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Core JAVA

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INTRODUCTION
  Introduction

  
Java Buzzwords
  
Installing JDK Sofware
  
class & object
  
keywords
  
Identifiers
  
Datatypes
  
Arrays
  
main method
 
command line arguments

Introduction
The early 1950 languages such as Fortran and Cobol are Specific purpose languages. The main drawback
with specific purpose languages is they are specific to a particular purpose. For example, Fortran is
meant for developing only scientific applications, and Cobol is meant for developing only business
oriented applications.
In early 1960s, the BCPL (Basic Combined Programming Language) language was developed for
developing all types of applications i.e., BCPL is a general purpose language. The drawbacks in BCPL are
solved with a new language called ‘B’. Even though ‘B’ is a general purpose language, it has its own
drawbacks. To solve these problems, a powerful, efficient, reliable language “C” was developed by
Dennis Ritche in 1972.
The ‘C’ language follows Structured Programming approach.
The main drawback with Structured Programming languages such as ‘C’ is its complexity increases once
the project size reaches a certain size.
To solve this problem, a new way to program was invented called Object Oriented Programming (OOP).
OOP programming methods helps us to organize (simplify) complex programs through Encapsulation,
Inheritance, and Polymorphism.
C++ was developed by Stroustrup in 1979.
Two main drawbacks with C++ language are : Platform dependent and won’t support Internet and
WWW.
To solve these problems, the James Gosling developed a new language called JAVA at sun Microsystems
in 1991, which is platform independent and supports WWW & Internet.
Java was initially called as “OAK” after he saw oak tree outside of his window at sun. Later he came to
know that the Language “OAK” already existed in the market. When a group of sun people visited a local
coffee shop, the name “JAVA” was suggested. Java is a slag term for coffee.

Java Buzzwords
The following are Java buzzwords:
1. Simple
2. Object Oriented

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3. Robust
4. Platform Independent
5. Portable
6. Multithreaded (Or Parallel Execution)
7. Distributed (Or Networking)
8. Secure
9. Dynamic

I. Simple
Java is a simple language because of the following reasons:

 C++ is evolved from C).
Java is syntactically related to C++ which is a direct decedent from C (i.e.,
Most of the syntax and characters are inherited from these two languages.

Some of the most confusing concepts in C/C++ are either left out of java or implemented in a
 cleaner way.
For example: Pointers are completely eliminated from java. The disadvantage with pointers are
overriding memory and corrupting data. In java, the memory management is implemented in a
cleaner way using Garbage Collector (GC)

II. Object Oriented

Java language follows Object Oriented Programming (OOP) paradigm.
The OOP principles are Encapsulation, Inheritance, and Polymorphism.
Every Program in java is an Object Oriented Program. Java is a fully object oriented language but not
pure object oriented language because of the existence of primitive data types. Small talk is a pure
object oriented language. Literally everything in smalltalk is an object.

III. Robust (Means Reliable)

Java is intended for writing reliable programs. Java provides Exception Handling mechanism which
puts lots of emphasis on early checking for possible errors and dynamic checking. Java automatically
handles Memory Management using Garbage collection. Java eliminates pointers.

IV. Platform Independent

Write once, Run on any platform, Any time, Forever. Java is a platform independent language
because of the bytecode. The compiled bytecode is common across all operating systems
(platforms).
The Java source files are compiled to a bytecode, where as C/C++ source files are directly compiled
to a native code.

Source code javac Byte code

(.java) (.class)
Java Compiler

Byte code java Native code

(.class) Java Interpreter 3
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V. Portable
The size of the primitive data types are fixed on all platforms.
Also, binary data is stored in a fixed format, eliminating the “big endian | Little Endian” confusion.

VI. Parallel Execution ( or Multithreading)

Reduces the execution time I,e., improves execution speed.

VII. Networking (Or Distributed)

Java has become one of the most popular language for N/W programming due to two salient
features: Platform independent & Multithreading.

VIII. Secure
Java provides several layers of protection from dangerous code, virus, Trojan horses. Java security
is provided from the Java Architecture itself. Also, Java security can be provided using security API.

IX. Dynamic
It was designed to adapt to an evolving environment.

Installaling JDK Softwares

Step#1: Download latest stable Java software from SUN website (http://java.sun.com).
Step #2: Install JDK software by double click on .exe file.
Step #3: The following folders are created in JAVA_HOME after installing JDK.
%JAVA_HOME%/bin
%JAVA_HOME%/demo
%JAVA_HOME%/include
%JAVA_HOME%/jre
%JAVA_HOME%/lib

Step #4: Set PATH, CLASSPATH, JAVA_HOME

Once after installing java software, we have to set JAVA_HOME, PATH, and CLASSPATH
environment variables. Though setting user defined environment variable JAVA_HOME is optional,
but it is recommended to set.
Environment Description Remark
JAVA_HOME Should set to java home directory where It is a user defined
java is installed. environment variable.
PATH Should set to Java Resources folder (i.e., bin) It is a system environment
CLASSPATH Should set to java class It is a system environment
files(%JAVA_HOME%/jre/lib/rt.jar). variable.

