ia (𝜋) as the initial current yields
Vm h i
ia (𝜔 t ) = sin 𝜙 e − ( 𝜔 t − 𝜋 ) cot 𝜙 − sin (𝛼 − 𝜙) e − ( 𝜔 t − 𝛼) cot 𝜙
Z
E
[ 1 − e − ( 𝜔 t − 𝛼) cot 𝜙 ] , for 𝜋 ≤ 𝜔 t ≤ 𝛽.
−0 (20)
Ra
• (iii) Zero current interval (𝛽 ≤ 𝜔 t ≤ 𝜋 + 𝛼):
Ra Vm
e 𝛽 cot 𝜙 = sin 𝜙 e 𝜋 cot 𝜙 − sin (𝛼 − 𝜙)

(21)
ZE
• (iii) Zero current interval (𝛽 ≤ 𝜔 t ≤ 𝜋 + 𝛼):
R a Vm
e 𝛽 cot 𝜙 = sin 𝜙 e 𝜋 cot 𝜙 − sin (𝛼 − 𝜙) e 𝛼 cot 𝜙 + e 𝛼 cot 𝜙 .

(22)
ZE
• 𝛽 can be calculated by the solution of Eq. 22. Now,
∫ 𝜋 ∫ 𝜋+𝛼
1
Va = Vm sin 𝜔 t d (𝜔 t ) + E d (𝜔 t ) (23)
𝜋 𝛼 𝛽
Vm ( 1 + cos 𝛼) + (𝜋 + 𝛼 − 𝛽) E
= . (24)
𝜋
Vm ( 1 + cos 𝛼) 𝜋 Ra
𝜔m = − T. (25)
K (𝛽 − 𝛼) K 2 (𝛽 − 𝛼)
• Boundary between continuous and discontinuous conduction is reached when
𝛽 = 𝜋 + 𝛼.
• Substituting 𝛽 = 𝜋 + 𝛼 in Eq, 22 gives the critical speed 𝜔mc , which separates
continuous conduction from discontinuous conduction for a given 𝛼.
Ra Vm sin 𝜙 e − 𝛼 cot 𝜙 − sin (𝛼 − 𝜙) e − 𝜋 cot 𝜙

𝜔mc = . (26)
K Z 1 − e − 𝜋 cot 𝜙
ωm
vm/K
α = 0o
2Vm/πK π
90o
120o
T
0
Figure 7. Speed torque curves of single-phase half-controlled rectifier fed separately excited motor.
• From Fig. 6 (c),

∫ 𝜋
1 Vm
Va = Vm sin 𝜔 t d (𝜔 t ) = ( 1 + cos 𝛼) . (27)
𝜋 𝛼 𝜋
Vm Ra
𝜔m = ( 1 + cos 𝛼) − T. (28)
𝜋K K2
• Operation of drive, which operates in quadrant I only, is represented by the

equivalent circuit of Fig. 5 (b).
• It is useful to note why the drive should not be operated in quadrant IV.
• Fig. 8 (a) shows plot of Va with 𝛼 (Eq. 27) for half-controlled rectifier for
continuous conduction operation.
• The output voltage cannot be reversed.
• When coupled to an active load, the motor speed can reverse, reversing E as shown
in Fig. 8 (b).
• As current direction does not change, machine now works as a generator producing
braking torque.
• Since, rectifier voltage cannot reverse, generated energy cannot be transferred to
ac source, and therefore, it is absorbed in the armature circuit resistance.
• Braking so obtained is nothing but the reverse voltage braking (plugging).
• Such a braking is not only inefficient but also causes a large current Ia =
( Va + E )/Ra to flow through the rectifier and motor.
Half controlled Ia
Va
rectifier
2Vm /π
π + -
0 Va E ωm
π/2 α
- +
(a) Va – α curve
any α , Vm < 0
(b) Braking operation
Figure 8. Reverse voltage braking operation of the drive of Fig. 6 (a).
• Since it cannot be regulated by adjustment of firing angle, it will damage the

rectifier and motor.
• ∴ when load is active, care should be taken to avoid such a operation. If such a
operation cannot be avoided, fully-controlled rectifier should be used.
• A half-controlled single-phase rectifier is cheaper and gives higher power factor
compared to single-phase fully-controlled rectifier.
• But then it only provides control in quadrant I.
References

2002.




Edition, 2000.
Thank You
Three-Phase Fully-Controlled Rectifier Control
dc Motor Drives
Lecture-13

March 9, 2024
1 Three-Phase Fully-Controlled Rectifier Control of dc Separately Excited Motor

ia
T5 T1 T3 T5
T1 T3 T5 T4 T6 T2 T4
A Ra va va
B E
va Motor E
C La
AB
AC
BA
BC
CA
CB
Ac Source
T2 E
T4 T6 ia
0 α
π 2π
(a) Drive Circuit E π/3
α
(b) Motoring operation, α = 300
T3 T5 T1
T4 T6 T2
α ia
0 2π
ωt
va
E BC BA CA CB AB AC
E
(c) Motoring operation, α = 1400

Figure 1. Three-phase fully-controlled converter control of separately excited motor.
• Thyristors are fired in the sequence of their numbers with a phase difference of
60◦ by gate pulses of 120◦ duration.
• Each thyristor conducts for 120◦ , and two thyristors conduct at a time, one from
upper group (odd numbered thyristors) and the other from lower group (even
numbered thyristors) applying respective line voltage to the motor.
• Transfer of current from an outgoing to incoming thyristor → when the respective
line voltage is of such a polarity that not only forward biases the incoming thyristor,
but also leads to the reverse biasing of the outgoing when incoming turns-on.
• Thus, firing angle for a thyristor is measured from the instant when the respective
line voltage is zero and increasing.
• For example, the transfer of current from thyristor T5 to thyristor T1 can occur as
long as the line voltage vAC is positive.
• Hence, for thyristor T1 firing angle 𝛼 is measured from the instant vAC = 0 and
increases as shown in Fig. 1 (b) and (c).

• If line voltage vAB is taken as the reference voltage, then
vAB = Vm sin 𝜔 t, and (1)
𝛼 = 𝜔 t − 𝜋/3. (2)
Where, Vm is the peak of line voltage.
• Motor terminal voltage and current waveforms for continuous conduction are
shown in Fig. 1 (b) and (c) for motoring and braking operations, respectively.
• The discontinuous conduction is neglected here because it occurs in a narrow
region of its operation.
• For the motor terminal voltage cycle from 𝛼 + 𝜋/3 to 𝛼 + 2 pi /3 (from Fig. 1 (b)
and (c)).
∫ 𝛼 + 2 𝜋/3
3
Va = Vm sin 𝜔 t d (𝜔 t ) (3)
𝜋 𝛼 + 𝜋/3
3
= Vm cos 𝛼. (4)
𝜋
3 Vm Ra
𝜔m = cos 𝛼 − T. (5)
𝜋K K2
• When discontinuous conduction is ignored, speed-torque curves of Fig. 2 are
obtained.
• Consequently, drive operates in quadrants I and IV.
Three-Phase Half-Controlled Rectifier Control of dc Separately Excited Motor

ωm α increasing
Motoring
0
T
Braking
-ωm
Figure 2. Speed torque curves of drive of Fig. 1 (a) neglecting discontinuous conduction.
• For rectifier circuit, under continuous conduction
3 Vm
Va = ( 1 + cos 𝛼) . (6)
2𝜋
3 Vm Ra
𝜔m = ( 1 + cos 𝛼) − T. (7)
2𝜋K K2
• Consequently, the drive operates only in quadrant I.
Multiquadrant Operation of dc Separately Excited Motor fed from

Fully-Controlled Rectifier
• Here, the multi-quadrant operation with regenerative braking is considered.

• In these drives, current control is always provided in order to limit current within
a safe limit during transient operations.
• When closed-loop speed control is provided, the current is limited using inner
current control loop. Otherwise, the drive is operated with current limit control.
• Three schemes are used
(a) Single fully-controlled rectifier with a reversing switch.
(b) Dual converter.
(c) Single fully controlled rectifier in the armature with field current reversal.
• All these schemes are capable of providing four-quadrant operation.
• They are also employed when two-quadrant operation consisting of forward
motoring and forward regenerative braking is required.
• It may be noted that a fully controlled converter is capable of providing forward
motoring (quadrant I) and reverse regenerative braking (quadrant IV) operations.
Single Fully-Controlled Rectifier with a Reversing Switch

a a a
R
ia R R TR
F TF
F F
TF
R TR
S
b b b
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3. Four quadrant drive employing single converter and a reversing switch.
• A fully-controlled rectifier feeds the motor through a reversing switch RS which is

used to reverse the armature connection with respect to the rectifier.
• A fully- controlled rectifier is capable of providing operation in quadrants I and
IV.
• The reversal of the armature connection provides operation in quadrant III and II.
• The reversing switch may consist of a relay-operated contactor with two normally
open and two normally closed contacts as shown in Fig. 3 (b).
• When slow operation and frequent maintenance associated with the contactor is
not acceptable, reversing switch is realized using four thyristors as shown in Fig.
3 (c).
• With thyristor pair TF on (and pair TR off) operation is obtained in quadrants I

and IV and with pair TR on (and TF off) the operation is provided in quadrants III
and II.
• In both the configurations of RS, the switching is done at zero current in order to
avoid voltage spikes and to reduce its rating.
• The firing angle of the rectifier is set at the highest value.
• It works as an inverter and reduces armature current to zero.
• After the zero current is sensed, firing pulses are stopped.
The speed reversal (transfer of operation from quadrant I to III or from quadrant III
to I) is done as follows:
• A delay time of 2 to 10 ms is provided to make sure that the thyristors which were
conducting have all fully turned off.
• Such long delay (compared to thyristor turn-off time which is of few hundred
micro- seconds) is required in order to take care of errors in zero current sensing.
• Now the armature connection is reversed and firing pulses are released with the
firing angle set at the highest value.
• The current control adjust the firing angle continuously so as to brake the motor
at the maximum allowable current from initial speed to zero speed and then
accelerates the motor (again at the maximum allowable current) to the desired
speed in the reverse direction.
• The operation at the maximum current during speed reversal ensures braking and
acceleration at the maximum motor torque, ensuring fast reversal.
Dual Converter
L1
ac supply
VA VB
A B
L2
Figure 4. Dual converter control of dc separately excited motor. A and B are fully controlled rectifiers.
Inductors L1 and L2 are used only with simultaneous control.
• A dual-converter (Fig. 4) consists of two fully-controlled rectifiers connected in

anti-parallel across the armature.
• For power ratings upto around 10 kW, sigle-phase fully-controlled rectifiers can
be used.
• For higher ratings, three-phase fully controlled rectifiers are employed.
• Rectifier A, which provides positive motor current and voltage in either direction,
allows motor control in quadrants I and IV.
• Rectifier B provides motor control in quadrants III and II, because it gives negative
motor current and voltage in either direction.
Dual Converter
There are two methods of control for the dual converter:
• (a) In simultaneous control both the rectifiers are controlled together.
• In order to avoid dc circulating current between rectifiers, they are operated to
produce same dc voltage across the motor terminals.
• Thus VA + VB = 0.
cos 𝛼A + cos 𝛼B = 0 or 𝛼A + 𝛼B = 180◦ . (8)

• Although, control of firing angle according to Eq. 8 prevents dc circulating
current, ac current does circulate due to the difference between instantaneous
output voltages of the two rectifiers.
• Inductors L1 and L2 are added to reduce ac circulating current.
• Because of the flow of ac circulating current, simultaneous control is also known
as circulating current control.
• In a three-phase dual converter, inductors are chosen to allow a circulating current
of 30 % of full load current.
• This completely eliminates discontinuous conduction, and therefore, gives good
speed regulation in the complete range of the drive.
Dual Converter
The speed reversal is done as follows:

• When operating in quadrant I, rectifier A will be rectifying ( 0 < 𝛼A < 90◦ ) and
rectifier B will be inverting ( 90◦ < 𝛼B < 180◦ ).
• For speed reversal 𝛼A is increased and 𝛼B is decreased to satisfy Eq. 8.
• The motor back-EMF exceeds magnitudes of VA and VB .
• The armature current shifts to rectifier B and the motor operate in quadrant II.
• The current control loop adjusts the firing angle 𝛼B continuously so as to brake
the motor at the maximum allowable current from initial speed to zero speed and
then accelerates to the desired speed in the reverse direction.
• As 𝛼B is changed, 𝛼A is also changed to satisfy Eq. 8.
• The inductances L1 and L2 increase the weight, volume, cost and reversal time.
• The circulating current increases the losses.
• Sudden drop in source voltage can cause large current to flow through the rectifier
working as inverter, blowing its thyristors.
Dual Converter
• (b) In non-simultaneous or non-circulating current control method, one rectifier is

controlled at a time.
• Consequently, no circulating current flows and inductors L1 and L2 are not required.
• This eliminates losses associated with circulating current and weight and volume
associated with inductors.
• But then discontinuous conduction occurs at light loads and control is rather
complex.
The speed reversal is carried out as follows:
• When operating in quadrant I → rectifier A will be supplying the motor and

rectifier B will not be operating.
• The firing angle of rectifier A is set at the highest value.
• The rectifier works as an inverter and forces the armature current to zero.
Dual Converter
• After zero current is sensed, a dead time of 2 to 10 ms is provided to ensure the

turn-off of all thyristors of rectifier A.
• Now, firing pulses are withdrawn from rectifier A and transferred to rectifier B.
• The firing angle 𝛼B is set initially at the highest value.
• Now onwards the current control loop adjust the firing angle 𝛼B continuously so
as to brake the motor at the maximum allowable current from initial speed to zero
speed and then accelerates to the desired speed in the reverse direction.
• The dead time, and therefore, the reversal time can be reduced by employing
methods which can sense the current zero accurately.
• When this is done, non-simultaneous control provides faster response than simul-
taneous control.
• Hence, non-simultaneous control is widely used.
Field Current Reversal
Figure 5. Four quadrant drive with field reversal.
• As shown in Fig. 5, armature is fed from a fully-controlled rectifier and the field
from a dual converter so that field current can be reversed.
• With field current in one direction, the motor operates in quadrants I and IV.
• When field current is reverted, it operates in quadrants III and II.
• The dual converter operates with non-simultaneous control.
Field Current Reversal

The speed reversal is done as follows:
• The armature rectifier firing angle is set at the highest value to force the armature
current to zero and then firing pulses are withdrawn.
• The firing angle of the rectifier supplying the field is now set at the highest value.
• It operates as an inverter and the field current is forced to zero.
• After a suitable dead time, the second rectifier is activated at the lowest firing
angle.
• When the field current has nearly settled and the motor back-EMF has reversed,
the firing pulses of the armature rectifier are released so as to set the firing angle
at the highest value.
• Now onwards the current control loop adjust the firing angle continuously to brake
and then accelerate the motor at a constant current to the desired speed in the
reverse direction.
• When speed control in wide range is required, field current is also controlled.
• In armature voltage control schemes of Figs. 3 and 4, the field is then supplied by
either a fully- controlled or a half-controlled rectifier.
• In the scheme of Fig. 5, dual converter is utilized for the control of field current.
Comparison of Conventional and Static Ward Leonard Schemes
The conventional Ward Leonard scheme suffers from the following disadvantages
compared to Static Ward Leonard scheme:
• (i) higher initial cost due to use of two additional machines of same rating as the
main motor
• (ii) larger weight and size
• (iii) needs more floor space and proper foundation
• (iv) requires more frequent maintenance
• (v) higher noise
• (vi) lower efficiency due to higher losses.
Comparison of Conventional and Static Ward Leonard Schemes
The static Ward Leonard scheme, in comparison with conventional, has following
disadvantages:
• (i) There is no provision for load equalisation. Therefore, when used in intermittent
load applications, load fluctuations cause heavy fluctuations of supply current and
voltage, which adversely effects quality of supply and stability of generating plant.
• (ii) It generates considerable amount of harmonics, which again adversally affect
quality of supply and performance of generating plant.
• (iii) Operates at a low power factor particularly at low speeds. For large power
drives with low line capacity, low power factor and large harmonics cause great
concern.
On the whole, static Ward Leonard drive is preferred over conventional Ward Leonard
drive in most applications.
• The conventional drive is however preferred for large-size intermittent load
applications where drive capacity forms a significant part of source capacity.
• It is noted that when the source of power is non-electrical, as in diesel electric
locomotive or ship propulsion, conventional Ward Leonard drive can only be used.
References

2002.




Edition, 2000.
Thank You
Rectifier Control of dc Series Motor Control of Fractional hp Motors Chopper-Controlled dc Drives
dc Motor Drives
Lecture-14

February 5, 2024
1 Rectifier Control of dc Series Motor
2 Control of Fractional hp Motors
3 Chopper-Controlled dc Drives
Rectifier Control of dc Series Motor

ia Series
motors
Va
T1 D2 Va
R
e e
Va L ia
Vs ia
ωt
e = f (ia)ω m 0 α π π +α 2π
T1,D1 T2,D2
T2
D1
D1,D2 D1,D2
(a) (b)
Figure 1. Single-phase half-controlled rectifier fed series motor.
• Single-phase controlled rectifier fed dc series motors are employed in traction.

• A single-phase half-controlled rectifier-fed dc series motor is shown in Fig. 1 (a).
• Since back-EMF decreases with armature current, discontinuous conduction
occurs only in a narrow range of operation. Hence, it will be neglected here.
• The waveforms of va , ia and instantaneous back-EMF e for continuous conduction
are shown in Fig. 1 (b).
• Although, in steady state, fluctuations in speed are negligible, e is not constant but
fluctuates with ia .
• For a given speed, e is related to ia through the magnetization curve of motor,
which is nonlinear owing to saturation. Thus
e = f ( ia ) 𝜔m . (1)

• Motor operation is described by following equations for duty and freewheeling
intervals, respectively.
d ia
Vm sin 𝜔 t = Ra ia + La + f ( ia ) 𝜔m , for 𝛼 ≤ 𝜔 t ≤ 𝜋 . (2)
dt
d ia
+ f ( ia ) 𝜔m , for 𝜋 ≤ 𝜔 t ≤ (𝜋 + 𝛼) .
0 = Ra ia + La (3)
dt
• Since the presence of terms f ( ia ), Eqs. 2 and 3 are nonlinear differential equations
and can only be solved numerically.
• A simple method of analysis is obtained when e is replaced by its average value
Ea such that
Ea = Ka 𝜔 m . (4)
Where, Ka = f ( Ia ).
• Since the drop across the inductance La due to dc component of Ia is zero.
Va = Ea + Ia Ra (5)
Va − Ia Ra
𝜔m = and (6)
Ka
T = Ka ia . (7)
• For continuous conduction, Va for half-controlled and fully-controlled single-

phase rectifiers is given as
∫ 𝜋
1 Vm
Va = Vm sin 𝜔 t d (𝜔 t ) = ( 1 + cos 𝛼) . (8)
𝜋 𝛼 𝜋
∫ 𝜋+𝛼
1 2 Vm
Va = Vm sin 𝜔 t d (𝜔 t ) = cos 𝛼. (9)
𝜋 𝛼 𝜋
• Following sequence of steps are used to calculate speed-torque characteristic for a
given 𝛼 taking into account non-linearly of the magnetic circuit: A value is chosen
for Ia .
• Corresponding value of Ka is obtained from the magnetization characteristic of
the motor.
• For the known value of 𝛼, calculate Va from Eqs. 8 or 9, depending on the rectifier
circuit used.
• Now 𝜔m and T are obtained from Eqs. 6 and 7, respectively.
• Nature of speed-torque characteristics for the drive of Fig. 1 (a) is shown in Fig. 2.
ωm
increasing
α
0 T
Figure 2. Speed-torque curves of series motor fed from a controlled rectifier.
Control of Fractional hp Motors
ia
Va
Vs
ia
Vs
β
Va ωt
0 π 2π
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Control of universal motor by a single thyristor.
ia
Va
Vs
Vs
ia
Va
ωt
0 α π 2π
(a) (b)
Figure 4. Control of universal motor by an ac voltage controller.
Control of Fractional hp Motors

• Because of low-cost single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier of Fig. 3 (a),
employing a single thyristor, is commonly used for the control of fractional hp
universal, dc series and permanent magnet de motors.
• Such drives are employed in hand tools and small domestic appliances.
• Motor terminal voltage and armature current waveforms for universal motor are
shown in Fig 3 (b).
• The drive operates is discontinuous conduction with a large zero current interval
and large current ripple.
• Consequently, efficiency is poor, speed regulation is large and speed may fluctuate
around its average value when the inertia is low.
• Sometimes a freewheeling diode is added to reduce the duration of zero current
interval.
• Universal motors may also be controlled by a triac ac voltage controller as shown
in Fig. 4 (a).
• The triac is fired at 𝛼 and (𝜋 + 𝛼).
• Now the machine armature carries ac current (Fig. 4 (b)).
• Because of reduced duration of zero current interval, the drive has negligible
speed fluctuations and lower speed regulation.
Supply Harmonics, Power Factor and Ripple in Motor Current
Rectifier-fed de drives have the following drawbacks:

• (i) Distortion of supply: Source current of a rectifier has harmonics.
• In a weak ac source, with high internal impedance, current harmonies distort
source voltage.
• Furthermore, temporary short circuit of lines during commutation of thyristors,
causes sharp current pulses, which further distort source voltage.
• Source voltage and current distortions have several undesirable effects including
interference with other loads connected to the source and radio frequency interfer-
ence in communication equipment.
• (ii) Low power factor: Assuming sinusoidal supply voltage, power factor (PF) of a
rectifier can be defined as
Real Power V I1 cos 𝜙1
PF = = . (10)
Apparent Power V Irms
Where, V and Irms are rms source voltage and current, respectively.
• I1 and 𝜙1 are fundamental component of source current and phase difference

between V and I1 , respectively.
I1
PF = cos 𝜙1 = 𝜇 cos 𝜙1 . (11)
Irms
Where, 𝜇 is called distortion factor and cos 𝜙1 is the displacemnet factor.
• The distortion in source current makes 𝜇 lower than 1.
• When motor current is assumed to be perfect dc, 𝜙1 has a value of 𝛼 for fully
controlled single phase and three phase rectifiers and 𝛼/2 for single phase half
controlled rectifiers, thus giving displacement factors of cos 𝛼 and cos 𝛼/2,
respectively.
• ∴ supply power factor is low when the drive operates at low speeds.
• Pulsewidth modulated rectifiers are being built using insulated gate bipolar
transistors (IGBT) and gate turn-off thyristors (GTO) as they have high power
factor and low harmonic content in source current but then their 𝜂 is low because
of high switching losses.

• (iii) Ripple in motor current: The rectifier output voltage is not perfect dc but
consists of harmonics in addition to de component.
• ∴ motor current also has harmonics in addition to dc component.
• The presence of harmonics, makes rms and peak values of motor currents higher
than average value (dc component).
• Since flux is constant, torque is contributed only by the average value of current.
• The harmonics produce fluctuating torques, the average value of which is zero.
• The presence of harmonics increases both copper loss and core loss.
• Hence for an allowable temperature rise, the torque and power outputs have lesser
values than rated values.
• Due to the presence of harmonics, peak value of current increases and commutation
condition deteriorates.
• Hence, the current that the motor can commutate without sparking at the brushes
has a lower dc component than the rated motor current.
• Thus, the derating of motor occurs due to this also.
• On the whole, the motor output (power and torque) must be restricted considerably
below rated value to avoid thermal overloading and sparking at brushes.
Chopper-Controlled dc Drives
• Choppers, also commonly known as dc-to-dc converters, are used to get variable
dc voltage from a dc source of fixed voltage.
• Self-commutated devices, such as MOSFETS, power transistors.
• IGBT (insulated gate bipolar transistor), GTO (gate turn-off thyristor) and IGCT
(insulated gate commutated thyristor), are preferred over thyristors for building
choppers because they can be commutated by a low power control signal and do
not reed commutation circuit.
• Further, they an be operated at a higher frequency for the same rating.
• The operation at a high frequency improves motor performance by reducing
current ripple and eliminating discontinuous conduction.
• While MOSFETS are used for low power and low voltage applications, IGBT and
power transistor are employed in medium power ratings, and GTO and IGCT are
employed for high power ratings.
• One important feature of chopper control is that regenerative braking can be
carried out up very low speeds even when the drive is fed from a fixed voltage dc
source.
References

2002.




Edition, 2000.
Thank You
Chopper Control of Separately Excited dc Motors Chopper Control of Series Motor
dc Motor Drives
Lecture-15

January 31, 2024
1 Chopper Control of Separately Excited dc Motors
2 Chopper Control of Series Motor
Chopper Control of Separately Excited dc Motors
ia
ia
Ra va va
+
DF vo Ra
Motor va va
V + La
- V DF vo La
Motor ia ia
- + ia ia
E ia2
Tr - +E ia2
Tr -
ia1
ia1
00 TT
on
on
T T wt wt
(a) (b)
Figure 1. Chopper control of separately excited motor.
Motoring Control
• A transistor chopper controlled separately excited motor drive is shown in Fig. 1
(a).
• Transistor Tr is operated periodically with period T and remains on for a duration
ton .
• The chopper operates at a high enough frequency to ensure continuous conduction.

• Waveforms of motor terminal voltage va and armature current ia for continuous
conduction are shown in Fig. 1 (b).
• During on-period of the transistor, o ≤ t ≤ ton , the motor terminal voltage is V .
• The operation is described by
d ia
Ra ia + La + E = V , o ≤ t ≤ ton . (1)
dt
• In this interval, armature current increases from ia1 to ia2 . Since the motor is
connected to the source during this interval, it is called duty interval.
• At t = ton , Tr is turned-off.
• Motor current freewheels through diode DF and motor terminal voltage is zero
during interval ton ≤ t ≤ T .
• Motor operation during this interval, known as the freewheeling interval, is

described by
d ia
+ E = 0, ton ≤ t ≤ T .
Ra ia + La (2)
dt
• Motor current decreases from ia2 to ia1 during this interval.
• Ratio of duty interval ton to chopper period T is called duty ratio or duty cycle, 𝛿.
Thus
Duty interval ton
𝛿 = = . (3)
T T
1
∫ ton
Va = V dt = 𝛿 V . (4)
T 0
• Now,
𝛿V − E
Ia = and (5)
Ra
𝛿V Ra
𝜔m = − T. (6)
K K2
Motor
ia
DF
Ra
va va
C Tr
+
V
vo
La ia ia
-
ia2
+
E ia1
- 0 Ton T wt
(b)
(a)
Figure 2. Regenerative braking of the separately excited motor by chopper control.
• Chopper for regenerative braking operation is shown in Fig. 2 (a).

• Transistor Tr is operated periodically with a period T and on-period of ton .
• Waveforms of motor terminal voltage Va and armature current ia for continuous
conduction are shown in Fig. 2 (b).
• Usually an external inductance is added to increase the value of La When Tr is on,
ia increase from ia1 to ia2 .
• The mechanical energy converted into electrical by the motor, now working
as a generator, partly increases the stored magnetic energy in armature circuit
inductance and remainder is dissipated in armature resistance and transistor.
• When Tr is turned off, armature current flows through diode D and source V , and
reduces from ia2 to ia1 .
• The stored electromagnetic energy and energy supplied by machine is fed to the
source.
• The interval 0 ≤ t ≤ ton is now called energy storage interval and interval
ton ≤ t ≤ T the duty interval.
• If 𝛿 is defined as the ratio of duty interval to period T , then
Duty interval T − ton
𝛿 = = . (7)
T T
1
∫ T
Va = V dt = 𝛿 V . (8)
T ton
• Now,
E − 𝛿V
Ia = (9)
Ra
• Since Ia has reversed
T = − K Ia . (10)
𝛿V Ra
𝜔m = − T. (11)
K K2
ωm δ increasing
Refenerative
Braking Motoring
-T T
Figure 3. Speed torque curves of chopper controlled separately excited motor.
Motoring and Regenerative Braking
Tr1 D1 Motor
ia
+ C Ra
V
- Tr2 Vo La
D2
E
(a)
va
V
0
δT T T+δT 2T
t
D2 Tr1 D1 Tr2 D2 Tr1 D1 Tr2
(b)
Figure 4. Chopper for forward motoring and braking control.
• Chopper circuits of Figs. 1 and 2 can be combined to get a two-quadrant chopper

of Fig. 4, which can provide motoring and regenerative braking operations in the
forward direction.
• Transistor Tr1 with diode D1 form a chopper circuit similar to that of Fig. 1, and
therefore, provide control for forward motoring operation.
• Transistor Tr2 with diode D2 form a chopper circuit similar to that of Fig. 2,
and therefore, provide control for forward separately excited motor regenerative
braking operation.
• Thus, for motoring operation transistor Tr1 is controlled and for braking operation
transistor Tr2 is controlled.
• Shifting of control from Tr1 to Tr2 shifts operation from motoring to braking and
vice versa.
• In servo drives where fast transition from motoring to braking and vice versa is
required, both Tr1 and Tr2 are controlled simultaneously.
• In a period T, Tr1 is given gate drive from 0 to 𝛿 T and Tr2 is given gate drive
from 𝛿 T to T , where 𝛿 is the duty ratio for Tr1 .
• ∴ from 0 to 𝛿 T motor is connected to source either through Tr1 or D2 depending

on whether the motor current ia is positive or negative.
• Since V > E , during this period the rate of change of current is always positive.
• Similarly from 𝛿 T to T , motor armature is shorted either through D1 or Tr2
depending on whether ia is positive or negative and during this period rate of
change of current is always negative.
• Motor terminal voltage and current waveforms are shown in Fig. 4 (b).
• From Fig. 4 (b)
Va = 𝛿 V and (12)
𝛿V − E
Ia = . (13)
Ra
• The Eq. 13 suggests that motoring operation (+ve Ia ) takes place when 𝛿 > ( E /V )
and regenerative braking operation takes place when 𝛿 < ( E /V ) and transition
from to braking and vice versa occurs when 𝛿 = ( E /V ).
• The above equations are similar to those obtained for chopper of Fig. 1, and
therefore, given the same numbers.
Dynamic Braking
ia Motor
va
Ra ia1
R Tr vo La
+ ia
E ia2
-
ton T ωt
(a)
(b)
Figure 5. Dynamic braking of the separately excited motor by chopper control.
• Dynamic braking circuit and its waveforms are shown in Fig. 5.

• During the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ ton , ia increases from ia1 to ia2 .
• A part of generated energy is stored in inductance and rest is dissipated in Ra and
Tr .
• During interval ton ≤ t ≤ T ia decreases from ia2 to ia1 .
Dynamic Braking
• The energies generated and stored in inductance are dissipated in braking resistance
RB , Ra and diode D.
• Transistor Tr controls the magnitude of energy dissipated in RB , and therefore,
controls its effective value.
• If ia is assumed to be rippleless dc, then energy consumed EN by RB during a
cycle of chopper operation is
EN = Ia2 RB ( T − ton ) . (14)
• Average power consumed by RB
EN
P = = Ia2 RB ( 1 − 𝛿) . (15)
T
• Effective value of RB
P
RBE = = RB ( 1 − 𝛿) . (16)
Ia2
Where, 𝛿 = tTo .
• Eq. 16 shows that the effective value of braking resistor can be changed steplessly
from 0 to RB as 𝛿 is controlled from 1 to 0.
• As the speed falls, 𝛿 can be increased steplessly to brake the motor at a constant
maximum torque by chain-dotted line.
1 Chopper Control of Separately Excited dc Motors
2 Chopper Control of Series Motor
Chopper Control of Series Motor

ωm
increasing increasing
δ δ
Motoring
Braking
-T 0 T
Figure 6. Motoring and regenerative braking characteristics of chopper controlled series motor.
Motoring
• Chopper circuit and va and ia waveforms will be same as shown in Fig. 1.
• Va is given by
∫ ton
1
Va = V dt = 𝛿 V . (17)
T 0
• However, e is not constant but varies with ia .
• Due to saturation of magnetic circuit, relationship between e and ia , is non-linear.
• The nature of speed torque curves is shown in Fig. 6.
• With chopper control, regenerative braking of series motor can also be obtained.
• Power circuit of Fig. 2 (a) is employed.
• During regenerative braking, series motor functions as a self-excited series
generator.
• For self-excitation, current flowing through field winding should assist residual
magnetism.
• ∴ when changing from motoring to braking connection, while direction of
armature current should reverse, field current should flow in the same direction.
• This is achieved by reversing the field with respect to armature when changing
from motoring to braking operation.
• Waveforms of va and ia will be same as those of Fig. 2 (b).
𝛿 V + Ia Ra
𝜔m = and (18)
Ka
T = − Ka Ia . (19)
• For a chosen value of Ia , Ka is obtained from magnetization characteristic.
• Then T and 𝜔m are obtained from Eqs. 19 and 18, respectively.
• The nature of speed-torque characteristics is shown in Fig. 6.
• Such characteristics give unstable operation with most loads.
• Consequently, regenerative braking of the series motor is difficult.
Dynamic Braking
ia Motor
Ra ia1
R Tr vo La
+
E ia2
-
(a) excited motor by chopper control.

Figure 7. Dynamic braking of the separately
• Chopper circuit of Fig. 7 is used.
• Since the motor works as a self-excited generator, when changing from motoring
to braking, field should be reversed.
References

2002.




Edition, 2000.
Thank You
Starting Braking
Induction Motor Drives
Lecture-16

February 17, 2024
Induction Motor Drives 1 / 23

Starting Braking
1 Starting
2 Braking

Starting Braking
Starting
Starting arrangement is chosen based on the load requirements and nature of supply
(weak or stiff). It nay be required to have the following features:
• Motor should develop enough 𝜏st to overcome friction, 𝜏l and inertia of motor-load
system, and thus, complete the staring process within a prescribed time limit.
• Starting current magnitude should be such that it does not cause the overheating of
the machine and does not cause a dip in the source voltage beyond a permissible
value.
• Usually, a motor draws 5 to 7 times rated current during starting.
• When load torque during starting and motor-load-inertia are not large, the starting
process is over in a few seconds and therefore, motor temperature does not exceed
the permissible value.
• In such applications, motor can always be started direct on line, provided the
voltage dip caused by large starting current not beyond a permissible value.
• For small size motors voltage dip in the supply line is usually below acceptable
level.
• When the motor is of large capacity and/or fed from a weak system some starting
arrangement becomes necessary for reducing the starting current.
• In these applications it does not matter if the reduction in starting current is
accompanied by a reduction in starting torque.
Starting Braking
Starting
• When either the 𝜏l during starting is high or load inertia is large, the starting
process takes long time.
• If motor carries large current during starting, it will get damaged due to overheating.
• ∴ motor cannot be started direct on line.
• In these cases, those methods of starting which allow a decrease in starting current
without a decrease in 𝜏st are employed.
• In some applications an increase in 𝜏st accompanied by a decrease in starting
current may be required.
• In a squirrel-cage motor some measures for improvement of starting performance
may be taken at design stage, as in case of high slip, deep-bar and double cage
squirrel-cage motors.
• When needed, methods employed for starting squirrel-cage motors are:
(1) Star-delta starter
(2) Auto-transformer starter
(3) Reactor starter
(4) Saturable reactor starter
(5) Part winding starter
(6) ac voltage controller starter
(7) Rotor resistance starter is used for starting of wound-rotor motor
Starting Braking
Star-Delta Starter
• An induction motor designed to oper-

ate normally with delta connection is
connected in star during starting. CB m
• This allows reduction in stator voltage
√
and current by 1/ 3.
• Since 𝜏m ∝ V 2 , 𝜏st is reduced to one- Stator
t winding
third.
• Circuit breakers C Bm and C Bs are
closed to start the machine with star
connection.
• When steady-state speed is reached
C Bs is opened and C Br is closed to
CB r CB s
connect the machine in delta.
Figure 1. Circuit of Star-delta starting.

Starting Braking
Auto-transformer Starter
• Reduced voltage for starting can also

be obtained from an auto-transformer.
CB m CB s1
• For a secondary to primary turns ratio
CB s2
of aT , motor terminal voltage and sta-
tor current are reduced by aT .
• This reduces the current drawn from
supply by a2T .
Stator
Auto transformer
• Since 𝜏 ∝ v 2 , it is also reduced by winding
t
a2T . Figure 2. Open circuit transition of auto-transformer
starting.
• After the motor has accelerated, it is connected to full supply voltage.

• An auto-transformer starter circuit is shown in Fig. 2 (a).
• First, C Bs1 is closed followed by C Bs2 .
• When motor has accelerated to full speed, C Bs2 is opened and C Bm closed.
• Now C Bs1 is opened to disconnect auto-transformer from the supply.

Starting Braking
Closed Circuit Transition
• In both, star-delta and auto-transformer

starting methods, changeover from low
voltage to full voltage connection dis- CB m CB s1
rupts the flow of stator current and

stator field collapses.
• Rotor current continues to flow due to
its large time constant. Auto
transformer
• Field produced by rotor currents in- CB s2

Stator
winding
duces voltages in the stator windings.
• Phase of the induced voltages is inde- Figure 3. Closed circuit transition of auto-transformer
starting.
pendent of supply voltages.

Starting Braking
Closed Circuit Transition

• A large current inrush is produced at the time of reconnection when induced and
supply voltages are out of phase.
• When the current inrush is not acceptable, closed circuit transition is employed.
• A closed-circuit transition scheme for an auto-transformer starter is shown in Fig.
3 (b).
• It employs three circuit breakers: C Bs1 , C Bs2 and C Bm .
• First C Bs2 is closed to close the star point connection of the auto-transformer.
C Bs1 is closed next.
• This completes low voltage connection of auto-transformer and the motor starts.
• After steady-state speed is reached, circuit breaker C Bs2 is opened.
• Motor now runs with the upper part of auto-transformer phase windings in series
with the stator.
• Windings simply function as series reactors.
• Now circuit breaker C Bm is closed, which bypasses series reactors and connects
motor directly to the supply.
• At the beginning of starting alternatively, first C Bs1 is closed instead of C Bs2 .
• Then the motor and transformer will not produce magnetizing current surge
simultaneously.
Starting Braking
Reactor Starter
• Ist is reduced by connecting a three-

CB m
phase reactor in series with stator.
• When the motor reaches full speed, the
reactor is bypassed.
Stator
• C Bm is closed to start the machine. winding
• After full speed is reached C Bs is

closed to short the reactor. CB s
• It is advantageous to connect reactor
at the neutral end of stator winding.
• This minimizes its voltage rating and
also maintains its voltage and the volt-
Ordinary or
age of breaker C Bs neutral potential suitable
during normal motor operation. reactor
Figure 4. Circuit of reactor starting.

Starting Braking
Soft Start using Saturable Reactor Starter
• In some applications 𝜏st must be controlled steplessly.

• For example in textile machines, it must be varied smoothly, otherwise fibre
threads will break during starting.
• Such a starting arrangement is termed soft start.
• Thyristor voltage controller scheme is now widely used for soft start.
• A number of existing drives also employ saturable reactor starter in which a
three-phase saturable reactor is connected in series with the stator.
• Saturable reactor has dc control winding.
• Reactance of saturable reactor can be varied steplessly by changing the control
winding current.
• For starting, reactance is initially set at the highest value.
• 𝜏st is close to zero.
• Reactance is now reduced smoothly by increasing the control winding current.
• This gives stepless variation of 𝜏st .
• Consequently, the motor starts without any jerk and accelerates smoothly.

Starting Braking
Unbalanced Starting Scheme for Soft Start

ωm
T
(a) (b)
Figure 5. Starting with a single variable impedance in the stator.
• For soft start, a cheaper alternative shown in Fig. 5 (a), can also be employed.
• It consists of a variable impedance Z in one of the phases of machine.
• When impedance is very high, machine operates with single phasing and its
speed-torque characteristic is similar to characteristic A of Fig. 5 (b), with a zero
starting torque.
• When impedance is completely removed, speed torque curve is similar to the
characteristic B, which is the natural characteristic of machine.
• For intermediate values of impedance, speed-torque curve will lie in between
curves A and B.
• A smooth start, without a jerk, is achieved when impedance is controlled steplessly.
• The impedance may be a variable resistor or a single phase saturable reactor.
Starting Braking
Part Winding Starting
• Some squirrel-cage motors have two

or more stator windings which are con-
nected in parallel during normal oper-
ation.
CB m
• During starting, only one winding is
connected.
• This increases stator impedance and
reduces starting current. 2 1
• Such a starting scheme is called part
winding starting.
1 2
• Its implementation for a machine with
two stator windings is shown in Fig. 6. 2 1
• Machine starts with winding 1 when
C Bm is closed. After full speed is CB s
reached, C Bs is closed to connect
winding 2.
Figure 6. Circuit of part winding starting.

Starting Braking
Rotor Resistance Starter
ωm
Normal
running
CB m
C3
C2
C1
I r min Ir max Ir
(a) (b)
Figure 7. Rotor resistance starting.

Starting Braking
Rotor Resistance Starter
• Wound-rotor motors are generally started by connecting external resistors in the

rotor circuit (Fig . 7 (a)).
• The highest value of resistance is chosen to limit current at zero speed within the
safe value.
• As the motor accelerates, sections in the external resistor are cut out one-by-one by
closing contacts C1 , C2 and C3 so as to limit the rotor current between specified
maximum and minimum values (Fig. 7 (b)).
• Since most of the rotor copper loss occurs in external resistors, rotor temperature
rise during starting is substantially lower compared to other starting methods.
• Feature of this starting method → 𝜏st and torque-to-current ratio are high.
• Suitable for applications → requiring fast acceleration, frequent starts and stops,
starting with heavy load, and starting with high inertia load.
• While 𝜏max is independent of rotor resistance value, the speed at which maximum
torque is produced can be controlled by changing the value of external resistors.
• External resistors can therefore be varied to accelerate the machine at maximum
torque.

Starting Braking
1 Starting
2 Braking

Starting Braking
Braking
The following methods are employed for braking of an induction motor:

• Regenerative braking
• Plugging or reverse voltage braking
• Dynamic (or rheostatic) braking further categorized as
(a) ac dynamic braking
(b) self-excited braking using capacitors
(c) dc dynamic braking
(d) zero sequence braking

Starting Braking
• The power input to an induction motor is given by
Pin = 3 V Is cos 𝜙s . (1)
Where, 𝜙s is the phase angle between stator phase voltage V and the stator phase
current Is .
• For motoring operation 𝜙s < 90◦ .
• If the rotor speed becomes greater than synchronous speed, relative speed between
the rotor conductors and air-gap rotating field reverses.
• This reverses the rotor induced emf, rotor current and component of stator current
which balances the rotor ampere turns.
• Consequently, angle 𝜙s becomes greater than 90◦ and power flow reverses, giving
regenerative braking.
• Magnetizing current required to produce air-gap flux is obtained from the source.
• The nature of speed-torque characteristic is shown in Fig. 8.
• When fed from a source of fixed frequency, regenerative braking is possible only
for speeds greater than synchronous speed.

Starting Braking
ωm
Regenerative
Braking
ω ms
Motoring
0 T
Figure 8. Speed-torque characteristics during regenerative braking.

• With a variable frequency source, it can also be obtained for speeds below
synchronous speed.
• When regenerative braking employed for holding motor-speed against an active
load, stable operation generally possible between synchronous speed and the speed
for which braking torque is maximum.
• Main advantage of regenerative braking is that generated power is usefully
employed and drawback being that when fed from a constant frequency source, it
cannot be employed below synchronous speed.
• The utilization (or absorption) of regenerated power occurs in the same way for
regenerative braking of dc motors.
Starting Braking
Plugging or Reverse Voltage Braking

ωm ωm
Plugging ω ms ω ms
1
Motoring
2
II I
0 T
0 T Plugging
III
−ω ms
(a) (b)
Figure 9. Plugging (a) 1: natural characteristic, 2: with external resistance in rotor and (b) plugging in IV
quadrant with large external resistance in rotor.
• When phase sequence of supply of the motor running at a speed is reversed, by
interchanging connections of any two phases of stator with respect to supply
terminals, operation shifts from motoring to plugging as shown in Fig. 9.
• Plugging characteristics are actually extension of motoring characteristics for
negative phase sequence from quadrant III to II.
• Reversal of phase sequence reverses the direction of rotating field.
Starting Braking
• If the slip for plugging is denoted by sn , then

− 𝜔ms − 𝜔m
Sn = = 2 − s. (2)
− 𝜔ms
• Motor performance can be calculated, when s is replaced by sn ( 2 − s).
• Since at the instant of switchover to plugging, slip can be upto 2, the rotor induced
can be twice of case of wet speed.
• Consequently, motor current is large, although braking torque is low.
• In case of wound-rotor motors, a resistance equal to twice the starter resistance is
inserted in the rotor current to starting value.
• This also increases braking torque as shown by curve 2 ( Fig.9).
• As shown in Fig. 9, torque is not zero at zero speed.
• When used for stopping motor, it is necessary that the motor should be disconnected
from supply at or near zero speed.
• This makes it necessary to use an additional device for detecting zero speed and
disconnecting motor from supply.