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class and object

A class is a template or blueprint.
Syntax:
<class modifiers> class <class name> [extends clause] [implements clause]{
[field declarations]
[constructor declarations]
[method declarations]
}

The UML (Unified Modeling Language) notation for the class is:
<class name>
<fields>

<Methods>

Example:
class Box{ Box
//Field declaration int Width;
int width; int height;
int height;
int depth;
int depth;
//Constructor
Box(int, int, int)
Box(int w, int h, int d){
in volume()
width = w;
height = h;
depth=d;
}
//Method declaration
int volume(){
return width*height*depth;
}
}

object
Instance of a class is called as an object. In java, object is created using ‘new’ keyword.
The object creation process involves following three steps:
  
Declaring reference variable
  
Construction an object using ‘new’ keyword.
 
Assigning Reference value (address) to reference variable.
Example:
Box b = new Box(1,2,3);

The fields of a class is also called as attribute, properties, instance variable, or data member.
The methods of a class is also called as behavior, operation, instance method, or method member.
The data member and method member of a class is called as member of a class.
The new keyword creates an object and returns the reference value to the reference variable.

Keywords
The keyword has a predefined meaning in the programming language.
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In jdk1.6, there are 50 keywords and 3 reserved literals.

The below table summaries keyword category for our better understanding:
Category Keywords No_Of_Keywords
Keywords for Primitive byte, short, int, long, float, double, char, boolean, void 9
data type
Keywords for Control if, else, switch, case, default, while, do, for, break, continue, 11
flow return
Keywords for Exception try, catch, finally, throw, throws, assert 6
handling
Keywords for Modifiers private, protected, public, final, static, abstract, interface, 12
strictfp, native, transient, volatile, synchronized
class related keywords class, extends, implements, package, import, enum 6
Object related new, this, super, instanceof 4
Unused keywords const, goto 2

The new keyword added in jdk1.5 is: enum.

The new keyword added in jdk1.4 is: assert.
The new keyword added in jdk1.2 is: strictfp.

Identifiers
The name in a program is called an Identifier. Identifier is a sequence of characters. Identifiers are the names
of the variables, methods, classes, packages, interfaces, arrays, enumerations, labeled names, etc.
Example:
class Welcome{
public static void main(String[]
args){ int age = 10;
System.out.println(“Welcome program”);
}
}

Datatypes
In java, the data types are grouped into two categories:
  Primitive types

  
Reference types classes, interfaces, exceptions, errors, enums, annotations, and arrays
Primitive types
There are 9 primitive types in java.
Below table summarizes the categories of the primitive types:
Category Primitive types
integers byte, short, int, long
floating point numbers float, double
Characters char
Booleans boolean
empty set data type void

Below table summarizes the corresponding wrapper classes, size, range, and default values:

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Primitive type Wrapper type Size (in bytes) Range Default values
byte java.lang.Byte 1 -128 to +127 0
short java.lang.Short 2 -32,768 to + 32,767 0
31 31
Int java.lang.Integer 4 -2 to +2 – 1 0
63 63
long java.lang.Long 8 -2 to +2 – 1 0
float java.lang.Float 4 -3.4e38 to 3.4e38 0.0F
double java.lang.Double 8 -1.7e308 to 1.7e308 0.0
Char java.lang.Character 2 0 to 65,535 Blank Space( ‘ ‘)
boolean java.lang.Boolean N/A N/A false
void java.lang.Void N/A N/A N/A
Note:
1. By default, all integers are initialized with 0.
2. By default, all floating point numbers are initialized with 0.0
3. By default, all characters are initialized with blank space.
4. By default, all booleans are initialized with false.
5. By default, all reference types are initialized with null.
6. The size of the primitive data types are fixed across all operating systems.
7. The java supports only signed integers but unsigned characters.

Arrays
  Introduction

  
Array Declaration
  
Array Construction
  
Array Initialization
  
Annonymous arrays
  
length vs length()
 
Disadvantages with arrays

Introduction
An array is a group of homogeneous elements i.e., all elements in an array have same data type.

The array is an index based collection whose index starts at 0 and ends with index (n-1), where ‘n’ is the
number of elements in an array.
The size of an array is fixed and cannot be changed.
In java, arrays are created dynamically at runtime using ‘new’ keyword, hence, arrays are objects.
The element types in an array are either Primitive or Object (reference) type.

Array Declaration
Single dimensional arrays are declared in following ways:
<array type> <array name>[];
(or)
<array type>[] <array name>;
(or)
<array type> []<array name>;
Example:
int arr1[], arr2[]; //Both arr1 and arr2 are arrays.
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Int[] arr1, arr2; //Both arr1 and arr2 are arrays.

Int []arr1, arr2; //Only arr1 is an array but arr2 is not.