Starting Braking

• This braking is suitable for reversing the motor.
• As motor is already connected for operation in reverse direction and torque is not
zero at zero or any other speed, motor smoothly decelerates and then accelerates
in the reverse direction.
• A special case of plugging occurs when an induction motor connected to positive
sequence voltages is driven by an active load in the reverse direction (quadrant
IV).
• Crane hoist is one such application. A large rotor resistance is employed so that
the characteristics have a negative slope, and thus, drive is steady-state stable (Fig.
9 (b)).
• In this method, mechanical energy supplied to the rotor, either by active load or
from kinetic energy stored in motor and load inertia, is converted into electrical
energy and wasted in rotor resistance.
• Additional energy is taken from the source and wasted in rotor resistance. When
braked under no load from synchronous speed, total amount of energy dissipated
in rotor resistance given by ( 3/2) J 𝜔2ms which is three times the energy stored in
inertia.
• Thus, an additional energy equal to J 𝜔2m is taken from the source.

Starting Braking
References

2002.




Edition, 2000.

Starting Braking
Thank You

Dynamic or Rheostatic Braking Self-Excited Braking using Capacitors dc Dynamic Braking Zero Sequence Braking
Lecture-17

February 17, 2024

1 Dynamic or Rheostatic Braking
2 Self-Excited Braking using Capacitors
3 dc Dynamic Braking
4 Zero Sequence Braking

ac Dynamic Braking
A B C A B C A B C
IB IC IB IC
(a) Motoring (b) Two lead connection (c) Three lead connection
Figure 1. ac dynamic braking of a wound rotor motor.
• ac dynamic braking is obtained when the motor is run on a single phase supply by
disconnecting one phase from the source and either leaving it open (Fig. 1 (b)) or
connecting it with another machine phase (Fig. 1 (c)).
• The two connections of Fig. 1 (b) and (c) are, respectively, known as two and
three lead connections.
ac Dynamic Braking
• When connected to a 1-phase supply, the motor can be considered to be fed by
positive and negative sequence three-phase set of voltages.
• Net torque produced by the machine is sum of torques due to positive and negative
sequence voltages.
• When rotor has a high resistance, the net toruqe is negative and braking operation
is obtained.
The motor analysis for two and three lead connections is done as follows:
• Two lead connection: Assume that phase A of Y-connected motor is open circuited.
• Then ĪA = 0 and Īc = − ĪB .
• Hence, positive and negative sequence components overline Īp and Īn , respectively
are given by
1 1 √
Īp = ĪA + 𝛼 ĪB + 𝛼2 ĪC = 0 + 𝛼 ĪB − 𝛼2 ĪB = j ĪB / 3. (1)
3 3
1 1 √
Īn = ĪA + 𝛼2 ĪB + 𝛼 ĪC = 0 + 𝛼2 ĪB − 𝛼 ĪB = − j ĪB / 3. (2)
3 3
◦
Where, 𝛼 is given by 𝛼 = ej 120 = cos 120◦ + j sin 120◦ .

ac Dynamic Braking
Rs Xs Ip
X'r ωm
Xm
Negative
R'r s sequence
V ω ms
Net
X r'
Xm
Positive
R'r (2-s) sequence
Rs Xs
In T
0
(a) Equivalent circuit (b) Speed-torque curves
Figure 2. ac dynamic braking with two lead connection.

• As positive and negative sequence components are equal and opposite, two
equivalent circuits can be connected in series opposition.
• Voltage to be applied to this series combination will be
1 1
V̄p − V̄n = V̄A + 𝛼 V̄B + 𝛼2 V̄C − V̄A + 𝛼2 V̄B + 𝛼 V̄C
3 3
1 2
1 √ √
= 𝛼 −𝛼 V̄p − V̄n = ( j 3) ( V̄BC ) = j V̄BC / 3. (3)
3 3
ac Dynamic Braking
√ √
• With an applied voltage j Vac / 3 if current is Ip = − In = j IB / 3, it follows
√︁
that with an applied phase voltage V the current would be IB /( ( 3)).
• Equivalent circuit may therefore be drawn as shown in Fig. 3 (a).
• Although the values of positive and negative sequence components of current
are equal, the corresponding torques are not.
• The nature of speed-torque curves for positive and negative sequence currents,
and net torque are shown in Fig. 6.16 (b).
• By suitable choice of rotor resistance, braking torque can be obtained in the
entire speed range.
• As the rotor resistance required is large, ac dynamic braking can only be used in
wound-rotor motors.
• In this connection at high speeds (or at low values of slip), the impedance of
positive sequence component part becomes very high.
• As positive and negative sequence components of current have to be equal, net
braking torque is small, and therefore, braking is not very effective.

ac Dynamic Braking
• Here, two phases of Y-connected motor winding are connected in parallel in series
with the third phase (Fig. 1 (c)).
• Let phases A and B be connected together, then
√ √
V̄ AB = 0, V̄ BC = 3 V and V̄ CA = − 3 V .
• Hence,
V̄ p (line) = V̄ AB + 𝛼 V̄ BC + 𝛼2 V̄ CA /3.
√ √
= 0 + 𝛼 3 V − 𝛼 2 3 V /3 = j V . (4)

V̄ n (line) = V̄ AB + 𝛼2 V̄ BC + 𝛼 V̄ CA /3(5)
√ √
= 0 + 𝛼2 3 V − 𝛼 3 V /3 = − j V (6)
V
Vp (phase) = Vn (phase) = √ . (7)
3

ac Dynamic Braking
Rs Xs Ip
X'r ωm
Xm
Negative
R'r s sequence
V ω ms
Net
X r'
Xm
Positive
R'r (2-s) sequence
Rs Xs
In T
0
(a) Equivalent circuit (b) Speed-torque curves
Figure 3. Equivalent circuit for three lead connection.

ac Dynamic Braking
• In contrast to two lead connection, here magnitude of positive and negative
sequence components of voltage are equal and not the positive and negative
sequence components of currents.
• Positive and negative sequence parts of the circuit are independent, and therefore,
there is no restriction imposed on negative sequence component of current by
positive sequence part of equivalent circuit.
• Thus higher braking torques are obtained (compared to two lead connection) at
high speeds.
• The speed-torque characteristic with this connection is the same as shown in Fig.
1 (b).
• Any inequality between the contact resistances in connections of two paralleled
phases reduces the braking torque and can even lead to motoring torque, as the
condition tends more towards two lead connection with increasing resistance in
one of the two phases (as rotor resistance employed is less than the two lead
connection).
• Therefore, two lead connection is generally preferred in spite of its low torque.
• Main application of single-phase ac braking is in crane hoist.


Self-Excited Braking using Capacitors
E
A ωm
C
c
a B
b
C C
0 Ic , I m 0 T
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4. Self-excited braking of induction motor.
• In this method three capacitors are kept permanently connected across the
motor terminals.
• Values of capacitors is so chosen that when disconnected from the line, motor
works as a self- excited induction generator.

Self-Excited Braking Using Capacitors

• Braking connection is shown in Fig. 4 (a) and self-excitation process is explained
in Fig. 4 (b) for no load condition.
• Curve A is no load magnetization curve of the machine at a given speed, and line
B represents the current through capacitors, given by
√ √
Ic = 3 E /Xc = 3 E 𝜔 C. (8)
Where, E is the stator induced voltage per phase.
• Capacitors supply the necessary reactive current for excitation. Operation occurs
at point C which is the inter-section of two characteristics.
• When speed falls, value of E for the same magnetization current falls and the new
magnetization characteristic a is obtained.
• On the other hand, the slope of E versus Ic , characteristic increases, giving new
characteristic b.
• Intersection of two curves now occurs at c .

Self-Excited Braking Using Capacitors
• Thus, reduction in speed while shifts the magnetization curves downward, slope
of capacitor voltage vs current curve increases.
• At certain critical speed, which is usually high, two curves fail to intersect and the
machine therefore does not self-excite and braking torque falls to zero.
• Speed-torque characteristic under self-excited braking is shown in Fig 4 (c).
• Sometimes external resistors are connected across stator terminals to increase

braking torque and to dissipate some generated energy outside the machine.
• Construction of Fig. 4 (b) is valid only for no-load operation.
• For more accurate analysis, motor impedance drops should be considered.
• This scheme is rarely used, as braking torque drops to zero at a speed which is
usually high.


dc Dynamic Braking
Id Id
A A
A A
Vd Vd Vd Vd
C B C B
C B C B
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 5. Various stator connections for dc dynamic braking: (a) and (d) are two lead connections and (b) and
(c) are three lead connections.
• It is obtained when the stator of an induction motor running at a speed is connected

to a dc supply.
• Two commonly used connections, two and three lead, for star and delta-connected
stators are shown in Fig. 5.

dc Dynamic Braking
Switch
C B A
IM
Figure 6. Detalis of two lead dc dynamic braking connection.

• A method of getting dc supply with the help of a diode bridge for two lead
connection is shown in Fig. 6.
• dc current flowing through the stator produces a stationary magnetic field.
• Motion of rotor in this field induces voltage in the rotor winding.
• Machine, therefore, works as a generator. Generated energy is dissipated in the
rotor circuit resistance, thus giving dynamic braking.
dc Dynamic Braking
• As the field is stationary, the relative speed between rotor conductors and the field
is now 𝜔m .
• Frequency of induced voltage will be equal to the frequency of ac source voltage
(or rated motor frequency when omegam = 𝜔ms .
• Let voltage induced in the rotor when running at a synchronous speed be Er .
• When running at a speed 𝜔m the induced voltage and its frequency will be s Er
and s f , respectively. Then
𝜔m ( 1 − s) 𝜔ms
s = = = ( 1 − s) . (9)
𝜔ms 𝜔ms
• This yields per phase equivalent circuit of Fig. 7 (a) for the rotor.
• Dividing all quantities by S will yield an equivalent circuit at the rated frequency.

dc Dynamic Braking
SXr Rr I'r X'r R'r s
Ir Id
ErS E Vd Reff
(a) (b) (c)

I'r I'r X'r
Im Im
Is E Is E
Xm R'r s
Xm
(d) (e)
Figure 7. Derivation of dc dynamic braking equivalent circuit. (a) and (b) are rotor equivalent circuits, (c)
and (d) are stator equivalent circuits and (e) is the complete equivalent circuit.
• Referring various parameters of equivalent circuit so obtained to stator turns gives

per phase equivalent circuit of the rotor shown in Fig. 7 (b).
• The equivalent circuit of stator under dc dynamic braking is shown in Fig. 7 (c).
• In order to combine with rotor equivalent circuit of Fig. 7 (b) we should first
obtain per phase equivalent circuit of the stator at rated frequency.
dc Dynamic Braking
• Equivalent circuit Fig. 7 (c) suggests that the stator mmf is constant and independent
of speed.
• ∴ imagine stator to be fed by a three-phase balanced current source of rated
frequency giving a phase current Is .
• The ac current Is will be equivalent to Id provided it produces stator mmf of same
amplitude as the dc current Id .
• Thus, we are replacing a stationary stator mmf produced by dc current Id by a
mmf (produced by Is ) of identical amplitude but revolving at synchronous speed.
• Difference of these two mmfs will be air-gap mmf which will be responsible for
producing air-gap flux which in turn cause voltage E of rated frequency to be
induced in the stator.
• Per phase equivalent circuit of stator at rated frequency thus takes the form shown
in Fig. 7 (d).
• Combining equivalent circuits of Fig. 7 (b) and (d) and removing the transformer
gives rated frequency per phase equivalent circuit (Fig. 7 (e)).

dc Dynamic Braking
′
• Ir is small for small s, and therefore, Im approaches Is .
• Because of large value of Im , the magnetic circuit gets saturated.
• Thus, Xm is not constant but varies with Im .
• For accurate analysis, variation of Xm with Im must be taken into account.
• Relationship between Is and Id depends on the stator connection.
• As an example let us derive it for the two lead connection of Fig. 5 (a).
• Here IA = Id and IB = − Id .
• If N is effective number of turns in each winding then peak mmf produced by
phase A will be Id N and the peak mmf produced by phase B will be (− Id N ).
• Assuming these mmfs to be sinusoidally distributed in space, peak of the resultant
mmf will be h i 1/2
F = FA2 + FB2 + 2 FA FB cos 120◦
h i 1/2
= ( Id N ) 2 + (− Id N ) 2 + 2 ( Id N ) (− Id N ) (− 0.5)
√
= 3 Id N. (10)

dc Dynamic Braking
• When machine is fed by a balance thre–phase current source Is , peak of stator
mmf is
′ 3 √
F = ( 2 Is ) N (11)
2
′
• Is will be equivalent of Id when F = F . Therefore from Eqs. 10 and 11
√︂
2
Is = Id . (12)
3
√ √ √
• Values of Is for other connections are Id / 2; Id / 6 and 2 Id /3.
• The speed-torque characxtristic is calculated as follows.
• From equivalent circuit of Fig. 7 (e)
E = Im Xm (13)
 ′ !2 
′  R ′ 
E 2 = Ir  r + Xr 2  . (14)
 s 
 
• Consider distribution of currents between parallel branches formed by Xm and
the rotor
 ′ !2 
2 2 ′ 2  Rr ′2 2

Is Xm = Ir   + ( Xr + Xm )  (15)
 s 
 
dc Dynamic Braking
• Substracting Eq. 14 from 15 yields
′ Is2 − Im
2
Ir 2 = ′ (16)
2X
1 + Xr
m
• From Eq. 14
′
Rr
s = 1/2 (17)
′ ′
( E /Ir ) 2 − Xr 2
• The motor torque is
3 ′ ′
T = ( Ir 2 Rr /s) . (18)
𝜔ms
• Since Xm is a function of Im Eqs. 13 - 17 are non-linear algebraic equations.
• Use of the following steps avoids the need for a numerical solution.
• Assume a value of Im obtain corresponding E from magnetization characteristic,
′
calculate Xm from Eq. 13, obtain Ir from 16, calculate s from Eq. 16 and then
𝜔m and T from Eqs. 9 and 18, respectively.
• Fig. 8 Shows the nature of speed torque curves for two values of rotor resistance.

dc Dynamic Braking
ωm
R’r2
R’r1
R’r2 > R’r1 0 T
Figure 8. dc dynamic braking speed torque curves.

• In a squirrel-cage motor or a wound-rotor motor without an external resistance in
rotor, the maximum torque occurs at low speed.
• While maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance, speed at which the
maximum torque fast braking is required, a sectionalised resistance is connected
in rotor circuit and it is cut-out as speed falls.
• When used to hold an active load, as in mine winders, a large resistance is
connected to obtain speed-torque curves with a negative slope, in order to ensure
steady-state stability.

Zero Sequence Braking

ωm
ω ms
ac
1/3 ω ms
ac or dc
dc
supply
0 T
(a) (b)
Figure 9. Zero-sequence braking.
• In this braking, three stator phases are connected in series across either a single
phase ac or a dc source as shown in Fig. 9 (a).
• Such a connection is known as a zero-sequence connection, because currents in
all the stator windings are co-phasal.
• The mmf caused by co-phasal (or zero-sequence) currents produces a magnetic
field having three times the number of poles for which the machine is actually
wound.
• With an ac supply, the resultant field is stationary in space and pulsates at the
frequency of supply.
Zero Sequence Braking

• With dc supply, resultant field is stationary in space and is of constant magnitude.
• An important advantage of this connection is the uniform loading of all stator
phases.
• The nature of speed-torque curves for ac and dc supply is shown in Fig. 9 (b).
• With ac supply, braking could be used only up to one-third of synchronous speed.
• However, braking torques produced by this connection are considerably larger
than motoring.
• Motor essentially works in regenerative braking.
• For motors with low rotor resistance, a significant part of the generated energy is
recovered.
• Unlike ac dynamic braking, it does not require large rotor resistance and can be
used with squirrel cage and would-rotor motors.
• With dc supply, braking is available in the entire speed range.
• It is essentially a dynamic braking as all the generated energy is wasted in rotor
resistances.
• Switching arrangement, from normal three-phase to zero sequence operation, is
extremely simple when motor has a delta-connected stator.
References

2002.




Edition, 2000.

Thank You

Transient Analysis Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) Control
Lecture-18

February 16, 2024

1 Transient Analysis
2 Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) Control

Transient Analysis
• Analysis of transient operating conditions of a drive → starting, braking, load

changing, speed changing, etc.
• A rigorous analysis of transient operation of an induction motor drive, can be done

only by the d-q axis model involving long Calculations.
• A simple method of analysis, with satisfactory accuracy for most applications is

chained by using steady-state torque relations.
• Such an analysis is based on the assumption that electrical time constants can be
neglected, as they are very small compared to mechanical time constant.
• Thus, we can write following equation for transient operation of an induction
motor drive,
d 𝜔m
J = = 𝜏(𝜔m ) − 𝜏l (𝜔m ) . (1)
dt
• Eq. 1 can be evaluated graphically to obtain 𝜔m versus t curve, and energy losses
in motor and external rotor resistance.

Starting and Plugging

• For starting and plugging operation of machine, torque is given by Eq. 2.
𝜏 2
= s sm (2)
𝜏max sm + s
• Substituting from Eq. 2 into 1 yields,

d 𝜔m 2 𝜏max
J
dt
= s sm − 𝜏l (𝜔m ) . (3)
sm + s
• In some cases, Eq. 3 will be in integral form, and therefore, can be solved
analytically.
• It is useful to examine the transients for starting and plugging operations when
operating on no-load. Thus, from Eq. 3 for no-load operation
d 𝜔m 2 𝜏max
J = s sm . (4)
dt sm + s
• Differentiating 𝜔m = 𝜔ms ( 1 − s) gives

d 𝜔m ds
J = − 𝜔ms . (5)
dt dt
• Substituting from Eq. 5 into 4 and rearranging the terms

𝜏m sm s
dt = − + ds. (6)
2 s sm
msj𝜔
Where, 𝜏m = 𝜏max .
• 𝜏m is the mechanical time constant of motor. Is is defined as the time taken by
motor to reach its synchronous speed from standstill under constant accelerating
torque equal to the maximum torque of motor.
• From Eq. 6, time required to start an induction motor on no load is
𝜏m
∫ 0.05
s sm

ts = − + ds. (7)
2 1 sm s
• When operating on load, steady-state is reached when s = 0. item Thus, during
the starting slip, changes from 1 to 0.

• However, if Eq. 7is integrated for s = 1 to s = 0 an infinite value is obtained for

starting time.
• When final speed is the steady-state equilibrium speed, transients are considered
to be over when 95 % range of speed is covered.
• ∴ in Eq. 7 integration is done from s = 1 to s = 0.05. Solving Eq. 7 gives

1
ts = 𝜏m + 1.5 sm . (8)
4 sm
• Thus starting time is a function of sm .
• Starting time has a minimum value of 1.22𝜏m at sm = 0.4.
′
Rr
• From Eq. sm = ± √︃ , when Rs is negligible, rotor resistance required
′
Rs2 + ( Xs +Xr ) 2
to start the motor in minimum time is
′ ′
( Rrm )s = 0.4 ( Xs + Xr ) . (9)


• From Eq. 6, time required for stopping by plugging, when initially running at
synchronous speed, can be expressed as
∫ 2
𝜏m s sm 0.75
tb = − + ds = 𝜏m 0.345 sm + . (10)
2 1 sm s sm
• Stopping time is again a function of sm . It has a minimum value of 1.027𝜏m at
sm = 1.47.
• Corresponding value of rotor resistance is
′ ′
( Rrm )b = 1.47 ( Xs + Xr ) . (11)
• Similarly, from Eq. 6, time required for speed reversal by plugging when running
on no load is given by
∫ 0.05
𝜏m s sm 1
tr = − + ds = 𝜏m 3.69 sm + . (12)
2 2 sm s sm
• Minimum time for reversal is thus 2.88𝜏m and corresponding value of sm is 0.52.
• Rotor resistance required for speed reversal by plugging in minimum time is
′ ′
( Rrm )r = 0.52 ( Xs + Xr ) . (13)

Calculation of Energy Losses

• The rotor winding loss for starting can be written as
∫ ts
′ ′
Esr = 3 Ir 2 Rr dt. (14)
0
′ ′
• Substituting from Eqs. Pg = 3 Ir 2 Rr /s and T = Pg /𝜔ms gives
∫ ts
Esr = 𝜔ms T s dt. (15)
0
• As the machine is operating under no load
dm
J = T. (16)
dt
• Substituting from Eq. 5
ds
− J 𝜔ms = T
dt
T dt = − J 𝜔ms ds. (17)
• Substituting in Eq. 15 gives
∫ 0 1
Esr = − J 𝜔2ms s ds = J 𝜔2ms . (18)
1 2

• It is interesting to note that rotor winding energy loss is equal to the kinetic energy
stored in moving parts at completion of the starting process, and it is independent
of the starting time or rotor resistance.
• However, if an external resistance is connected in rotor circuit only a part of this
loss is used to heat the motor.
• Energy loss in stator winding, neglecting magnetizing current is
∫ ts
′
Ess = Ir 2 Rs dt (19)
0

1 Rs
= J 𝜔2ms ′ (20)
2 Rr
• Hence, total winding loss during starting under no load is

1 Rs
Es = J 𝜔2ms 1 + ′ . (21)
2 Rr
• Proceeding similarly, rotor winding loss during stopping by plugging under no
load can be written as
∫ 1
3
Esr = J 𝜔2ms s ds = J 2ms . (22)
2 2
• Eq. 18 suggests that rotor winding loss can be reduced when started by using
methods based on the variation of synchronous speed.
• As an example let us consider a motor with an arrangement for doubling the pole
number.
• Let it be started with higher pole number for which the synchronous speed is
𝜔ms /2. item Then, from Eq. 18 rotor copper loss for change of speed from 0 to
𝜔ms /2 will be J 𝜔2ms /8.
• Now, the pole numbered is lowered. Consequently, rotor copper loss for speed
range 𝜔ms /2 to 𝜔ms will be
0 J 𝜔2ms
∫
′
Esr = J 𝜔2ms s ds = . (23)
0.5 8
• Thus, total rotor winding loss is J 𝜔2ms /4, which is one-half of the copper loss
when there is no provision for doubling the pole number.

1 Transient Analysis
2 Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) Control

Voltage Induction Motor Drives
Tr1 Tr3
A B Tr5 C
Vd
Tr4 Tr6 Tr2

A B C
Induction
Motor
(a) Transistor inverter-fed induction motor drive
VAB VAB
Vd
Vd
π 2π π 2π
0 π/6 5π/6 ωt 0 ωt
-Vd
(b) Stepped waveform inverter line voltage waveform (c) PWM inverter line voltage waveform
Figure 1. VSI fed induction motor drives.

• Variable frequency and variable voltage supply for induction motor control can be
obtained either from a voltage source inverter (VSI) or a cycloconverter.
• Fig. 1 (a) shows a VSI employing transistors.
• Any other self-commutated device can be used instead of a transistor.
• Generally MOSFET is used in low voltage and low power inverters, IGBT (insulated
gate bipolar transistor) and power transistors are used up to medium power levels
and GTO (gate turn off thyristor) and IGCT (insulated gate commutated thyristor)
are used for high power levels.
• VSI can be operated as a stepped wave inverter or a pulse-width modulated (PWM)
inverter.
• When operated as a stepped wave inverter, transistors are switched in the sequence
of their numbers with a time difference of T /6 and each transistor is kept on for
the duration T /2, where T is the time period for one cycle.
• Resultant line voltage waveform is shown in Fig. 1 (b).


Filter Id
dc
L Six step
supply Chopper C Vd IM
inverter
dc link
(a)
Filter Id
ac Controlled L Six step
supply rectifier C Vd inverter IM
dc link
(b)
Filter Id
dc
L PWM
supply C Vd IM
inverter
(c)
Filter Id
ac L PWM
supply Diode bridge C Vd IM
inverter
dc link
(d)
Figure 2. VSI controlled induction motor drives.

• Frequency of inverter operation is varied by varying T and the output voltage of

the inverter is varied by varying dc input voltage.
• When supply is dc, variable dc input voltage is obtained by connecting a chopper
between dc supply and inverter (Fig. 2 (a)).
• When supply is ac, variable dc input voltage is obtained by connecting a controlled
rectifier between ac supply and inverter (Fig. 2 (b)).
• A large electrolytic filter capacitor C is connected in dc link to make inverter
operation independent of rectifier or chopper and to filter out harmonics in dc link
voltage.
• Inverter output line and phase voltages are given by the following Fourier series
√
2 3 1 1 1 1
VAB = Vd sin 𝜔 t − sin 5 𝜔 t − sin 7 𝜔 t + sin 11 𝜔 t + sin 13 𝜔 t...
𝜋 5 7 11 13
(24)
2 1 1
VAN = Vd sin 𝜔 t + sin 5 𝜔 t + sin 7 𝜔 t (25)
𝜋 5 7


• The rms value of the fundamental phase voltage is given as
√
2
V = Vd . (26)
𝜋
• The main drawback of the stepped wave inverter is the large harmonics of low
frequency in the output voltage.
• Consequently, an induction motor drive fed from a stepped wave Inverter suffers
from the following drawbacks:
• (a) Because of low-frequency harmonics, the motor losses are increased at all
speeds, causing derating of the motor.
• (b) Motor develops pulsating torques due to fifth, seventh, eleventh and thirteenth
harmonics which cause jerky motion of the rotor at low speeds.
• (c) Harmonic content in motor current increases at low speeds. The machine
saturates at ligh loads at low speeds due to high (V /f ) ratio.
• These two effects overheat the machine at low speeds, thus limiting lowest speed
to around 40 % of base speed.
• Harmonics are reduced, low-frequency harmonics are eliminated, associated losses
are reduced and smooth motion is obtained at low speeds also when inverter is
operated as a pulse-width modulated inverter.

• Fig. 1 (c) shows output voltage waveform for sinusoidal pulse-width modulation.
• Since output voltage can now be controlled by pulse-width modulation, no
arrangement is required for the variation of input dc voltage.
• Hence, the inverter can be directly connected when the supply is dc [Fig. 2 (c)]
and through a diode rectifier when supply is ac. [Fig. 2 (d)).
• The fundamental component in the output phase voltage of a PWM inverter
operating with sinusoidal PWM is given by
Vd
V = m √ . (27)
2 2
Where, m is the modulation index.
• The harmonics in the motor current produce torque pulsation and derate the motor.
• For a given harmonic content in motor terminal voltage, the current harmonics are
reduced when the motor has higher leakage inductance, this reduces derating and
torque pulsations.
• ∴ when fed from VSI, induction motors with large (compared to when fed from
the sinusoidal supply) leakage inductance are used.

Braking and Multiquadrant Opeartion of VSI Induction Motor Drives

• The power into the motor is given by
Pin = 3 V Is cos 𝜙. (28)
Where, V and Is are fundamental components of the motor phase voltage and
current, respectively. 𝜙 is the phase angle between V and Is .
• In motoring operation 𝜙 < 90◦ , therefore Pin is positive i.e., power flows from
the inverter to the machine.
• A reduction in frequency makes the synchronous speed less than the rotor speed
and the relative speed between the rotor conductors and air-gap rotating field
reverses.
• This reveries the rotor induced emf, rotor current and component of stator current
which balances the rotor ampere turns.
• Consequently, angle 𝜙 becomes greater than 90◦ and power flow reverses.
• The machine works as a generator feeding power into the inverter, which in turn
feeds power into dc link by reversing the dc link current Id .
• Regenerative braking is obtained when the power flowing from the inverter to the
dc link is usefully employed and dynamic braking is obtained when it is wasted in
a resistance.
Dynamic Braking
SW Id
L
R PWM
ac Diode Vd IM
C inverter
supply bridge
S
Figure 3. Dynamic braking of VSI controlled IM drives.
• Consider the dynamic braking of pulse-width modulated inverter drive of Fig. 2

(d).
• With dynamic braking the drive will be as shown in Fig. 3.
• For dynamic braking, switch SW and a self-commutated switch (here transistor)
in series with braking resistance RB connected across the dc link are added to the
drive of Fig. 2 (d).

Dynamic Braking
• When operation of the motor is shifted from motoring to braking switch SW is

opened.
• Generated energy flowing into the dc link charges the capacitor and its voltage
rises.
• When it crosses a set value, switch S is closed, connecting the resistance across
the link.
• The generated power and a part of energy stored in the capacitor flow into the
resistance, and dc link voltage reduces.
• When it falls to its nominal value, S is opened.
• Thus by closing and opening switch S based on the value of dc link voltage,
generated energy is dissipated in the resistance, giving dynamic braking.
• The dynamic braking operation of the drives of Fig. 2 (a) to (c) can be obtained
similarly.

• Consider the regenerative braking of pulse-width modulated (PWM) inverter

drives of Fig. 2 (c) and (d).
• In the drive of Fig. 2 (c) when machine operation shifts from motoring to braking,
Id reverses and flows into the dc supply feeding the energy to the source.
• Thus, the drive of Fig. 2 (c) already has regenerative braking capability.
• In the case of the drive of Fig. 2 (d), for regenerative braking, the power supplied
to the dc link must be transferred to the ac supply.
• When the operation shifts from motoring to braking reverses but vd remains in the
same direction.
• Thus for regenerative braking capability, a converter capable of dealing with dc
voltage of one polarity and dc current of either direction is required.
• The recent drives use synchronous link converter (SLC) because it takes sinusoidal
current at unity power factor from the ac source, both during motoring and braking
operations.

Vs Is Ls V1
Vx L
PWM PWM
n Vd inverter IM
Ls inverter C
I II
Ls
Synchronous Controller
link converter
V*d
Figure 4. VSI IM drive with regenerative braking capacity (SLC fed PWM inverter IM drive).
• Thus, while its performance is superior, it requires less devices than a dual
converter.
• A regenerative drive with a SLC and PWM inverter is shown in Fig. 4.
• The inductors Ls and PWM inverter I constitute a SLC.
• PWM inverter I is operated to produce voltage V1 of required magnitude and
phase with a low harmonic content.
• So that current source Is is nearly sinusoidal and in phase with Vs for motoring
and 180◦ out of phase for braking, thus giving unity power factor.
Is Vs VI
0 δ
Vx=jωLsIs
Vx=jωLsIs
Is
δ
Vs
VI
(a) Motoring operation (b) Braking operation
Figure 5. Phasor diagrams of synchronous link converter.

• The phasor diagrams are shown in Fig. 5 (a) and (b).
• For each value of Is , V1 of given phase and magnitude is required.
• This can be easily realized in sinusoidal pulse-width modulation (PWM).
• In sinusoidal PWM magnitude and phase of V1 depends on the magnitude and
phase of modulation signal.
• ∴ V1 of given phase and magnitude can be produced by producing modulating
signal of required magnitude and phase.
• Since V1 is produced by PWM inverter, it does not contain low frequency
harmonies.
• The inductor Ls filters out high-frequency harmonics to produce a nearly
sinusoidal source current Is .
• The phasor diagrams of Fig. 5 are similar to that of a synchronous machine.
• Thus, the behavior of synchronous link converter is similar to that of a
synchronous machine → synchronous link converter.
• When the drive of Fig. 4 is operating in steady state, power supplied (taken) by
SLC must be equal to power taken (supplied) by PWM inverter II.
• Since the two work independent of each other, this is achieved by providing
closed-loop control of the dc link voltage.
• When the power supplied by SLC to the dc link equals the power taken by PWM
inverter II, no energy will be supplied or taken from the capacitor C and its voltage
will be constant and equal to the reference value Vd∗ .
• If now the load on IM is increased, power taken by PWM inverter II from the dc
link will be higher than the power supplied by the SLC.
• Hence, the capacitor voltage Vd will fall below its reference value V ∗ .
d
• The closed-loop voltage control will increase the value of Is and, therefore power
supplied to the dc link.
• Hence, the dc link voltage will be brought back to the reference value.

• Since SLC works as a boost converter, the closed-loop control of dc link voltage
provides the drive with ride through capability against a voltage sag and under
voltage.
• When ac source voltage falls, the closed loop voltage control maintains the dc link
voltage constant by increasing Is and thus, the motor continues to be provided
constant voltage, and therefore, produces same maximum power and torque.
• The drive of Fig. 2 (b) can have regenerative braking capability by replacing
controlled rectifier by a dual converter.
• The SLC cannot be used because it requires operation at a constant dc link voltage,
whereas with six step inverter dc link voltage must be varied.
• The drive of Fig 2 (a) will have regenerative braking capability if a two-quadrant
chopper of Fig. 5.44 (capable of providing voltage of one polarity and current in
either direction) is used.

Four Quadrant Opeartion
• Four quadrant operation can be obtained by any drive with braking (regenerative
or dynamic) capability.
• A reduction of the inverter frequency, to make synchronous speed less than the
motor speed, transfers the operation from quadrant I (forward motoring) to II
(forward braking).
• The inverter frequency and voltage are progressively reduced as speed falls to
brake the machine up to zero speed.
• Now, the phase sequence of the inverter output voltage is reversed by interchanging
the firing pulses between the switches of any two legs of the inverter.
• This transfers the operation to quadrant III (reverse motoring).
• The inverter frequency and voltage are increased to get the required speed in
reverse direction.

References

2002.




Edition, 2000.

Thank You

Synchronous Motor Variable Speed Drives Variable Frequency Control Self-Controlled Synchronous Motor Drive Permanent Magnet ac Motor Drives
Synchronous Motor and and Brushless dc Motor Drives
Lecture-20

February 17, 2024
Synchronous Motor and and Brushless dc Motor Drives 1 / 29

1 Synchronous Motor Variable Speed Drives
2 Variable Frequency Control
3 Self-Controlled Synchronous Motor Drive
4 Permanent Magnet ac Motor Drives

Variable Frequency Control
• Ns ∝ f → motor speed can be controlled by varying the frequency.
• As in case of an induction motor, constant flux operation below base speed is

achieved by operating the motor with a constant (V/f) ratio; which is increased at
low speeds to compensate for the stator resistance drop.
• All types of synchronous motors give operation with a constant pull-out torque.
• Rated voltage is reached at the base speed.
• For higher speeds, the machine is operated at a rated terminal voltage and variable
frequency, and the pull-out torque decreases with an increase in frequency.

Modes of Variable Frequency Control
• Variable frequency control may employ any of the two modes: (i) true synchronous
mode or (ii) self-controlled mode, also known as self-synchronous mode.
• In true synchronous mode, the stator supply frequency is controlled from an
independent oscillator.
• Frequency from its initial to the desired value is changed gradually so that the
difference between synchronous speed and rotor speed is always small.
• This allows rotor speed to track the changes in synchronous speed.
• When the desired synchronous speed (or frequency) is reached, the rotor pulls into
step, after hunting oscillations.
• Variable frequency control not only allows speed control, but it can also be used for
smooth starting and regenerative braking, as long as it is ensured that the changes
in frequency are slow enough for the rotor to track changes in synchronous speed.
• A motor with damper winding is used for pull-in to synchronism.

Modes of Variable Frequency Control
• In self-control mode, the stator supply frequency is changed so that synchronous

speed is the same as rotor speed.
• This ensures that rotor runs at synchronous speed for all operating points.
• Consequently, rotor cannot pull-out of step and hunting oscillations are eliminated.
• For such applications, the motor may not require a damper winding.
• In self-control mode, the stator supply frequency is changed in proportion to the
rotor speed so that the rotating field produced by the stator always moves at the
same speed as the rotor (or rotor field).
• Since, the voltage induced in the stator phase has a frequency proportional to rotor
speed, self-control can be realized by making the stator supply frequency to track
the frequency of induced voltage.
• Alternatively, sensors can be mounted on the stator to track the rotor position.
These sensors are called rotor position sensors.
• The frequency of signals generated by these sensors is proportional to rotor speed.
• Hence, the stator supply frequency can be made to track the frequency of these
signals.


Variable Frequency Control of Multiple Synchronous Motors

ac supply
V* α
Rectifier
Flux
control
f
f* f
VSI
Delay circuit
Synchronous reluctance or
permanent magnet motors
Figure 1. Variable frequency control of multiple synchronous motors.

• A drive operating in true synchronous mode is shown in Fig. 1.
• Frequency command f ∗ is applied to a voltage source inverter through a delay
circuit so that rotor speed is able to track the changes in frequency.
• A flux control block changes stator voltage with frequency to maintain a constant
flux below rated speed and a constant terminal voltage above rated speed.
• ThisMotor
Synchronous scheme
and and is commonly
Brushless used for the control of multiple synchronous reluctance

Self-Controlled Synchronous Motor Drive Employing Load Commutated

Thyristor Inverter
Ld
Id
+ -
3-phase T1 T3 T5
Is
Vds Vdl
ac supply
Synchronous
motor
-
+ T4 T6 T2
Source side converter Load side converter
Figure 2. Self-controlled synchronous motor drive employing load commutated inverter.
• A self-controlled synchronous motor drive employing a load commutated thyristor

inverter is shown in Fig. 2.
• In large power drives wound field synchronous motor is used.
• Medium power drives employ permanent magnet synchronous motors.

Thyristor Inverter
• The drive employs two converters, which are termed here as source side converter
and load side converter.
• The source side converter is a 6-pulse line commutated thyristor converter.
• For a firing angle range 0 ≤ 𝛼s ≤ 90◦ it works as a line-commutated fully
controlled rectifier delivering positive Vds and positive Vds and for the range of
firing angle 90◦ ≤ 𝛼s ≤ 180◦ it works as a line-commutated inverter delivering
negative Vds and positive Id .
• When synchronous motor operates at a leading power factor, thyristors of the load
side converter can be commutated by the motor induced voltages in the same way,
as thyristors of a line-commutated converter are commutated by line voltages.
• Commutation of thyristors by induced voltages of load (here load is a motor) is
known as load commutation.
• Firing angle is measured by comparison of induced voltages in the same way as
by the comparison of line voltages in a line commutated converter.
• Converter operates as an inverter producing negative Vdl and carrying positive Id
for 90◦ ≤ 𝛼l < 180◦ .
• For 0◦ ≤ 𝛼l ≤ 90◦ it works as a rectifier giving positive Vdl .

Thyristor Inverter
◦
• For 0◦ ≤ 𝛼s ≤ 90◦ , 90 ≤ 𝛼l ≤ 180 and with Vds > Vdl , the source side converter
works as a rectifier and load side converter as an inverter, causing power to flow
from ac source to the motor motoring operation.
• When firing angles are changed such that 90◦ ≤ 𝛼s ≤ 180◦ and 0◦ ≤ 𝛼l ≤ 90◦ ,
the load side converter operates as a rectifier and the source side as an inverter.
• Consequently, the power flow reverses and machine operates in regenerative
braking.
• The magnitude of torque depends on ( Vds − Vdl ).
• Speed can be changed by control of fine side converter firing angles.
• When working as an inverter, the firing angle has to be less than 180◦ to take care
of commutation overlap and turn-off of thyristors.
• It is common to define a commutation lead angle for load side converter as
𝛽l = 180◦ − 𝛼l . (1)


Thyristor Inverter
• If commutation overlap is ignored, the input ac current of the converter will lag
behind input ac voltage by angle 𝛼L . Since motor input current has an opposite
phase to converter input current, the motor current will lead its terminal voltage
by an angle 𝛽l .
• ∴ motor operates at a leading power factor.
• Lower the value of 𝛽l , higher the motor power factor and lower the inverter rating.
• The commutation overlap for the load side converter depends on the subtransient
inductance of the motor.
• The motor is provided with a damper winding in order to reduce subtransient
inductance.
• This allows operation with a substantially lower value of 𝛽l .
• The damper winding does not play its conventional roles of starting the machine
as an induction motor and to damp oscillations, because rotor and rotating field
speeds are always the same.


Thyristor Inverter
• In a simple control scheme, the drive is operaied at a fixed value of commutation
lead angle 𝛽lc for the load side converter working as an inverter and at 𝛽l = 180◦
(or 𝛼l = 0◦ ) when working as a rectifier.
• When good power factor is required to minimize converter rating, the load side
converter when working as an inverter is operated with constant margin angle
control.
• If commutation overlap of the thyristor under commutation is denoted by u, then
the duration for which the thyristor under commutation is subjected to reverse bias
after current through it has fallen to zero is given by
𝛾 = 𝛽l − u. (2)
• For successful commutation of thyristor
𝛾 > 𝜔 tq . (3)
Where, tq is the turn-off time of thyristors and 𝜔 is the frequency of motor voltage
in rad/s.


Thyristor Inverter
• Since u ∝ Id , for a given Id , 𝛽l can be calculated such that the thyristor under
commutation is reverse biased for a duration 𝛾min which is just enough for its
commutation.
• This in turn minimizes 𝛽l and maximizes motor power factor.
• Since 𝛾 is kept constant at its minimum value 𝛾min , the control scheme is called
constant margin angle control.
• The dc link inductor Ld reduces the ripple in the dc link current Id and prevents
the two converters from interfering with each other’s operation.
• Because of the presence of inductor in the dc link, the load side converter when
working as an inverter, behaves essentially as a current source inverter of Fig. ??,
except that thyristor commutation is now performed by motor induced voltages.
• Consequently, the motor phase current has six step waveform of Fig. ?? (b).
• Because of the dc current through Ld , the ac input current of source side converter
also has a six step current waveform.
• The dc line current Id flows through the machine phase for 120◦ in each half cycle.
• Fundamental component of motor phase current Is has following relationship with
Id √
6
Is = Id . (4)
𝜋

Thyristor Inverter
• For machine operation in the self-controlled mode, rotating field speed should be
the same as rotor speed.
• This condition is realized by making the frequency of the load side converter
output voltage equal to the frequency of voltage induced in the armature.
• Firing pulses are therefore generated either by comparison of motor terminal
voltages (as induced voltages are not directly accessible) or by the rotor position
sensors.
• Self control is ensured when firing pulses are generated by the comparison of
motor terminal voltages (as induced voltages are not directly accessible).
• Alternatively firing pulses are generated by rotor position sensors, which are
stationary and suitably aligned with the armature winding.
• The frequency of induced voltages depends on the speed of rotor (or rotor field)
and their phase depends on the location of rotor poles with respect to the armature
winding.
• Hence, signals generated by rotor position sensors have the same frequency as
that of the induced voltages and they have a definite phase with respect to induced
voltages.

Thyristor Inverter
• Load side converter thyristors are fired in the sequence of their numbers with 60◦
interval.
• ∴ for the control of load side converter thyristors, in all six rotor angular positions
are required to be detected per cycle of the induced voltage.
• The Hall-effect sensors can detect the magnitude and direction of a magnetic field.
• Hence, three Hall-effect sensors can detect the six rotor positions.
• The sensors are mounted at 60◦ electrical intervals and aligned suitably with
armature winding.
• As stated earlier the load side converter and the current source inverter of Fig. ??
perform essentially the same function.
• The only difference between the two is that while the former uses the load
commutation, the later uses forced commutation.
• Load commutation has a number of advantages over forced commutation:
(i) it does not require commutation circuits,
(ii) frequency of operation can be higher, and
(iii) it can operate at power levels beyond the capability of forced commutation.


Thyristor Inverter
• Load side converter performs somewhat similar function as commutator in a dc

machine.
• The load side converter and synchronous motor combination functions similar to
a dc machine.
• First, it is fed from a dc supply and secondly like a dc machine the stator and rotor
fields remain stationary with respect to each other at all speeds.
• Consequently, the drive consisting of load side converter and the synchronous
motor is known as commutator less dc motor.
• At low speeds, motor induced emf will be insufficient to commutate the thyristors
of load side converter, therefore, at start and for speeds below 10 % of base speed,
the commutation of load side converter thyristors is done by forcing the current
through conducting thyristors to zero.
• This is realized by making source side converter work as inverter each time load
side converter thyristors are to be turned off.
• For example thyristors T1 and T2 are to conduct together for 60◦ electrical.


Thyristor Inverter
• After 60◦ , source side converter will be made to work as an inverter, which will
reverse Vds and turn-off thyristors T1 and T2 .
• Now the source side converter operation is brought back to rectification and gate
pulses are released to T2 and T3 to turn them on and make them conduct together
for next 60◦ electrical.
• Since frequency of operation of load side converter at low motor speeds is very
low compared to source frequency, such an operation can be realized.
• This operation of the inverter can be termed as pulsed mode.
• This mode of operation requires rotor position sensors.
• ∴ even when the normal operation above 10 % of base speed is implemented by
sensing motor terminal voltages, rotor position sensors will be needed to realize
pulsed mode.
• The dc supply to the field can be provided from a controlled rectifier through
slip-rings and brushes.
• Alternatively, brushless excitation system consisting of diode bridge mounted
on the rotor and, therefore rotating with the rotor and supplied by a rotating
transformer can be used.

Thyristor Inverter
Source Load
Id side Motor
ac supply side
converter converter
Id
f βk
αs
Firing
Current Terminal
circuit
controller voltage
and firing sensor
circuit
f
f
Phase
delay
-
Phase of terminal
Id voltage
+
Id
Sign of
Current eωm
limitre
Speed
controller
eωm
ω*m
+
-
ωm
Figure 3. Closed-loop speed control of load-commutated inverter synchronous motor drive.


Thyristor Inverter
• The field current is controlled by controlling the input voltage of the transformer
by feeding it from an ac voltage regulator.
• The brushless excitation eliminates slip-rings and brushes and associated mainte-
nance.
• A closed-loop speed control scheme is shown in Fig. 3.
• It employs outer speed control loop and inner current control loop with a limiter,
like a dc motor.
• The terminal voltage sensor generates reference pulses of the same frequency as
the machine-induced voltages.
• The phase delay circuit shifts the reference pulses suitably to obtain control at a
constant commutation lead angle 𝛽lc .
• Depending on the sine of speed error, 𝛽lc is set to provide motoring or braking
operation.
• Speed 𝜔m can be sensed either from the terminal voltage sensor or from a separate
tachometer.
• An increase in reference speed omegam produces a positive speed error.


Thyristor Inverter
• 𝛽lc value is set for motoring operation.
• The speed controller and current limiter set the dc link current reference at the
maximum permissible value.
• The machine accelerates fast. When close to the desired speed, the current limiter
desaturates and the drive settles at the desired speed and at the dc link current
which balances motor and load torques.
• Similarly a reduction in reference speed produces a negative speed error.
• This sets beta kc for regenerative braking operation (i.e., 180◦ ) and the motor
decelerates.
• When speed error changes sign 𝛽lc value is set for motoring operation and the
drive settles at the desired speed.
• Advantages of this drive → high efficiency, four-quadrant operation with regenera-
tive braking, high power ratings (up to 100 MW) and ability to run at high speeds
(6000 rpm).
• Applications → high speed and high power drives for compressors, blower, fans,
pumps, conveyers, steel rolling mills, main line traction, ship propulsion and
aircraft test facilities.

Thyristor Inverter
Ld
is1
300
is1
il1
͛
B ͛
Source
currents ͛
il2
is2 >Ϯ
il2
is2
Six pulse
Secondary phase currents
converter
Figure 4. High power synchronous motor drive with series connections of 6-pulse converters to obtain 12-
pulse configurations.

Thyristor Inverter
• At very high power levels, harmonics generated at the source and motor terminals
require special attention.
• Single line diagram of a high power drive is shown in Fig. 4.
• The source side harmonics are reduced by using a 12-pulse converter.
• For this two six-pulse converters are connected in series.
• The supply for the converters is obtained through a transformer with primary
connected in star and having two secondary windings, one connected in star feeds
one six pulse converter and another connected in delta feeds another six pulse
converter.
• This way 30◦ phase shift is provided between the input voltages of two six-pulse
converters.
• The input current waveforms of two converters and source current are shown in
Fig. 4.


Thyristor Inverter
• The source current is more close to the sinusoidal compared to six-pulse converter.
• The harmonics in motor current produce torque pulsations and losses in rotor and
damper windings due to induced harmonic currents.
• These effects are minimized by using a synchronous motor equipped with two
three phase windings on stator with a phase shift of 30◦ between their axes and
feeding them from two series connected six-pulse load commutated converters
with their output current phase shifted by 30◦ (Fig. 4).
• The resultant stator mmf has twelve pulse waveform.
• ∴ torque pulsations and rotor and damper winding losses are reduced.
• When the motor has only single winding, it can be supplied with 12-pulse
current by connecting the series connected six-pulse converters with the motor
via transformers in the same way as mentioned above for source side converters.


Permanent Magnet ac Motor Drives
• Permanent magnet synchronous motors are now commonly known as permanent

magnet ac (PMAC) motors.
• They are classified based on the nature of voltage induced in the stator as
sinusoidally excited and trapezoidally excited; in the former induced voltage has a
sinusoidal waveform and in the later induced voltage has trapezoidal waveform.
• These PMAC motors are commonly known as sinusoidal PMAC and trapezoidal
PMAC motors.
• A sinusoidal PMAC motor has distributed winding (similar to wound field
synchronous motor) in the stator.
• It employs rotor geometries such as inset or interior.
• Rotor poles are so shaped that the voltage induced in a stator phase has a sinusoidal
waveform.
• The stator of a trapezoidal PMAC motor has concentrated windings and a rotor
with a wide pole arc.

Permanent Magnet ac Motor Drives
• The voltage induced in the stator phase has a trapezoidal waveform.

• It employs rotor geometries such as surface magnets shown in Fig. 7.1.
• The speed of PMAC motors is controlled by feeding them from variable frequency
voltage currents.
• They are operated in self-controlled mode. Rotor position sensors are employed
for operation in self-control mode.
• Alternatively, induced voltage can be used to achieve self-control.
• The current trend is to use MOSFET for low voltage and low power applications
and IGBT for others.
• In the past, self-controlled variable frequency drives employing a sinusoidal
PMAC motor were also called brushless dc motor drives.
• They are now simply called sinusoidal PMAC motor drives.
• The self-controlled variable frequency drives employing a trapezoidal PMAC
motor → brushless dc motor drives or trapezoidal PMAC motor drives.

References

2002.




Edition, 2000.

Thank You

Electric Traction Services Nature of Traction Load
Traction Drives
Lecture-21

February 17, 2024
Traction Drives 1 / 30
1 Electric Traction Services
2 Nature of Traction Load
Electric Traction Services
Major application of electric drives is in electric traction, i.e., to transport men and
material from one place to another.
Electrical traction services can be broadly classified as
• (i) Electric Trains.
• (ii) Electric buses, trams (or tramways) and trolleys.
• (iii) Battery driven and solar powered vehicles.
Electric Trains
• Electric trains run on fixed rails.
• Electric trains are classified → main line trains and suburban trains.
Main-Line Trains
• Intercity passenger and goods trains which come under this category have trailer
coaches carrying men and material driven by locomotives carrying driving motors.
• Since driving motors travel with locomotive, power supply to the motors is
arranged in two ways:
(i) from overhead transmission line in electrical locomotive and
(ii) from diesel generator set mounted on the locomotive in a diesel-electric
locomotive.
• In an electric locomotive, the driving motor and power modulators are housed in
the locomotive.
• An overhead transmission line is laid along or above the track (or rails).
• A current collector mounted over the locomotive has a conductor strip which slides
against the supply conductor and thus maintains continuous contact between the
supply and the locomotive.
Main-Line Trains
Catanary Dropper wire
cable
Contact wire
Figure 1. Transmission arrangement (catanary).
• The supply conductor is commonly known as a contact wire.

• To ensure good contact between the current collector and contact wire, the latter is
maintained horizontally by supporting it with ‘catanary cable’ and ‘dropper’ wires,
which in turn are supported at the interval by appropriate structures (Fig. 1).
• For high-speed trains, contact wires are rarely given a vertical inclination to the
track greater than 1 in 300.
• At the same time, the lateral position of the wire above the rails is staggered from
side to side between supports to even the wear on the collector, caused as it slides
along the contact wire.
Main-Line Trains
A B C
Figure 2. Typical forms of pantograph. A: Open frame; B: Faiveley; C: Crossed arm.
• The commonly used collector has the shape of a pentagon, therefore, it is called a
pantograph collector (Fig. 2).
• It has a conducting strip which is pressed against the contact wire by springs.
• The collector strips are usually of steel with grease lubrication, or of carbon, in
which case no lubrication is needed.
Main-Line Trains
• Function of the pantograph → to maintain as constant pressure as possible between

the collector strip and contact wire and to prevent any vertical oscillation of the
collector strip, as these will produce arcing due to breaking of electric contact.
• When the pantograph is not in use, it is maintained in lower position with the help
of stiff springs.
• When to be used, the collector strip is raised by compressed air.
• For high-speed trains, the design of collector is critical.
• As supply lines are to be laid all along the track, with adequate spacing, the
economy dictates use of minimum number of such lines.
• ∴ single phase supply is used.
• The current enters locomotive through the collector, flows through the primary of
a step-down transformer, and returns to supply earth through locomotive wheels
and one of the rails on which locomotive travels.
• Thus, avoiding the need for a second conductor.
• Main secondary winding (or windings) of the transformer feeds the power
modulator, which in turn powers the driving motors.
Main-Line Trains
• The auxiliary secondary windings of the transformer feed power for other needs
of the train such as lighting, fans, airconditioning etc.
• The locomotive power ratings can be as high as 6000 HP and more.
• Powering such a large single-phase load can lead to large unbalance in the supply
system which is always three-phase.
• In order to reduce unbalance, the track supply is divided into sections which are
electrically isolated from each other, and substations supplying these sections are
connected to different phases of the three-phase supply.
• Though the unbalance is reduced, its magnitude still remains large.
• If the three-phase supply system capacity is much larger than the power drawn by
the locomotive, then this unbalance will not significantly affect the three-phase
supply system.
• Therefore, it is essential that the main source of traction supply should be sufficiently
large.
• When locomotive travels through different sections, the supply is momentarily
disconnected when it moves from one section to another.
Main-Line Trains
• The movement during the transition occurs because of the inertia. Momentary
disruption of power produces inductive voltage spikes.
• Electric traction is classified as single phase ac and dc depending on the supply.
• It has nothing to do with the motor type.
• Based on the study done by French and German Railways in late forties, 25 kV
was considered suitable for ac traction.
• Indian Railways have also adopted 25 kV, 50 Hz, single phase supply for ac
traction.
• 25 kV, 50 Hz ac supply is now being used for main-line traction throughout India,
except Bombay-Igatpuri section where 1500 V dc traction is in use.
• In a diesel-electric locomotive, the electric power is generated within the locomotive
by a diesel engine driven electric generator.
• Capital cost of electric traction employing electric locomotive is very high.
• Because of the necessity of expensive transmission lines, the total cost (capital
plus running) is lower compared to diesel-electric traction using diesel-electric
locomotive.
Suburban Trains
• They are employed for transporting men within a city or between cities located at
small distances.
• The main difference being that the distance between consecutive stops (or stations)
is much smaller for suburban trains than the main line.
• The suburban trains are also known as local trains. Because of shortage of land
in cities, they are often run through underground tunnels and are called subway
trains, metros or simply underground trains.
• Suburban trains are driven by motor (or motorized) coaches, instead of locomotives.
• Each motor coach is equipped with an electric drive with its controls in driver’s
cabin and a pantograph collector.
• Usual pattern is to use motor coaches and trailer coaches in the ratio 1: 2.
• In high speed trains the ratio may be increased to 1: 1. The trains employing motor
coaches and trailer coaches are also known as electrical multiple unit (EMU)
trains.
• Such an arrangement provides the flexibility in train size. During light traffic
periods, one or two units, each consisting of one motor coach and two trailer
coaches form a train.
Suburban Trains
• During rush hours. number of such units are coupled together. Each unit is
provided with local and remote control equipment, so that all the motor coaches
of a train can be controlled from the driver’s cabin of the front motor coach.
• The electric supplies for suburban trains are similar to those used in main line
trains, except in case of underground trains.
• The cost of making underground tunnels is very large, therefore, their size is kept
minimum possible.
• As enough space is not available for a high voltage line, in underground traction,
the voltage chosen is usually small, 500 to 1000 V (in Calcutta metro it is 750 V
dc).
• Usually, it is dc because first it needs lesser clearance from the supply conductor to
the train body and the ground and secondly the power modulator becomes simpler
and less expensive.
• The underground trains generally do not use overhead transmission line.
• It is a common practice to use a third rail for the supply.
• The rail may be mounted between the running rails or on one side of the tunnel.
• Brushes are mounted underneath or on the side of the motor coaches, depending
on the location of the supply rail, for current collection. The rails are cheaper
than overhead supply, so they are preferred whenever the chance of pedestrains
comming across them is remote.
Electric buses, Trams and Trolleys
Line conductor
Contact bow
Figure 3. Current collector for an electric bus.
• Because of lower running expenses and complete absence of pollution, electric

buses are preferred over diesel engine driven buses for city services and are quite
popular in Europe and Canada.
• Their main disadvantage is the need for elaborate supply network, which makes
their capital cost very high (though total expenses are lower) and makes them
unsuitable for intercity services.
• The electric buses, also known as electric cars, usually consists of single motor
driven coach.
• The supply is generally low voltage de overhead line running along the road.
• As the currents are usually small, the collector consists of a rod carrying at its end
a grooved wheel or two rods bridged by a contact bow (Fig. 3).
Electric buses, Trams and Trolleys
• Collector system is provided with enough flexibility for the bus to manoeuvre
sideways through traffic without adversely affecting contact between the collector
and supply conductor.
• Arrangement has also to be provided for an additional conductor for the return of
current.
• The trams are electric buses (or cars) which run on rails and consist of a single
motor coach In some cases, one or two trailer coaches are added.
• Current collection is similar to buses and its return can be through one of the rails.
• As trams run on rails, their path through roads is fixed.
• Unless roads are very wide, their movements along with the rest of traffic slows
down. Hence, they are not employed anymore.
• Electric trolleys used for transporting material in mines and factories mostly run
on rails. They are similar to trams, only the shape is different.
1 Electric Traction Services
2 Nature of Traction Load
Nature of Traction Load

V
0 Fr
Figure 4. Relation between speed V and train resistance F .
• When the train runs at a constant velocity on level track, a number of frictional
forces oppose its motion.
• The friction at bearings, guides, etc., are classified as internal friction.
• The rolling friction between wheels and rails, and friction between wheel-flanges
and rails is termed as external friction.
• A third category consists of air friction which is independent of weight of the train
but depends upon its size and shape, velocity and relative direction of wind.
• All these frictional forces together are known as train resistance.
• Variation of train resistance (F ) with speed (V ) is shown in Fig. 4, load torque
versus speed curve will have similar nature.
Nature of Traction Load
• The train resistance (or load torque) can also be identified in terms of a common
classification of friction such as windage, viscous friction, coulomb friction,
and stiction.
• Stiction has a large value and the influence of air friction, which varies as the
square of speed, is quite prominent at high speeds.
• When deciding the torque requirements of driving motors, the torque
components required to provide acceleration and to overcome gravity must also
be considered.
• Owing to large inertia, particularly of electric trains, accelerating torque forms
major proportion of the total torque in the accelerating range.
• Because of large values of stiction and accelerating torque, the torque
requirement at the start and during acceleration is much higher than the torque
needed for running at the highest speed.
• ∴ only those drives which develop large torque from zero to the base speed are
suitable for traction application.
Coefficient of Adhesion CA
• In traction, the task of driving equipment consists of pushing the carriage on which
it is mounted and pulling coaches and wagons behind it.
• Wheels coupled to the motors, either directly or through a reduction gear, are
known as driving wheels.
• When motors run, driving wheels in their effort for rotation, exert a frictional force
on the track tangentially backward at points of contact between the driving wheels
and track.
• As a result, driving wheels experience a reaction in the forward direction, conse-
quently, wheels and the carriage move in the forward direction.
• If at the points of contact between the driving wheel and the track, force applied is
large, the wheels may slip, then the wheels turn, but carriage remains stationary.
• A very important factor in traction drives, coefficient of adhesion 𝜇a , provides a
quantitative measure of the tendency of wheels to slip and is defined as:
Maximum tractive effort that can be applied without slipping of wheels
𝜇a =
Weight on the driving axles
(1)
• Weight on the driving axles is also the weight on the driving wheels. It is also
known as adhesive weight.
• Tractive effort is the total force at the rims of driving wheels, and therefore, it is
proportional to the motor torque.
• Value of the coefficient of adhesion depends on the condition of surfaces of driving
wheels and track at the point of contact.
• The coefficient of adhesion is somewhat analogous to the coefficient of friction;
while latter depends on conditions at one point of contact, the former depends on
conditions at several points of contact.
• Eq. 1 suggests that for a given value of the coefficient of adhesion, there is a
maximum value of torque that can be applied without the slipping of driving
wheels; this in turn places restriction on the maximum value of acceleration.
• When wheel of a train slips at start, it slides against the same point on the rail.
• Due to friction and heat produced, rail surface is damaged at the point of contact,
commonly called ‘burning of track’.
• It further increases the tendency to slip. As a result, the life of the track and wheels
is reduced.
• In road vehicles, if wheel slip occurs when vehicle is already in motion, it not
only reduces the life of tyres, but can lead to serious accidents as the driver loses
complete control of the vehicle.
• That is why every care is taken in all electrical vehicles to avoid wheel slip.
The coefficient of adhesion depends on many factors such as
• (i) Type and condition of surfaces at the point of contact.

• (ii) Vehicle speed.
• (iii) Nature of motor speed-torque characteristic.
• (iv) Motor connections.
• (v) Type of power modulator.
V
0 CA
Figure 5. Relation between train speed V and coefficient of adhesion CA .
• The coefficient of friction, and therefore, the coefficient of adhesion depends
on the nature of the material used for making the track and wheels and also on
conditions of track and wheel surfaces,
• Example → presence of oil, grease, water, snow and mud reduces the coefficient
of adhesion.
• Electric buses possessing rubber tyres rolling on metalled road have much higher
coefficient of adhesion than electric trains having steel wheels rolling on steel
rails.
• Coefficient of adhesion decreases with increase in speed. The nature of variation
is shown in Fig. 5.
• If oil, grease, water, snow and mud fall on the rail or on wheel surface, it will be
shifted towards the left.
• It also depends on the nature of speed-torque characteristics of the driving motor
and has a higher value for motors with low regulation of speed, i.e., when for a
given increase of speed, the drop in torque is large.
• When a wheel slips, the speed of the driving motor increases.
• The torque drops by a large amount in motors with low regulation of speed, and
the wheels regain their grip on rails immediately avoiding slip.
• In a locomotive more than one motors are employed.
• They may be connected in suitable series and parallel combinations.
• The ability of the locomotive to cross a section of the track with low adhesive
coefficient depends on this combination of series-parallel connection.
• To understand this, let us consider the case of two motors with the option of
connecting them either in series or in parallel; the power modulator can always be
designed to obtain voltage suitable for any of these connections.
• Due to the bad patch on the track, let the wheels coupled to one motor slip.
• The speed of this motor will increase, decreasing the current and torque.
• When the two motors are connected in series, current and torque of the other
motor will also decrease, decreasing the total available torque.
• When connected in parallel, their current and torque are independent.
• Therefore, the current and torque of other motors will not decrease, i.e., the total
torque will be higher.
• Thus, according to Eq. 1, for the same condition of track, the coefficient of
adhesion will have a higher value for the parallel connection.
• Since the maximum torque that can be applied without wheel slip is higher for
parallel connection, there is greater chance for the train to negotiate bad patch on
the track without wheel slip.
• When the locomotive has four motors, from the point of view of the coefficient of
adhesion, the best connection will be all motors in parallel.
• Next best will be two pairs of series connected motors in parallel and the worst
will be all four motors in series.
• A power modulator capable of allowing stepless change in motor voltage is
preferable from the point of view of wheel slip.
• If the voltage can only be controlled in steps, then at the time of speed change,
motor torque may exceed the value at which wheels slip.
• For example, in 25 kV ac traction using tap changers, the dc motors voltage can
be controlled only in discrete steps.
• Whenever changeover is done to increase the speed, the motor voltage increases
abruptly, causing a step increase in current and torque.
• Thus, during transition, the instantaneous value of torque is much larger than what
would occur if the motor voltage is gradually increased with speed.
• ∴ the tendency for wheel slip is minimized if the power modulator is capable of
providing stepless change in voltage.
• Coefficient of adhesion is also affected by the speed of response of the power
modulator and drive.
• When a wheel slips, the wheel slip detection circuit gives command for the
reduction of motor torque so that the slipping wheel can regain the grip.
• In a drive where the torque can be reduced faster, the tendency for wheel slip will
be lower.
Duty Cycle of Traction Drives
Constant
power Free running
Coasting
Torque
Power
Speed
Base speed
Braking
Constant
acceleration
0 t1 t2 t3 t4 T t 0 t1 t2 t3 t4 T t 0 t1 t2 t3 t4 T t
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 6. Speed-, torque and power-time curves for an electric train.
• The duty cycle of electric trains is explained with the help of speed-, torque- and
power-time diagrams (Fig. 6), which are drawn for travel between two consecutive
stations on a levelled track.
• The train is accelerated at the maximum permissible torque, giving constant
maximum acceleration.
• The power increases linearly with speed.
• At time t1 , the base speed and the maximum allowable power is reached.
• Further acceleration occurs at constant power.
• Torque and acceleration decrease inversely with speed.

• At the time t2 the drive torque equals the load torque and steady speed is reached.
• The acceleration time (0 to t2 ) has two parts: acceleration at a constant torque (0
to t1 and acceleration at a constant power (t1 to t2 ).
• From t2 to t3 , train runs at a constant speed and constant drive power.
• This duration is known as free running.
• At t3 , supply to the motor is turned off, reducing the drive torque to zero.
• Now the train coasts due to its own inertia.
• At a suitable time t4 , brake is applied to stop the train at the next station.
• The area beneath the speed-time curve gives the distance covered.
• Thus, larger the area beneath the speed-time curve, greater will be the distance
covered in a given time or lesser will be the time taken to cover a given distance.

• The diagrams of Fig. 6 are drawn for a levelled track.
• When gradients are involved, they will be modified. When going up the gradient,
the acceleration and free running speed will be low.
• While going down the gradient, braking may be required both during acceleration
and free running, and coasting may have to be avoided.
• During braking, the deceleration will be low because a part of braking torque is
utilised in balancing the gravitational pull due to the down gradient.
• The duration of various parts of the duty cycle of Fig. 6 will differ according to
the distance between two consecutive stations (or stops) and the type of service.
• In case of main line trains all parts-acceleration, free running, coasting and braking,
will be usually present, although their duration will change with the distance
between consecutive stations.
• In case of suburban trains, the distance between stations can be so small that
brakes may have to be applied even before the train is fully accelerated.
• In that case free running and coasting will be absent.
• When the distance is larger than this, either free running or coasting may be
present.
• In high-speed trains, coasting is avoided as it reduces the average speed.
Load Sharing between Traction Motors

N N
N1 N1
N2 N2
0 T1 T2 T 0 T1 T2 T
(a) Separately excited motor (b) Series motor
Figure 7. Torque sharing between motors.

• An electric locomotive uses more than one motor.
• Each motor drives set of axles and wheels.
• Due to wear and tear, the diameters of wheels become different after they have
been in service for quite some time.
• The linear speed of the locomotive and wheels will be the same.
• ∴ motor speeds will be different due to the difference in the diameters of the
wheels driven by them.
Load Sharing between Traction Motors

• Consequently, the motors will not share the torque equally.
• Figs. 7 (a) and (b) show the torque sharing for separately excited dc and series dc
motors when the locomotive uses two motors, which run at speeds N1 and N2 due
to the difference in wheel diameters.
• Torque developed by two motors are shown as T1 and T2 .
• When T2 becomes equal to the rated motor torque Tr , T1 is smaller than Tr .
• The total torque that the locomotive can develop without overloading any motor is
only ( T1 + Tr ), which is less than the sum of rated motor torques 2 Tr .
• Thus, unequal torque sharing virtually derates the torque capability of the locomo-
tive.
• The derating is larger for separately excited motor than the series motor.
• In general, torque sharing will be more unequal for motors with low-speed
regulation.
• Note that this requirement is contrary to that for adhesive coefficient.
• The adhesive coefficient has a larger value for a motor with low-speed regulation.
• When motors are fed from different converters, equal torque sharing can be
achieved by suitably controlling converter output voltages.
• But then the cost of drive goes up as two converters, each of 50 % rating, will be
more expensive than a single converter of full rating.
References

2002.




Edition, 2000.
Thank You
Main Line and Suburban Train Configurations Calculations of Traction Drive Rating and Energy Consumption
Traction Drives
Lecture-22

February 17, 2024
1 Main Line and Suburban Train Configurations
2 Calculations of Traction Drive Rating and Energy Consumption
Difference in Constrcution of Main Line and Suburban Trains
• In main line trains, distance between the consecutive stations is generally large.
• Acceleration and deceleration times form only a very small proportion of the total
time of travel between the two stations.
• Therefore, average speed mainly depends on the free running speed and acceleration
is allowed to be low to suit the passengers’ convenience.
• In the main line trains which are driven by locomotives, the maximum weight on
driving wheels can be at most equal to the weight of locomotive.
• For a given value of coefficient of adhesion, the torque that can be applied without
wheel slip is directly proportional to weight on the driving wheels.
• As the weight on driving wheels is restricted to the weight of locomotive, the main
line trains can have only moderate acceleration and deceleration.
Difference in Constrcution of Main Line and Suburban Trains
• In case of suburban trains, as already stated, distance between consecutive stations

is usually very small.
• The acceleration and deceleration times form a major proportion of the total
travelling time.
• To get a high average speed, it is necessary to reduce acceleration and deceleration
times.
• For a given value of coefficient of adhesion, acceleration and deceleration can be
increased only by increasing the ratio of the weight on driving wheels and total
weight of the train.
• Hence, instead of a locomotive, motorized coaches are used.
• Each coach has its own driving motors.
• The usual pattern is to use the motorized and trailer coaches in the ratio of 1: 2;
the ratio is increased up to 1: 1 in case of high speed trains.
• This arrangement allows a much higher proportion of the train weight to come on
the driving wheels, compared to a locomotive, and hence, much faster acceleration
and deceleration can be obtained.
Driving Axle Code for Locomotives
(a) Locomotive Bo-Bo (b) Locomotive 1-Co-2 (c) Locomotive C-C
Figure 1. Arrangement of driving axles and wheels and locomotive code.
• Weight of the locomotive is supported on axles which are coupled to wheels.

• The weight per axle is limited by the strength of the track and bridges, and usually
varies between 15 and 30 tons.
• Total number of axles is calculated by the following equation,
Weight of locomotive
Number of axles = (1)
Permissible weight per axle
• Certain amount of torque is needed for driving a given train.
Driving Axle Code for Locomotives
• The number of driving axles and coupled motors are described using a code.
• If a locomotive possesses two driving axles, it belongs to category B.
• Similarly, for a 3-, 4- and 6-axle drive, the symbols used are C, B-B and C-C,
respectively.
• If each axle is driven by an individual motor; a subscript ‘o’ is used along with
these symbols.
• In case axles are divided into groups and each group is driven by a single motor,
only letters B and C are appropriately used.
• The number of dummy (non-driving) axles is denoted by numerals.
• Use of these codes is illustrated in Fig. 1 where dotted circles represent dummy
wheels, code Bo -Bo , (Fig. 1 (a)) denotes that the locomotive has four driving
axles and each axle is driven by its own driving motor.
• Code 1-Co -2 in Fig. 1 (b) shows that it has three driving axles each driven by a
separate motor, and 3 dummy axles.
• Fig. 1 (c) indicates that the locomotive has 3 + 3 driving axles and a group of
three axles is provided with one driving motor.
1 Main Line and Suburban Train Configurations
2 Calculations of Traction Drive Rating and Energy Consumption
Calculations of Traction Drive Rating and Energy Consumption
Free running Coasting C

B
Velocity
Constant
power
Base speed
Constant Braking
accelration
A E F D t
Figure 2. Speed-time curve and its approximation.

• For simplification in calculations, it is approximated by a trapezoidal curve having
constant values for acceleration and deceleration.
• As the area beneath curve represents distance covered, the area of the trapezoidal
curve is chosen equal to the area of actual curve.
• Let D be the distance in km, T is the time taken by train to move from A to D in s,
Vm is the free running speed of trapezoidal curve in km/hr (kmph) and 𝛼 and 𝛽
are acceleration and deceleration in km/hr/s (kmphps).
Calculations of Traction Drive Rating and Energy Consumption

• Then Vav = Average speed of the train, kmph.
Distnace between the stops, km 3600 D
Vav = = . (2)
Actual time of run, hours T
• Vd = Scheduled speed of the train, kmph
Distance between the stops, km
Vd = (3)
(Actual time of run + Time of stop) hours
• From the trapezoidal curve,
Vm Vm
t1 = s and t2 = s
𝛼 𝛽

Vm 1 1
D = Area of trapezoidal curve = t1 + t2 + t3
3600 2 2
Vm
= [ 2 T − ( t1 + t3 )]
7200

Vm Vm Vm
= 2T − + km. (4)
7200 𝛼 𝛽
• Eq. 4 has five variables D, Vm , T , 𝛼, 𝛽. If any four values are known, the fifth
can be evaluated.
Tractive Effort and Drive Ratings
• Tractive effort is the force developed at the rims of driving wheels for moving
trains.
• In main line trains it is caused by locomotive and in suburban by motor coaches.
• Draw bar pull is the force exerted by a locomotive through draw bar for a moving
train.
• Thus, draw bar pull is less than the tractive effort by the force required to move
the locomotive.
• The tractive effort has to perform the following functions.

(i) Accelerate the train mass horizontally.
(ii) Accelerate the rotating parts of train such as wheels, gears, axles and the rotor
of the motor.
(iii) Overcome force due to gravity when moving up-gradient.
(iv) Overcome train resistance.
Tractive Effort
• (i) Tractive effort required to accelerate the train mass horizontally (in
newtons) at an acceleration of 𝛼 kmphps is given as
𝛼 × 1000
Fal = ( 1000 M ) × = 277.8 M 𝛼, N. (5)
3600
Where, M is the mass in tonnes.
• (ii) Tractive effort required to accelerate the rotating parts: Rotating parts
consists of wheels, axles, gears and rotor of the motor.
• The inertia of gears and axles can be ignored in comparison to that of wheels.
• Moment of inertia of wheels
J1 = 2 Nx Jw . (6)
Where, Jw is the moment of inertia of one wheel in kg-m2 and Nx is the number
of axles on the train.
• Let N = number of driving motors

n1 = teeth on motor gear wheel
n2 = teeth on axle gear wheel
R = radius of the wheel, m
Jm = moment of inertia of one motor, kg-m2 .
a1 wheel speed
a = = (7)
a2 motor speed.
• Then the moment of inertia of motors referred to wheels
N Jm
J2 = (8)
a2
𝛼 × 1000
Acceleration (in m/s2 ) = , mpsps.
3600
𝛼 × 1000
Acceleration (in rad/s2 ) = , rpsps.
3600 R
Tractive Effort
• Tractive effort for driving rotating parts

𝛼 × 1000 N Jm 𝛼
Fa2 = ( J1 + J2 ) = 2 Nx Jw + . (9)
3600 R 𝛼2 3.6 R2
• Total tractive effort required for accelerating the train on a level track (in newtons)

N Jm 𝛼
Fa = Fa1 + Fa2 = 277.8 M 𝛼 + 2 Nx Jw + (10)
𝛼2 3.6 R2
= 277.8 Me 𝛼, N. (11)
Where, Me is defined as the effective mass of the train.
It accounts for rotating parts in addition to he train mass.
It is around 8 − 15 % higher than M .
Eq. 11 can also be written as
277.8
Fa = Me 𝛼 = 28.3 Me 𝛼, kg. (12)
9.81
Tractive Effort
• (iii) Tractive effort required to overcome force due to gravity: When moving
up-gradient, the drive has to produce tractive effort to overcome force due to
gravity.
• When deciding drive rating, gradient with the maximum permissible slope is to be
considered.
• In railway practice, gradient is expressed as rise in meters in track distance of
1000 m and denoted by G.
• Now, tractive effort required to overcome force due to gravity will be
G
Fg = 1000 M × × g, N
1000
= 9.81 M G, N (13)
= M G, kg. (14)
Tractive Effort
• (iv) Tractive effort required to overcome train resistance: Variation of train
resistance with speed is shown in Fig. It is not possible to accurately represent it
analytically.
• Among several empirical relations proposed, the simplest is based on the under-
standing that train resistance is due to various kinds of frictions.
• ∴ it will have three basic components: due to (a) coulomb friction which is
independent of speed, (b )viscous friction which is proportional to speed, (c) air
friction which is proportional to speed squared.
Ft = A + B V + C V 2 , N. (15)
Where, V is the speed of the train, and A, B, C are constants.
• Eq. 15 suggests that it is difficult to estimate the train resistance.
• Since it is quite small compared to Fa , an approximate value od Fr can be used
and is often assumed as r newtons per tonne weight of the train. Thus,
Fr = r M, N (16)
rM
= , kg. (17)
9.81
• For calculating drive rating, r is chosen to be 20 N/tonne.
Tractive Effort
• (v) Total tractive effort required to move the train:
Ft = Fa + Fg + Fr
Mr
= 28.3 Me 𝛼 ± M G + , kg (18)
9.81
= 27..8 Ma 𝛼 ± 9.81 M G + M r, N. (19)
+ve sign → train movement up-gradient and −ve → down the gradient.
• (vi) Motor torque rating: The total torque at the rims of driving wheels is
= Total tractive effort (in newtons) × R
= R Ft , N-m. (20)
Where, R is the radius of the driving wheels in meters.
• Total torque referred to the motor shaft is
a R Ft
Tt = , N-m. (21)
𝜂t
Where, 𝜂t is the efficiency of transmission.
• Torque per motor is given as
a R Ft
Tm = , N-m. (22)
𝜂1 N
Where, N is the number of motors.
item When deciding
Traction Drives motor rating, the maximum gradient is allowed while laying 16 / 22
Specific Energy Consupmtion

• An estimate of energy required to operate train is needed so that running expenses
can be calculated.
• To facilitate these calculations the term specific energy consumption has been
defined as the energy consumed in watt-hours per tonne of train weight and per
kilometer of distance travelled.
• The energy output at the driving axles is pent to:
(i) Accelerate the train.
(ii) Overcome the gradient.
(iii) Overcome the train resistance.
• (i) Energy output at the driving axles to accelerate the train (Ea ): Assuming
trapezoidal speed-time curve of Fig. 2.
Ea = Fa in newtons × Distance travelled during acceleration (AE) in meters
= Fa × Area of triangle ABE

1 Vm × 1000 Vm 1 2
= 277.8 Me 𝛼 × = 0.01072 Vm Me , Wh. (23)
2 3600 𝛼 3600

• (ii) Energy output at the driving axles to overcome the gradient (Eg ):
Eg = Fg in newtons × D1 × 1000. (24)
Where, D1 is the distance in km for which the power remains on.

• From the trapezoidal curve, this distance is AF which is equal to the area ABCF .
Thus,
9.81 M G × 1000 D1
Eg = , Wh
3600
= 2.725 M G D1 , Wh. (25)
Distance D1 = D − Distance FD

1 Vm Vm
= D − × , km. (26)
2 3600 𝛽
• (iii) Energy output at the driving axles to overcome the train resistance (Er ):
Er = Fr in newtons × D1 × 1000, Ws
1000 r M D1
= = = 0.2778 r M D1 , Wh. (27)
3600
• Total energy output at the driving axles (Et )
Et = Ea + Eg + Er
2
= 0.01072 Vm Me ± 2.725 M G D1 + 0.2778 r M D1 , Wh. (28)
• Specific energy output in Wh per tonne per km = Et
MD
, Whptpkm.
2
0.01072 Vm Me D D
= ± 2.725 G 1 + 0.2778 r 1 , Whptpkm. (29)
D M D D
• Specific energy consumption is given as
Specific energy output

E0 = . (30)
𝜂
Where, 𝜂 is the efficiency of transmission and motor.
• When regenerative braking is used, energy regenerated is fed back to the source,
thus reducing specific energy consumption.

• The energy output at the driving axle Eb as follows:
Eb = − 0.01072 Vb2 Me ± 2.725 M G ( D − D1 ) + 0.2778 M r ( D D1 ) , Wh.
(31)
Where, Vb is the initial speed during braking, + ve sign is for uo-gradient and −
ve for down gradient (for second term on right side only).
• Assuming transmission system and motor efficiency to be the same during motoring
and braking
Et
Energy consumption = − 𝜂 Eb . (32)
𝜂
• Specific energy consumption
′ ( Et /𝜂) − 𝜂 Eb
E0 = (33)
MD
𝜂 Eb
= E0 − . (34)
MD
• Maximum Allowable Tractive Effort
• The maximum tractive effort that can be applied without wheel slip
Fm = 9.81 𝜇 ( 1000 Md ) = 9810 𝜇 Md , N. (35)
Where, 𝜇 is the coefficient of adhesion and Md is the adhesive weight or weight
on the driving wheels.
References

2002.




Edition, 2000.
Thank You
Traction Motors
Traction Drives
Lecture-23

February 17, 2024
Traction Motors
1 Traction Motors
Traction Motors
Motors Employed in Traction
• Earlier, dc series motor was widely used in traction.

• It has high starting torque and capability for high torque overloads.
• With an increase in torque, the flux also increases → therefore for the same
increase in torque, the increase in motor current is less compared to other motors.
• Thus, during heavy torque overloads, power overload on the source and thermal
overloading of the motor is kept limited to reasonable values.
• The motor speed-torque characteristic is also suitable for better sharing of loads
between motors.
• Further, due to a large inductance in the field, sharp fluctuations in supply voltage
do not produce sharp peaks in armature current.
• Thus, the motor commutation remains satisfactory, which does not happen in
a separately excited motor unless an additional inductance is connected in the
armature circuit.
Traction Motors
• With the availability of semiconductor converters, a separately excited motor is

now preferred over the series motor.
• With independent control of armature and field, the speed-torque characteristic of
a separately excited motor can be shaped to satisfy the traction requirements in
the optimum manner.
• Further, because of the low regulation of its speed-torque characteristics, the
coefficient of adhesion has higher value.
• Series motor has a number of limitations.
• The field of a series motor cannot be easily controlled by semiconductor switches.
• If field control is not employed, the series motor must be designed with its speed
equal to the highest desired speed of the drive.
• The higher base speeds are obtained using fewer field winding turns.
• However, this reduces the torque per ampere at the start and, therefore, acceleration.
Traction Motors
• Further, there are a number of problems with regenerative and dynamic brakings
of a series motor.
• On the other hand, regenerative and dynamic brakings of a separately excited
motor are fairly simple and efficient, and can be carried out down to very low
speeds.
• Currently, compound motor is being preferred for traction applications as it
incorporate the advantages of both series and separately excited motors.
• Due to the availability of reliable variable frequency semiconductor inverters,
squirrel-cage induction motor,s and synchronous motors are now finding applica-
tions in traction.
• Because of a number of advantages associated with these motors, they are likely
to replace dc motors for traction applications.
Traction Motors
• Advantages of squirrel-cage induction motors over dc motors → ruggedness,

lower maintenance, better reliability, lower cost, weight, volume and inertia,
higher efficiency, and ability to operate satisfactorily with sharp supply voltage
fluctuations and in dirty environment.
• Drawback of dc motor → the presence of commutator and brushes, which require
frequent maintenance, particularly when the flashovers at the commutator occur
due to sharp voltage fluctuations.
• In terms of advantages mentioned for squirrel-cage motor in comparison with dc
motors, the synchronous motor lies in-between the two and has one important
advantage over the squirrel-cage induction motor, that it can be operated at the
leading power factor.
• Thus, permitting the use of load-commutated thyristor inverter which is cheaper
and occupies less volume and weight compared to forced commutated thyristor
inverter required by induction motors.
• The weight and volume of an induction motor drive can also be kept low by
using GTO (gate turn-off thyristor) inverter, but is more expensive than a load-
commutated thyristor inverter.
Traction Motors
Traction Motor Control

• Operation of a dc separately excited motor for traction applications can be divided
into three regions.
• First two are identical, i.e. constant torque and power regions.
• In constant torque region, from zero to base speed, the field current is maintained
constant at the rated value and the armature voltage is controlled.
• In constant power region, which is carried out above base speed, the armature
voltage is maintained constant at the rated value and field current is controlled.
• In both these regions, the armature current is allowed to reach rated value on a
continuous basis.
• The limit of constant power operation is reached when a decrease in field current
to increase motor speed leads to sparking at the brushes at the rated armature
current.
• The motor is said to reach the commutation limit. Operation at higher speeds
(and lower field currents) can now be carried out by progressively decreasing the
maximum allowable armature current.
• This is the third region of operation in which the available output power of the
motor progressively decreases with the increase in speed.
Traction Motors
Traction Motor Control

• Traction motor can be operated in third region because the torque required at high
speeds is much less compared to the accelerating torque.
• The form of third region is determined by whether or not the motor is compensated
and the type of power modulator. For a non-compensated motor, the ratio of
maximum allowable armature current to field current is maintained constant.
• In a compensated motor, the maximum allowable armature current is varied
inversely with speed.
• A compensated machine is always preferred because it allows greater degree of
field weakening and therefore, higher maximum speed.
• The variable frequency controlled squirrel-cage induction motors are also operated
in three identical regions.
• Constant torque region from standstill to base speed with a constant V/f ratio
and a constant maximum allowable stator current; constant power region from
base speed to the speed at which breakdown torque limit is reached, here V and
maximum allowable stator current are constant.
• For higher speeds the motor operates in the third region where maximum allowable
current is reduced inversely with speed, thus ensuring that the motor torque does
not exceed its breakdown value.
Traction Motors
Conventinonal dc and ac Traction Drives

The dc Traction Drives Employing Resistance Control:
• The following dc traction drives employing resistance control were in use in India:
• (i) 1500 V dc traction on Bombay-Igatpuri-Pune section for main line and Bombay
suburban service.
• (ii) 750 V dc traction in underground trains at Calcutta.
• (iii) 550 V dc traction in Calcutta tramways.
• Each motor coach of 1500 and 750 V dc tractions have four dc series motors
with voltage ratings of 750 and 375 V, respectively; two motor are permanently
connected in series.
• Similar connection is used in locomotives for 1500 V main line dc traction.
• The 550 V dc traction of Calcutta tramways use two do series motors each rated
550 V.
• Basic control scheme for all these drives is essentially the same.
• When four motors are used, two motors are permanently connected in series to
form one pair.
• Thus, the drive will have two pairs each having two motors permanently connected
in series.
Traction Motors
The dc Traction Drives Employing Resistance Control
Figure 1. dc Series motor traction drive with resistance control: (a) control from zero to half of base speed;
(b) control from half to full of hase speed and (c) operation at base speed.
Traction Motors
• Starting, speed control and torque control up to base speed is carried out with the
help of contactor-controlled sectionalised resistors.
• At start both motor-pairs are connected in series with the sectionalised resistors in
series as shown in Fig. 1 (a).
• As the train accelerates resistor-sections are cut out one by one so as to limit the
starting current within prescribed maximum and minimum limits.
• When all sections of resistance controller are cut out, the motor speed will be
nearly half of the base speed.
• For further acceleration, the two motor pairs are connected in parallel with the
sectionalised resistor in series with each of them (Fig. 1 (b)).
• The resistor-sections are now cut out, one by one to limit the current within
prescribed maximum and minimum limits.
Traction Motors
• When all resistor sections are cut out (Fig. 1 (c)), motors will be running around
the base speed.
• Speeds higher than base speeds are obtained by field control. For changing the
field current, diverter resistors are connected in parallel with field windings.
• Different steps of control for a motor coach with two motors is obtained when
each pair in Fig. 1 is replaced by one motor.
• During transition from series to parallel connection closed circuit transition has to
be applied, because it is not desirable to break such a high current.
• Further, the sudden change of current at the time of opening and reconnection will
produce step change in torque, causing discomfort to passengers and increasing
tendency for wheel slip.
• To avoid this, closed circuit transition is used.
Traction Motors

2A 4A 6A
1L
1S 1B
2B
3L
2S
1A 3A 5A
Figure 2. Resistance control of dc traction drive with bridge transition.

• Fig. 2 shows the closed circuit transition using what is known as bridge circuit
transition.
• Different steps of control are: (i) close IL, IS and 2S, which connects both motor
pairs 1 and 2 in series with sectionalized resistors RI and R2;
(ii) close progressively 1A to 6A, now motor speeds are nearly half of base speed;
(iii) close 1B;
(iv) open IS and IA to 6A;
(v) close 21. and 2B;
(vi) open IB, this connects two motor pairs with a sectionalized resistance in series
with each, in parallel; without opening motors armature and field circuits.
(vi) close contacts IA-2A, 3A-4A and SA-6A in pairs successively.
• This connects two motor pairs in parallel and starting process is completed.
Traction Motors

• For dynamic braking, the supply is switched off, fields are reversed and
sectionalised resistors are connected across each motor pair.
• The motors work as self-excited generators.
• As the train decelerates, resistor’s sections are cut out one by one to maintain
good braking torque.
• As the braking ceases at a finite speed, mechanical brakes are applied to stop
the train During dynarnic braking, larger resistance is required than during
starting.
• Therefore, additional sectionalised resistor is employed along with starting
resistor.
• Dynamic braking is not always used.
• For example, in India while underground trains in Calcutta use dynamic braking
but not the trains of 1500 V dc traction in Bombay.
• The torque control during motoring and braking is realised by changing the
value of armature circuit resistance.
• Additional features are incorporated for smooth acceleration of the train.
• The first few steps during starting are chosen such that the current, and
therefore, torque is build up in small steps to avoid any jerk.
Traction Motors
• These steps may be implemented based on the values of dl /dt , whereas later steps
are based on the value of I .
• As a number of operations are involved, it will be very tiring for the driver to carry
them out manually.
• Automatic controls using contactors and servo drives are used to simplify the job
of the driver.
• The above dc traction schemes have several disadvantages. Prominent among
these are:
• (i) Low efficiency due to resistance control.
• (ii) Poor adhesion due to: (a) step change in torque and (b) more drooping
speed-torque curves because of resistance control.
• (iii) Frequent maintenance due to large number of moving contacts.
• (iv) Unless very large sections are used in the starting and braking resistances,
average accelerating and decelerating torques are substantially lower compared to
the maximum torque the motors can produce.
• This slows down the average speed of a suburban train.
Traction Motors
The 25 kV, 50 Hz ac Traction Using On-Load Transformer Tap Changer

Filter
Ld
25 kV
50 Hz D1 D2
ac
D4 D3
Diode Traction
Transformer
bridge motors
with taps
Figure 3. 25 kV, 50 Hz ac traction using transformer with tap changer.
• This scheme has been used both for main line and suburban trains.
Traction Motors
• A step-down transformer reduces the voltage from 25 kV to a suitable value.

• The secondary winding is provided with tappings.
• An on-load tape changer is used to vary the taps on transformer without volatge
surges.
• A diode rectifier bridge converts ac to dc and through smoothing reactor Ld
feeds dc series traction motors, which are connected in appropriate series-parallel
combinations.
• Usually a locomotive with four motors will have series-parallel connection as
shown in Fig. 3.
• The tendency for wheel slip will be lowest when all motors are connected in
parallel, but then the transformer secondary current rating will be the highest.
• On the other hand, the transformer current rating will be the lowest and the
tendency for wheel slip will be highest when all four motors are connected in
series.
• The connection of Fig. 3 provides a compromise between the two contradictory
requirements.
Traction Motors
• The smoothing reactor Ld may be divided into four sections, one in series with
each traction motor, so that in the event of a motor fault, a high impedance is in
the circuit and motor protection is simplified.
• For starting, and speed and torque control up to base speed, the motor terminal
voltage is varied by changing taps on the transformer.
• The speed control above base speed is obtained by connecting a diverter resistor
in parallel with the field of each motor.
• Braking is generally provided by mechanical brakes. Dynamic braking has also
been used.
• For this, motors have been connected as separately excited generators.
• Fixed braking resistors are connected across the armatures of each motor.
• The fields of all motors are connected in series across an auxiliary dc generator
driven by an auxiliary induction motor.
• The current through the motor fields is controlled by controlling the field current
of the auxiliary dc generator.
Traction Motors

• As the motor decelerates under braking, the motor field current is increased to
maintain a specified current through the motor armature.
• The tap-changer may have 20 to 40 taps. Varying them manually can be very
tiring for the driver.
• Therefore, the tap changer control has to be automatic. Contactors and servo
drives are used to realize automatic control of the tap-changer.
It has the following advantages over dc drives employing resistance control:
• (i) Higher efficiency as the starting, speed and torque control are done by varying
armature voltage instead of armature resistance.
• (ii) Better adhesion because with armature voltage control, the motor speed-torque
characteristics are less drooping compared to armature resistance control.
• (iii) In underground trains, one is forced to use low voltage due to limited space
available between the train and the tunnel.
• No such restriction is applicable to over-ground traction.
• In the case of dc traction, the maximum transmission voltage depends on the
number of motors in series and their voltage rating because no simple means were
available for stepping down the dc voltage.
Traction Motors

• As the dc motor voltage rating because of commutator is restricted to 750 V dc
and since two motors are permanently connected in series, the dc transmission
voltage is chosen as 1500 V.
• In ac transmission, as the voltage can be stepped down easily and efficiently by
a transformer, it is possible to use 25 kV voltage for transmission.
• Because of the much higher transmission voltage, the cost of transmission and
power loss in transmission is much lower in 25 kV ac traction than in 1500 V dc
traction.
• Because of high cost, 1500 V de traction is not used in the new installation.
• Although because of the prohibitive cost of replacement it continues to be there
wherever it was installed prior to the development of 25 kV ac traction.
The 25 kV ac traction using transformer with tap changer has following limitations:
• (i) Due to a larger number of moving contacts and parts, the tap changer requires
frequent maintenance and is susceptible to frequent failures and fire hazards.
• (ii) As the motor voltage is controlled in steps, adhesion is poor and maximum
accelerating torque is lower than with stepless control using semiconductor
converters.
Traction Motors
References

2002.




Edition, 2000.
Traction Motors
Thank You
25 KV ac Traction using Semiconductor Converter Controlled dc Motors Ployphase ac Motors for Traction Drives
Traction Drives
Lecture-24

February 17, 2024
1 25 KV ac Traction using Semiconductor Converter Controlled dc Motors
2 Ployphase ac Motors for Traction Drives
25 KV ac Traction using Semiconductor Converter Controlled dc Motors

Filter
Ld
T1 D1
T2 D2
Figure 1. Drive of a shunting locomotive of 25 kV, ac traction with thyristor converter.
• The simplest arrangement consists of a half-controlled converter feeding dc series

traction motors is shown in Fig. 1.
• Such an arrangement used in low power shunting locomotives.
• Limitations → (i) at low output voltages the converter power factor is low.
(ii) the source current with square wave shape is rich in harmonics.
• The rapid changes at the leading and trailing edges of the source current cause
sharp harmonic disturbances in the supply network and telecommunication lines.
• The frequency range of harmonics is determined by the steepness of these edges,

and their amplitudes by the magnitude of the step.
• Because of the low power rating of a shunting locomotive, the poor power factor,
harmonics and harmonic disturbances have only marginal effect on the supply
network and telecommunication lines.
• Therefore, such a simple arrangement (Fig. 1) is found acceptable.
• In case of suburban and main line trains power rating is large, consequently the
adverse effects of the poor power factor, harmonics and harmonic disturbances on
the supply network and telecommunication lines are unacceptable.
• To overcome these limitations, multistage converters, which are operated with

sequence control, are used to feed the armatures of traction motors.

Two stage half-
controlled converter
Field supply
converter
Conver
is ter-II F2
es A1 A2
F1
va
vs
Conver
es A4 A3
ter-I F4 F3
Field supply
A1 to A4 : Motor armatures
F1 to F4 : Motor fields
Figure 2. 25 kV ac traction employing two-stage converter feeding four separately excited motors. Field
supply is from a single-stage converter.

• Two forms of two-stage converters are shown in Figs. 2 and 4.
• The two-stage converter of Fig. 2 uses two half-controlled converters connected
in series.
• A transformer with two identical secondaries feeds the half-controlled converters.
• For dc output voltage from 0 to half, only converter I is controlled and converter
II is bypassed by its diodes.
• Fig. 3 (a) shows the waveforms of dc output voltage and the source current for the
converter I firing angle 𝛼1 = 90◦ .
• At half of full-output voltage, 𝛼1 = 0◦ .
• For the output voltage between half and full, 𝛼I is retained at 0◦ and the firing
angle of converted II is controlled between 180 and 0◦ .
• Fig. 3 (b) shows the converter output voltage and source current waveforms for
𝛼I = 0 and 𝛼II = 90◦ .
• The jump in source current is now reduced to half compared to the single stage
converter of Fig. 1.
• Considerable reduction in reactive power, leading to improvement in power factor
is obtained.
(a) (b)
Figure 3. The two-stage converter waveforms at (a) 0.25 and (b) 0.75 per unit output voltages.
• A comparison of reactive power at rated motor current is shown in Fig. 5 for

single-stage and two-stage control.
• Field supply, as shown in Fig. 2, is obtained from single-stage half-controlled
converter.
• The operation, waveforms and performance of the converter of Fig. 4 are identical
to the converter of Fig. 2.
• The series circuit of Fig. 2 requires devices which will withstand half the circuit
voltage, but then it requires a transformer with two secondary windings.
• The converter of Fig. 4 requires only a single center-tapped secondary winding,
but the devices have to withstand full circuit voltage.
• In main line traction several pairs of two series connected motors are employed
(Fig. 2), consequently the converter output voltage falls in the range of 1000 to
1500 V dc.
• The converter of Fig. 2 is found to be more economical for this application.
Single stage
T1 D1
Reactive power
T3
Two stage
dc motors
T2 D2 T4
0 0.5 1.0
Source side converter Per unit converter output voltage
Figure 4. Alternative two stage converter circuit. (field Figure 5. Reactive power at rated motor current for
connections are not shown) single and two-stage converters.

• In some EMU (suburban) applications all motors are connected in parallel.
• Therefore, the converter output voltage is in the range of 500 to 750 V dc.
• The converter of Fig. 4 is found to be more economical for this application. This
is for two stage converters.
• Performance can be improved further by increasing the converter stages beyond
two.
• Converters up to four stages have been reported. However, the benefits gained in
adding each stage diminishes as the number of stages is increased beyond two.
• In practice, the use of more than two stages becomes uneconomical because of the
proportionate increase in the number of devices and transformer secondaries.
• In Fig. 2, four separately excited motors are shown. The number of motors
depends on ratings and they are connected in different combinations depending on
application and manufacturer’s preferences.
• EMUs (electrical multiple units) in Madras suburban trains employ four series
motors connected in two parallel pairs with each pair having two series connected
motors.
• A 4000 HP locomotive designed by BHEL uses six series motors connected to
form three parallel pairs with each pair having two motors in series.
• For EMU (suburban trains) converters, which are relatively low power rating
(around 1500 KVA), it has been found that the simple two stage converter of Fig.
2 requires no additional steps to reduce harmonics and improve power factor.
• However, this is not the case with the more powerful converters required for
locomotives.
• For locomotives, harmonic filter is connected at the input terminals of each
converter to reduce harmonics, both low frequency and high frequency, to prevent
interference with telecommunication lines and track circuit and to reduce harmonic
disturbance in the supply network.
• Thyristor switched capacitors with two stages are employed to ensure that the
power factor does not fall below 0.8.
• Such a scheme has been used in Hitachi Locomotive.
• Recent trend has been to use gate turn-off thyristors (GTOs) instead of thyristors
and to operate the converter with an appropriate pulsewidth modulation technique.
• This operation allows the converter operation at unity fundamental power factor
throughout and simplifies the harmonic filter design but reduces efficiency.
• In order to obtain smooth acceleration and good adhesion, both in locomotives

and EMUs, the converter is operated with closed-loop current control.
• A master controller sets the current reference which is compared with the actual
converter output current.
• The error is used to adjust the converter firing angles so that the actual current is
maintained equal to the reference current throughout the accelerating range.
• An additional loop may be provided for limiting maximum acceleration.
• This avoids jerks and consequent inconvenience to the passengers.
• As the torque during acceleration is controlled steplessly, high acceleration and
good adhesion are obtained.
• Wheel-slip control may be easily incorporated here by having provision for master
controller to set the current reference to zero whenever the wheel-slip is detected.
• Because of flexible control many other features can be easily incorporated such as
complete automatic control and fault detection.
• Programmable logic controllers, microprocessors or microcomputers can be
utilized for this purpose.
• Dynamic braking can be incorporated in both separately excited and series excited
motors.
• In case of separately excited motors, fixed resistors are connected across the
armature and converter is disconnected.
• The braking torque is controlled by controlling the field current. Controlling the
field current is not a problem because fields are in any case fed from controlled
rectifiers.
• For dynamic braking, series motors are also connected for separate excitation.
• Field windings connected in series are fed from one of the converters and the
converter is supplied by another step-down transformer with low output voltage,
because of the low resistance of field windings.
• Fixed resistors are connected across the armature. Braking torque is controlled by
controlling the field current.
• Braking performance with field current control and fixed resistors across armatures
is inferior compared to control with full field and switched (or sectionalised)
resistors across the armature.
• Theoretically regenerative braking can be used by replacing half controlled

converters of Fig. 2 by fully controlled converters.
• But it is generally not used because of two problems:
• (a) A thyristor converter uses line voltage for commutation. The commutation
failure can occur during braking due to following:
(i) loss of supply,
(ii) pantograph contact bounce or
(iii) while passing through neutral sections.
Then thyristors conduct continuously giving a short circuit both on ac and dc
terminals. This problem is overcome when thyristors are replaced by GTOs (gate
turn-off thyristors).
• (b) Cost of the locomotive and transmission equipment increases, because with
regenerative braking their voltage ratings go up by 10 to 15 %.
1 25 KV ac Traction using Semiconductor Converter Controlled dc Motors
2 Ployphase ac Motors for Traction Drives
Ployphase ac Motors for Traction Drives

ωm
ω mc2
ω mc1
ω mb
Braking Motoring
0 T
Figure 6. Modes of operation of ac motors with variable frequency control.

• Advantages of ac motors over dc motors → less maintenance, ruggedness and
higher power per unit weight or volume.
• Hence, the squirrel-cage induction motor is ideally suitable for traction applications.
• The synchronous motor has also been employed in the traction drives because of
the higher 𝜂, simpler and low-cost inverter compared to an induction motor.
• Variable frequency control is used both for induction motor and synchronous
motor.
• Fig. 6 shows the modes of operation employed for variable frequency control of
an induction motor.
• From zero to the base speed 𝜔mb , the motor is accelerated at a constant torque, by
keeping the V /f ratio constant and increasing it at low speeds.
• Above the base speed, the motor accelerates in the constant power mode with a
constant V and variable f . At a critical speed 𝜔mc1 motor’s break-down-torque
limit is reached.
• ∴ motor power is gradually reduced by operating it with lesser and lesser stator
current.
• The figure also shows modes of motor operation during braking.
• From zero to a speed 𝜔mc2 motor is braked at a constant torque.
• Above 𝜔mc2 , the motor is braked at a decreasing braking torque so as to avoid
exceeding wheel to rail adhesion capability and to limit the peak power requirements
of the drive.
• Similar curves are obtained in the case of synchronous motor.
References

2002.




Edition, 2000.
Thank You
The dc Traction employing Polyphase ac Motors The ac Traction employing Polyphase ac Motors
Traction Drives
Lecture-25

February 17, 2024
1 The dc Traction employing Polyphase ac Motors
2 The ac Traction employing Polyphase ac Motors
The dc Traction employing Polyphase ac Motors
For 1500 V and 750 V dc tractions, following ac drives are widely used.
• (i) Pulsewidth Modulated (PWM) Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) Squirrel-cage

Induction Motor Drives.
• (ii) Load Commutated Inverter (LCI) Synchronous Motor Drives.
PWM Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) Induction Motor Drives

Filter
S
D Vc S1 S3 S5
RB
V
SB
S4 S6 S2
For dynamic
braking
Induction
motors
Figure 1. PWM VSI induction motor drive.

• PWM VSI induction motor drive for traction is shown in Fig. 1.
• A pulsewidth modulated voltage source inverter converts dc into variable frequency
and variable voltage ac, which is then fed to induction motors.
• Each motor coach of a suburban train may employ a single inverter feeding several
squirrel-cage motors connected in parallel.
• The inverter switches S1 to S6 may consist of self-commutated devices such as
GTO, power transistor or IGBT or a forced commutated thyristor.
• IGBT is the most suitable device for motor coaches.

• A locomotive, because of high power rating will employ a suitable number of
voltage source inverters, with each inverter feeding a suitable number of squirrel-
cage motors connected in parallel.
• GTOs are popular, although forced commutated thyristors have also been used in
the past.
• Because of PWM inverter, the drive has smooth acceleration.
• The regenerative braking is inherent in the sense that no additional equipment is
required to achieve it.
• If the inverter frequency is lowered to make synchronous speed less than the motor
speed, the drive operation shifts from motoring to regenerative braking.
• Whenever a possibility exists that regenerated energy may not be fully absorbed
by the source, a facility for dynamic braking is added by the incorporation of RA ,
SB , S and D.
• While regenerating, if the source is not able to absorb all the regenerated energy,
excess energy is absorbed by filter capacitor C and its voltage Vc rises.
• When Vc crosses a prescribed limit, S is opened to isolate the source from dc link
of the inverter and SB is closed to initiate dynamic braking.
The PWM VSI induction motor drive has the following advantages,
• (i) Smooth acceleration due to the absence of low-speed torque pulsations.
• (ii) Good adhesion due to fast dynamic response and absence of torque pulsations.
• (iii) Voltage source inverter is more suitable for multi-motor drives.
• (iv) Low weight, volume and cost.
• (v) Simpler control and efficient operation.
• (vi) Regenerative braking capability.
Drawbacks of this drive are

• The possibility of a shoot-through fault in the voltage source inverter.
• The inverter is designed carefully to prevent such a fault.
• Further, expensive fuses are used to protect the switches S1 to S6 against a
shoot-through fault.
Load Commutated Inverter Fed Synchronous Motor Drives
Two quadrant Load commutated

chopper inverter
Filter Ld
Commutation
circuit for low
T1 T3 T5 T7
speeds
V Vds Vdl T4 T6
C
T2
T8
Synchronous
motor
Figure 2. Load commutated inverter synchronous motor drive.
• The inverter is a current source inverter employing thyristors T1 -T6 .

• The commutation of the inverter thyristor is done by the voltages induced in the
armature of the synchronous motor.
• A chopper is used to obtain a variable dc voltage Vds from the fixed source voltage
V.
• The Vds is varied with Vdl so that a required current is supplied to the dc link, and
therefore, to the motor.
• During motoring, the power flows from the dc mains through the chopper, dc link
and inverter to the motor.
• When the inverter firing angle is changed from close to 180◦ to 0◦ , the voltage
Vdl reverses.
• If chopper operation is also changed to make Vds negative but less than Vdl in
magnitude, the power flows from the load through the machine, inverter and
chopper to the dc mains, giving regenerative braking operation.
• Here, the arrangement for dynamic braking is not shown, but it can be incorporated
in the same way as shown in Fig. 1.

• Armature induced voltages are too small to commutate inverter thyristors at low
speeds, including standstill.
• Thyristors T7 and T8 and capacitor C are used to commutate inverter thyristors at
low speeds.
• Around 10 % of the base speed gate pulses are withdrawn from T7 and T8 and the
load commutation is employed.
• Due to the presence of Ld inverter is essentially current source inverter.
• ∴ each traction motor is fed by its own inverter.
• Four such inverters will be required if there are four traction motors.
• Further, because of current source characteristics, the inverters can be connected
in series but not in parallel.
• Thus, when four traction motors are used one alternative will be to connect all
four inverters in series fed by a common chopper.
• Such a series connection will have an adverse effect on adhesion.
• Alternatively, one can connect two inverters in series, and each such series pair is
then fed by its own chopper.
This drive has the following features in comparison to PWM VSI induction motor
drive:
• (i) Because of an additional power stage (i.e., chopper), the converter efficiency is
lower, but the motor efficiency is higher
• (ii) Due to the presence of large inductance Ld , the drive has a slow dynamic
response giving inferior adhesion.
• Larger weight and volume.
• Each motor should have its own inverter and these inverters can be connected in
series but not in parallel.
• When large traction motors are involved the drive becomes expensive and complex.
The series connection also has an adverse effect on adhesion.
• Inverter is more reliable due to the absence of shoot-through fault.
• Because of torque pulsations produced by harmonics, the acceleration is not
smooth. This also has an adverse effect on adhesion.
1 The dc Traction employing Polyphase ac Motors
2 The ac Traction employing Polyphase ac Motors
The ac Traction employing Polyphase ac Motors
Following ac drives are widely used in 25 kV traction,
• (i) Current Source Inverter (CSI) Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor Drive.
• (ii) PWM Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor Drive.
• (iii) Load Commutated Inverter (LCI) Synchronous Motor Drive.
CSI Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor Drive
Filters and VAR Ld

compensator
Converters in sequence control

CSI IM
Vd Vd
CSI IM
Figure 3. CSI squirrel-cage induction motor drive.
• Fig. 3 shows the CSI squirrel-cage IM traction drive details.

• In a multistage converter ac is converted into dc with sequence control to improve
the converter power factor and to reduce the harmonics produced by it.
• Filters and static VAR compensators are used to maintain a power factor above 0.8
and to keep the harmonics within acceptable limits.
• Current source inverter (CSI) converts dc into variable frequency current, which
is then fed to the induction motor.
• Each motor is fed from a separate CSI.
• Since CSI are not suitable for parallel operation, they are connected in series.
• When four motors are employed, one alternative will be to connect all four inverters
in series, each feeding its own motor.
• A single converter in sequence control then feeds all four inverters.
• Another alternative will be to connect two inverters in series powered by one

sequence-controlled converter (Fig. 3).
• Two such pairs, each consisting of two inverters fed from one sequence-controlled
converter, are then supplied from a common transformer.
• At low speeds, pulse width modulation is sometimes employed to achieve a smooth
start.
• Regenerative braking capability is inherent in the drive.
• For this, inverter frequency is reduced to shift motor operation from motoring to
braking and the converter is operated as inverter.
Features of the drive

• (i) Bulky, heavy and expensive.
• (ii) Poor adhesion due to slow dynamic response and series connection.
PWM VSI Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor Drive
Braking
resistor VSI
Rb S1 S3 S5
Filter Vd
S4 S6 S2
B
Diode dc
bridge link
Induction
motors
Figure 4. PWM VSI squirrel cage IM drive with dynamic braking.
• The PWM VSI squirrel-cage motor tractions drive is shown in Fig. 4.

• dc link is supplied from ac source through a transformer and a diode rectifier.
• Because of the use of diode rectifier, regenerative braking is not possible, hence,
dynamic braking is employed.
• Operation of the drive is the same as that of the drive of Fig. 1 except that
regenerative braking is not possible.
• Circuit of Fig. 5 is a 1-phase SLC, and therefore, employs 1-phase PWM inverter.
• The inverter and inductor Ls , together form SLC.
• For producing a given value of Is , in phase with Vs , the PWM inverter produces an
ac input voltage V1 of given phase and magnitude, as shown in phasor diagrams of
Fig. 5 (b) and (c) for motoring and regenerative braking operations, respectively.
• During motoring operation, power flows from the source through SLC, dc link
and inverter into the motor.
• Here Is is in phase with VS and Vd and Id have polarities as shown in the Fig. 5.

SLC Id A
VSI
S1 S2
Rb
Is
Vx
Vd}
Vs V1
Filter
S3
S4
B
Control and
firing circuit
V*d
(a) Synchronous link converter
Is
Vs V1
θ
Vx Vx
θ
V1
Is Vs
(b) Motoring (b) Braking
Figure 5. SLC operation at unity power factor for motoring and regenerative braking operation.
• When machine operation is shifted to braking, Id reverses and Is has a phase of

180◦ with respect to Vs .
• ∴ power generated by motor flows through inverter, dc link and SLC to ac supply,
giving regenerative braking.
• As the power supplied to the dc link is independent of power taken from it, a
closed loop control of dc link voltage is used to balance the two (Fig. 5 (a)).
• A constant voltage across the dc link capacitor is obtained when the power supplied
to the dc link equals the power taken from it.
• Since the SLC works as a boost converter, the closed-loop control of dc link
voltage ensures that the torque and power capability of the drive remain unaffected
by a drop in source voltage.
• This SLC fed PWM VSI induction motor drive is the most widely used drive.
• ABB locomotive in Indian Railway has this drive.
• As compared to other ac motor drives employed in ac traction, it has the unique
advantages of high power factor, low harmonics in source current achieved with a
simple filter and ride-through capability against voltage sag and under voltages.
Load Commutated Inverter (LCI) Synchronous Motor Drive
• Features of the drive → high 𝜂, high-speed capability, and the ability for regenera-
tive braking.
• A traction drive is obtained when in Fig. 3 CSI are replaced by LCI and induction
motor by synchronous motor.
• LCI has the circuit shown in Fig. 2.
• As compared to the regenerative drive, this drive has a lower power factor and high
harmonic content unless heavy filtering and power factor correction are employed.
• French Railways TGV use this drive.
References

2002.




Edition, 2000.
Thank You
Numerical Problems
Numerical Problems on Dynamics of Electrical Drives
Tutorial-1

January 13, 2024
1 / 12
Numerical Problems
1 Numerical Problems
2 / 12
Numerical Problems
Numerical Problem-1
A motor drives two loads. One has rotational motion. It is coupled to the motor through
a reduction gear with a = 1 and an efficiency of 90 %. The load has a moment of
inertia of 10 kg − m2 and a torque of 10 N − m. Other load has translational motion
and consists of 1000 kg weight to be lifted up at a uniform speed of 1.5 m/s. Coupling
between this load and the motor has an efficiency of 85 %. Motor has an inertia of 0.2
kg − m2 and runs at a constant speed of 1420 pm. Determine equivalent inertia referred
to the motor shaft and power developed by the motor.
3 / 12
Numerical Problems
Solution-1
• The moment of inertia referred to the motor shaft is given as

2
v1
J = J0 + a21 J1 + M1 . (1)
𝜔m
• Here, J0 = 0.2 kg − m2 , a1 = 0.1, J1 = 10 kg − m2 , v = 1.5 m/s and

𝜔m = ( 1420 × 𝜋)/30 = 148.7 rad /s.
• From Eq. 1 gives,

2
1.5
J = 0.2 + ( 0.1) 2 × 10 + 1000 = 0.4 kg − m2 . (2)
148.7
• We know that,
a1 Tl1 F1 v1
Tl = + ′ . (3)
𝜂1 𝜂1 𝜔m
4 / 12
Numerical Problems
Solution-1
′
• Here, 𝜂1 = 0.9 , a1 = 0.1, Tl1 = 10 N − m, 𝜂 = 0.85, F1 = 1000 × 9.81 N ,
1
v1 = 1.5 m/s and 𝜔m = 148.7 rad /s.
• Substituting the parameters in Eq. 3,

0.1 × 10 1000 × 9.81 1.5
Tl = + = 117.53 N − m. (4)
0.9 0.85 148.7
5 / 12
Numerical Problems
Numerical Problem-2
The drive has following parameters:

J = 10 kg − m2 , T = 100 − 0.1 N , N-m, Passive load torque Tl = 0.05 N , N-m,
Where N is the speed in rpm.
Initially the drive is operating in steady-state. Now, it is to be reversed. For this motor
characteristic changed to T = − 100 − 0.1 N, N-m. Calculate the time of reversal.
6 / 12
Numerical Problems
Solution-2
• For steady-state speed, T − Tl = 0.
100 − 0.1 N − 0.05 N = 0. (5)
N = −666.7 rpm. (6)

• When reversing, from Eq. T = Tl + J d 𝜔m
dt
.
d 𝜔m
J = −100 − 0.1 N − 0.05 N (7)
dt
dN 30
J = (− 100 − 0.1 N − 0.05 N ) = − 95.49 − 0.143 N (8)
dt J𝜋
∫ ∫ N2 dN
t = dt = . (9)
N1 95.49 − 0.143 N
Where, N1 = 666.7 rpm and N2 = 0.95 × − 0.666.7 = − 633.4 rpm.
• Integrating Eq. 9 yields t = 25.58 s.
7 / 12
Numerical Problems
Numerical Problem-3
A motor equipped with a flywheel is to supply a load torque of 1000 N-m for 10 s,
followed by a light load period of 200 N-m long enough for the flywheel to regain its
steady-state speed. It is desired to limit the motor torque to 700 N-m. What should be
the moment of inertia of the flywheel? The motor has an inertia of 10 kg − m2 . Its
no load speed is 500 rpm, and the slip at a torque of 500 N-m is 5 %. Assume the
speed-torque characteristic of the motor to be a straight line in the region of interest.
8 / 12
Numerical Problems
Solution-3
• We know that
 
Tr th
 
J = . (10)
 

(𝜔m0 − 𝜔mr )  log Tlh − Tmin 


 Tlh − Tmax 
• Here, the no-load is given as
500 × 2 𝜋
𝜔m0 = = 52.4 rad /s. (11)
60
• Speed at 500 N-m is given as
𝜔mr = ( 1 − 0.05) = 52.36 = 49.7 rad /s. (12)
• Now,
Tr 500
= = 190.8. (13)
(𝜔m0 − 𝜔mr ) ( 52.4 − 49.7)
9 / 12
Numerical Problems
Solution-3
• Substituting Tlh = 1000 N − m, Tmax = 700 N − m, Tmin = Tll = 200 N − m,

th = 10 s in Eq. 10,
 
10
 
J = 190.84   = 1871.8 kg − m2 . (14)
 

 log 1000 − 200 

 1000 − 700 
• Moment of inertia of the fly wheel is 17871.8 − 10 = 1861.8 kg − m2 .
10 / 12
Numerical Problems
References

2002.




Edition, 2000.
11 / 12
Numerical Problems
Thank You
12 / 12
Numerical Problems
Numerical Problems on Selection of Motor Power Rating
Tutorial-2

January 13, 2024
1 / 16
Numerical Problems
2 / 16
Numerical Problems
Numerical Problem-1
A motor operates on a periodic duty cycle in which it is clutched to its load for 10 min.
and declutched to run on no-load for 20 min. The minimum temperature rise is 40◦ C.
Heating and cooling time constants are equal and have a value of 60 min. When load is
declutched continuously the temperature rise is 15◦ C. Determine
(i) maximum temperature during the duty cycle, and
(ii) temperature when the load is clutched continuously.
3 / 16
Numerical Problems
Solution-1
• Since the motor is subjected to a periodic intermittent load, temperature at the end
of cycle will be the same as the beginning of cycle. We know that

𝜃 = 𝜃 ss 1 − e − t /𝜏 + 𝜃 1 e − t /𝜏 . (1)

𝜃 2 = 𝜃 ss 1 − e − 10/60 + 40 e − 10/60 (2)
𝜃 2 = 0.1535 𝜃 ss + 33.86. (3)
′
′
• (i) From Eq. 𝜃 = 𝜃 ss 1 − e − t /𝜏′ + 𝜃 2 e − t /𝜏 .

40 = 15 1 − e − 20/60 + 𝜃 2 𝜃 − 20/60 , (4)
which gives, 𝜃 2 = 49.9◦ C.
• (ii) Substituting value of 𝜃 2 in Eq. 3 gives
𝜃 ss = 104.5◦ C. (5)
4 / 16
Numerical Problems
Numerical Problem-2
A rolling mill driven by a thyristor converter-fed dC motor operates on a speed-reversing

duty cycle. Motor field current is maintained constant at the rated value. The moment
of inertia referred to the motor shaft is 10,000 kg-m2 . Duty cycle consists of the
following intervals:
(i) Rolling at full speed (200 rpm) and at a constant torque of 25,000 N-m for 10 s.
(ii) No load operation for 1 s at full speed.
(iii) Speed reversal from 200 to -200 rpm in 5 s.
(iv) No load operation for 1 s at full speed.
(v) Rolling at full speed and at a torque of 20,000 N-m for 15 s.
(vi) No load operation at full speed for 1 s.
(vii) Speed reversal from -200 to 200 rpm in 5 s.
(viii) No load operation at full speed for 1 s.
Determine the torque and power ratings of the motor.
5 / 16
Numerical Problems
Solution-2
• Since in a dc motor, at constant field current T ∝ Ia , torque rating can be evaluated
by determining the rms value of torque.
d𝜔
Torque during reversal = J (6)
dt
[ 200 − (−200)] × ( 2 𝜋/60)
= 10000 = 83776 N-m.
5
√︄
250002 × 10 + ( 837762 × 5) 2 + 200002 × 15
Trms = = 47686 N-m.
39
(7)
• Maximum torque 83776 N-m is only 1.76 times Trms .
• If motor rating is chosen to be 47686 N-m, the maximum current will be only 1.76
times the rated current.
• In a dc motor twice the rated current can always be allowed during transient
operation.
• ∴ motor can be rated equal to Trms . Thus, motor torque rating is given as
Trated = 47686 N-m. (8)
200
Power rating = 47686 × × 2 𝜋 = 998.7 kW. (9)
60
6 / 16
Numerical Problems
Numerical Problem-3
A constant speed drive has the following duty cycle:

(i) Load rising from 0 to 400 kW : 5 min.
(ii) Uniform load of 500 kW : 5 min.
(iii) Regenerative power of 400 kW returned to the supply : 4 min.
(iv) Remains idel for : 2 min.
Estimate power rating of the motor. Assume losses to be proportional to (power)2 .
7 / 16
Numerical Problems
Solution-3
• Rated power = rms value of power Prms .
• Now, the rms value of power in the given interval of 5 min.

√︄
∫ 5 2
1 400 400
P1 = dx = √ kW. (10)
5 0 5 3
v
u
t 2
400
√ × 5 + 5002 × + 4002 × 4
2
Prms = = 367 kW. (11)
16
• Since Pmax = 500 kW is less than two times Prms , motor rating = 367 kW.
8 / 16
Numerical Problems
Numerical Problem-4
A motor has a heating time constant of 60 minutes and cooling time constant of 90 min.
When run continuously on full load of 20 kW, the final temperature rise is 40◦ C.
(i) What load motor can deliver for 10 min if this is followed by a shut down period
long enough for it to cool?
(ii) If it is on an intermittent load of 10 min followed by 10 min shut down, what is
the maximum value of load it can supply during the on load period?
9 / 16
Numerical Problems
Solution-4
• As the constant and copper losses are not available separately, they are assumed
∝ (power)2 , and therefore 𝛼 is assumed to be zero.
• (i) When 𝛼 = 0, from Eq. 12, the overloading factor is
√︂
1 + 𝛼
K = −𝛼 (12)
1 − e − tr /𝜏
√︂ √︂
1 1
K = = = 2.55. (13)
1 − e − tr /𝜏 1 − e − 10/60
• Permitted load = 2.55 × 20 = 51 kW. (ii) From Eq. 14 for 𝛼 = 0.
√︄
1 − e − l ( tr /𝜏r )+( ts /𝜏s )
K = (𝛼 + 1) −𝛼 (14)
1 − e (− tr /𝜏r )
v
u
t
10 10
− 60 + 90
√︂
1 − e 0.2425
K = = = 1.257. (15)
1 − e − 10/60 0.1535
• Permitted load = 1.257 × 20 = 25.14 kW.
10 / 16
Numerical Problems
Numerical Problem-5
Half hour rating of a motor is 100 kW. Heating time constant is 80 min and the maximum
efficiency occurs at 70 % full load. Determine the continuous rating of the motor.
11 / 16
Numerical Problems
Solution-5
• Let P kW be the continuous rating of motor and pc the constant loss.

• Then at 0.7P , copper loass = constant loss pc .
2
P pc
At P copper loss = pc = (16)
0.7 P 0.49
pc pc
𝛼 = = = 0.49. (17)
pcu pc /0.49
• Substituting in Eq. 12,
√︂
1 + 0.49
K = − 0.49 = 2.0676. (18)
1 − e − 30/80
• ∴ the continuous rating = 100
2.0676
= 48.37 kW.
12 / 16
Numerical Problems
Numerical Problem-6
A thyristor converter-fed dc motor has the following specifications: Rated armature

current = 500 A, armature resistance =0.01 Ω. The drive operates on the following
duty cycle:
(i) Acceleration at twice the rated armature current for 10 s.
(ii) Running at full load for 10 s.
(iii) Deceleration at twice the rated armature current for 10 s.
(iv) Idling intervall.
The core loss is constant at 1 kW. If 𝛽 has a value of 0.5, determine the maximum
frequency of drive operation.
13 / 16
Numerical Problems
Solution-6
• Here, h i
Es = 10 ( 500 × 2) 2 × + 1000 = 110 kWs.
h i
p1s tr = ( 500) 2 × 0.01 + 1000 × = 35 kWs.
p1r = 5002 × 0.01 + 1000 = 3.5 kW.

1 + 𝛽 1 + 0.5
𝛾 = = = 0.75.
2 2
• Substituting in Eq. 19
Es + p1s tr + Eb = p1r (𝛾 tst + tr + 𝛾 tb + 𝛽 ts ) (19)
110 + 35 + 110 = 3.5 ( 0.75 × 10 + 10 + 0.75 × 10 + 0.5 ts )

ts = 95.7 s.
3600
fmax =
tst + tr + tb + ts
3600
fmax = = 28.64 per hour.
10 + 10 + 10 + 95.7
14 / 16
Numerical Problems
References

2002.




Edition, 2000.
15 / 16
Numerical Problems
Thank You
16 / 16
Numerical Problems
Numerical Problems on dc Motor Drives
Tutorial-3

February 1, 2024
1 / 17
Numerical Problems
2 / 17
Numerical Problems
Numerical Problem-1
A 220 V, 200 A, 800 rpm dc separately excited motor has an armature resistance of 0.06
Ω. The motor armature is fed from a variable voltage source with an internal resistance
of 0.04 Ω. Calculate the internal voltage of the variable voltage source when the motor
is operating in regenerative braking at 80 % of the rated motor torque and 600 rpm.
3 / 17
Numerical Problems
Solution-1
• Since the T ∝ Ia , motor armature current when regenerating
Ia2 = 0.8 × 200 = 160 A. (1)
E1 = 220 − 200 × 0.06 = 208 V . (2)

N2 600
E2 = E1 = × 208, = 156 V . (3)
N1 800
• Internal voltage of the variable voltage source is
= 156 − 160 ( 0.06 + 0.04) = 140 V . (4)
4 / 17
Numerical Problems
Numerical Problem-2
A 220 V dc series motor runs at 1000 from (clockwise) and takes an armature current of
100 A when driving a load with a constant torque. Resistances of the armature and field
windings are 0.05 Ω each. Now, the series motor is operated under dynamic braking at
twice the rated torque and 800 rpm. Calculate the value of braking current and resistor.
Assume linear magnetic circuit.
5 / 17
Numerical Problems
Solution-2
• Since
2 2
T1 = Kf Ia1 ; T2 = Kf Ia2 (5)
√︁ √
Ia2 = Ia1 T2 /T1 = 100 2 = 141.4 A.
E1 = Ke Ia1 N1 ; E2 = Ke Ia2 N2 (6)
I N
E2 = a2 × 2 × E1 (7)
Ia1 N1
141.4 800
E2 = × ( 220 − 100 × 0.1) = 237.55 V .
100 1000
• Now,
E2 = Ia2 ( RB + 0.1) (8)
237.55 = 141.4 ( RB + 0.1)
RB = 1.58 Ω.
6 / 17
Numerical Problems
Numerical Problem-3
A 220 V, 970 rpm, 100 A dc separately excited motor has an armature resistance of
0.05 Ω. It is braked by plugging from an initial speed of 1000 rpm. Calculate
(a) resistance to be placed in armature circuit to limit braking current to twice the full
load value
(b) braking torque, and
(c) torque when the speed has fallen to zero.
7 / 17
Numerical Problems
Solution-3
• At 970 rpm,
E = 220 − 0.05 × 100 = 215 V . (9)
• At 1000 rpm,
1000
E = × 215 = 221.65 V . (10)
970
• (a) For plugging operation
E + V 221.65 + 220
RB + Ra = = = 2.21 Ω.
Ia 200
RB = 2.21 − 0.05 = 1.16 Ω. (11)
• (b) braking torque is
E × Ia 221.65 × 200
T = = = 423.3 N − m. (12)
𝜔m 1000 × 2 𝜋/60
• (c) At aero speed E = 0
V 220
Ia = = = 99.55 A. (13)
RB + Ra 2.21
• As T ∝ Ia ,
99.55
T = 423.3 × = 210.7 N − m. (14)
200
8 / 17
Numerical Problems
Numerical Problem-4
A 220 V, 500 A, 600 rpm separately excited motor has armature and field resistance
of 0.02 and 10 Ω, respectively. The load torque is given by the expression TL =
2000 − 2N, N − m, where N is the speed in rpm. Speeds below the rated are obtained
by armature voltage control and speeds above the rated are obtained by field control.
(i) Calculate motor terminal voltage and armature current when the speed is 450 rpm.
(ii) Calculate field winding voltage and armature current when the speed is 750 rpm.
9 / 17
Numerical Problems
Solution-4
• (i) At 450 rpm,
TL = 2000 − 2 × 450 = 1100 N − m. (15)

• At rated operation,
E1 = 220 − 500 × 0.02 = 210 V . (16)

• Rated torque is given as
E1 Ia1 210 × 500

T = = = 1671 N − m. (17)
𝜔m1 600 × 2 𝜋/60
• For a torque of 1100 N-m, Ia2 = 1100

1671
× 500 = 329 A.
• At 450 rpm,
450
E2 = × 210 = 157.5 V . (18)
600
V = E2 + Ia2 Ra = 157.5 + ( 329 × 0.02) = 164 V . (19)
10 / 17
Numerical Problems
Solution-4
• At 750 rpm,
TL = 2000 − 2 × 750 = 500 N − m. (20)
′
• At this operating point, let the flux and armature current be 𝜙′ and Ia ,
respectively. Then
′ ′
Ke 𝜙 Ia = 500 (21)
• From rated operation
210
Ke 𝜙 1 = = 3342. (22)
600 × 2 𝜋/60
• Further at 750 rpm,
′ 750
𝜔m = × 2 𝜋 = 78.54rad /s. (23)
60
′ ′ ′
V = Ke 𝜙 𝜔m + Ia Ra (24)
′ ′
220 = 78.54 Ke 𝜙 + 0.02 Ia
11 / 17
Numerical Problems
Solution-4
• Substituting from Eq. 21
500 ′
220 = 78.54 × ′ + 0.02 Ia (25)
Ia
′ ′
0.02 Ia 2 − 220 Ia + 39270 = 0. (26)
• This equation has solution 181.5 A and 21647 A. Ignoring the unfeasible value
gives
′
Ia = 181.5 A. (27)
• From Eq. 21
′ 500
Ke 𝜙 = = 2.755 (28)
181.5
Ke 𝜙 ′ 2.755
field voltage = 220 × = = 181.3 V . (29)
Ke 𝜙1 3.342
12 / 17
Numerical Problems
Numerical Problem-5
A 2-pole separately excited dc motor has the ratings of 220 V, 100 A and 750
rpm. Resistance of the armature is 0.1 Ω. The motor has two field coils which are
normally connected in parallel. It is used to drive a load whose torque is expressed
as TL = 500 − 0.3N , N-m where N is the motor speed in rpm. Speeds below and
above rated are obtained by armature voltage control and by connecting the two field
windings in series respectively.
(i) Calculate the motor armature current and speed when the armature voltage is reduced
to 110 V.
(ii) Calculate the motor speed and current when field coils are connected in series.
13 / 17
Numerical Problems
Solution-5
• At rated operation,
E1 = 220 − 100 × 0.1 = 210 V .
750
𝜔m1 = × 2 𝜋 = 25 𝜋 .
60
E1 250
Ke 𝜙 1 = K = = = 2.674. (30)
𝜔m1 25 𝜋
• (i) Let the motor speed and current be N2 and Ia2 , respectively.
N2 × 2 𝜋
E2 = K 𝜔m2 = 2.674 × = 0.28 N2
60
V = E2 + Ia2 Ra (31)
110 = 0.28 N2 + 0.1 Ia2 . (32)
• Since, T = TL
K Ia = 500 − 0.3 N (33)
2.674 Ia2 = 500 − 0.3 N2
500 = 0.3 N2 + 2.674 Ia2 . (34)
14 / 17
Numerical Problems
• Simutaneous solution of Eq. 32 and 34 gives
Ia2 = 148.9 A andN2 = 339.7 rpm. (35)
(ii) When filed coils are connected in series

2.674
K = = 1.337. (36)
2
• If armature current and speeds are Ia3 and N3
2𝜋
E3 = 1.337 N3 × = 0.14 N3 (37)
60
′
V = E3 + Ia3 Ra
220 = 0.14 N3 + 0.1 Ia3 (38)
• Since T = TL
1.337 Ia3 = 500 − 0.3 N3 (39)
500 = 0.3 N3 + 1.33 Ia3 . (40)
• Simultaneous solution of Eqs. 38 and 40 yields
Ia3 = 25.48 A andN = 15853.2 rpm. (41)
15 / 17
Numerical Problems
References

2002.




Edition, 2000.
16 / 17
Numerical Problems
Thank You
17 / 17

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Syllabus Textbooks/References Evaluation Pattern

Control of Electrical Drives

Dr. Sashidhar Sampathirao

January 13, 2024

Indian Institute of Technology Goa

Control of Electrical Drives 1/9

Control of Electrical Drives 2/9

Control of Electrical Drives 3/9

Control of Electrical Drives 4/9

Control of Electrical Drives 5/9

• Bimal K. Bose, “Modern Power Electronics and AC Drives,” Prentice-Hall, Inc.,

• Gopal K. Dubey, “Fundamentals of Electrical Drives”, 2nd Edition, Alpha Science

• D. W. Novotny, T. A. Lipo, “Vector Control and Dynamics of AC Drives,”

• R. Krishnan, “Electric Motor Drives - Modelling, Analysis and Control,” 1st

• Mohamed El-Sharkawi, “Fundamentals of Electric Drive,” CL- Engineering, 1st

Control of Electrical Drives 6/9

Control of Electrical Drives 7/9

Description Weightage of Marks (M)

Control of Electrical Drives 8/9

Control of Electrical Drives 9/9

Dynamics of Electrical Drives

Dr. Sashidhar Sampathirao

January 13, 2024

Indian Institute of Technology Goa

Dynamics of Electrical Drives 1 / 17

1 Fundamentals Torque Equations

3 Four Quadrant Operation of a Motor Driving a Hoist Load

Dynamics of Electrical Drives 2 / 17

Figure 1. Equivalent motor-load system.

• A motor generally drives a load (machine) through some transmission system.

Dynamics of Electrical Drives 3 / 17

Figure 1. Equivalent motor-load system.

• A motor generally drives a load (machine) through some transmission system.

• It is convenient to represent the motor load system by an equivalent rotational

• Here, J → moment of inertia of motor-load system referred to the motor shaft,

Dynamics of Electrical Drives 3 / 17

• Load torque includes friction and windage torque of motor.

• Motor-load system is described by the following fundamental torque equation,

Dynamics of Electrical Drives 4 / 17

• Load torque includes friction and windage torque of motor.

• Motor-load system is described by the following fundamental torque equation,

• For drives with constant inertia, ( dJ /dt ) = 0. Therefore,

Dynamics of Electrical Drives 4 / 17

• Drive accelerates or decelerates depending on whether 𝜏 is greater or less than 𝜏l .

Dynamics of Electrical Drives 5 / 17

• Drive accelerates or decelerates depending on whether 𝜏 is greater or less than 𝜏l .

• In drives requiring fast transient response → 𝜏 should be maintained at the highest

• During deceleration → J (d 𝜔m /dt ) is −ve sign.

Dynamics of Electrical Drives 5 / 17

1 Fundamentals Torque Equations

3 Four Quadrant Operation of a Motor Driving a Hoist Load

Dynamics of Electrical Drives 6 / 17

Speed Torque Conventions and Multiquadrant Operation

• Multiquadrant operation of drives → useful

Figure 2. Multiquadrant-operation of drives.

Dynamics of Electrical Drives 7 / 17

Speed Torque Conventions and Multiquadrant Operation

• Multiquadrant operation of drives → useful