Array Construction
In java, arrays are dynamically created at runtime using ‘new’ keyword, hence, arrays are objects.
Syntax:
<array type>[] <array-name> = new <array type>[<array-size>];
Example
int[] arr = new int[10];

Initializing Array Elements

a) Default Initialization
When an array is created using new keyword, all its elements are automatically initialized to
their default values.
Example:
int[] arr = new int[3];
0 0 0

float[] arr = new float[3];

0.0F 0.0F 0.0F

boolean[] arr = new boolean[3];

false False False

String[] arr = new String[3];

Null Null null

b) Initialize array elements using Initialization block

Syntax:
<array type>[] <array name> = { <array initialization block> };
Example:
int[] age = {20,21,22,23};

c) Array Declaration, Construction, and Initilialization in a single step

Syntax:
<array type>[] <array name> = new <array type>[]{<array initialization block>};
Example:
int[] arr = new int[]{10,20,30}; //Ok.
d) Anonymous array
Neither array name nor array size is specified is called as anonymous array.
Syntax:
new <array type>[] {<array initialization block>};
Example:
new int[] {1,2,3,4};

Usage: Anonymous arrays are most offenly used in method calling.

Example:
add(new int[]{1,2,3}, new int[]{4,5,6}); //method calling

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length field vs length() method

The ‘length’ field is used to get array size.
The ‘length()’ method is used to get string size.
Example:
int arr[] = {1,2,3,4};
SOP(arr.length); // 4

String str = new String(“ONLINE”);

SOP(str.length()); // 6

Disadvantages with arrays:

1) The size of an array is fixed i.e., size of an array is neigher increased nor decreased.
2) The elements in an array are homogeneous.
3) There is no pre-defined data structure existing to manage array data.
Conclusion: In order to address above three array limitations, Collection API was introduced.

Main method
public static void main(String[] args){}

Accessibility Used to invokes method

Retur type Method name Parameter type
modifier before object created.

Command Line Arguments

The arguments which are passing from the command prompt to the main(String[] args) method is called as
command line arguments.
Example:
java Addition 1 2

args[0] args[1]
Example:
//Addition.java
class Addition{
public static void main(String[] args){

int a = Integer.parseInt(args[0]); //”10” 10 int

b = Integer.parseInt(args[1]); //”20” 20 int sum
= a + b; System.out.println("Total="+sum);
}
}
Java Addition 10 20
O/P:
Total=30

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OPERATORS and CONTROL FLOW

 Arithmetic Operators

  
Increment or Decrement Operator
  
Relational Operators
  
Equality Operators
  
Logical boolean operators
  
Short-circuit(or conditional) operators
  
Ternary operator
  
Assignment Operators
  
Type Casting
  
Selection Statements
  
Iteration Statements
 
Transfer Statements

Arithmetic Operators
The arithmetic operators are +, -, *, /, % (Remainder).

Numeric Promotion in Arithmetic Expressions

Floating point arithmetic is performed if any of the operand type is floating-point type, otherwise, integer
arithmetic is performed.
Operand1 Operand2 Promoted type
Byte Byte int
Short Short Int //Integer Arithmetic
Char Char Int
Int Long Long
Int Float Float
Long Float Float
//Floating point Arithmetic
Double Any type Double

In arithmetic expression, if the operand type is byte, short, or char, then they are automatically promoted
to int.

Increment (++) or Decrement(--) operator

These are unary operators. Depending on the operator used, the value of the variable is either
incremented or decrement by 1.

Pre increment
++i adds 1 to the value in ‘i’, and stores the new values in i. It returns the new value of the expression. It is
equivalent to the following statement.
i=i+1
int result = i;
return result;

Post incremet
j++ adds 1 to the value in j, and stores the new values in j. It returns the old value of the expression. It is
equivalent to the following statement.
result=j;
j=j+1
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return result;

Pre decrement
--i subtracts 1 to the value in i, and stores the new values in i. It returns the new value of the expression. It
is equivalent to the following statement.
i=i-1; result =
i; return
result;

Post decrement
j-- subtracts 1 to the value in j, and stores the new values in j. It returns the old value of the expression. It is
equivalent to the following statement.
result=j;
j=j-1
return result;

Expression Initial value of a Final value of a Final value of b

b = ++a; 6 7 7
b = a++; 6 7 6
b = --a; 6 5 5
b = a--; 6 5 6
b = ++a + --a; 6 6 13
b = a++ + a--; 6 6 13
b = a++ + --a 6 6 12
b = a + ++a; 4.5 5.5 10.0
Char a = ‘y’; Char b = a++; ‘y’ ‘z’ ‘y’
b= ++(++a) 6 Compilation Error Compilation Error

Relational operators
The relational operators are <, <=, >, >=. All relational operators are binary operators. The evaluation results
in a boolean value.
Example:
System.out.println(1< 2); //true

Equality Operators ( ==, !=)

Equality operators are evaluated to boolean value.
Example:
System.out.println( 1 == 1); //true
System.out.println(true == true); //true
System.out.println((flase == false)); //true
System.out.println((true == false)); //false
System.out.println((true != false)); //true
System.out.println((null == null)); //true

Boolean logical Operators (&, |, ^, !)


The boolean logical operators are applicable only for boolean operands, and returning a boolean value. & Logical
AND

| Logical OR

^ Logical XOR
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
! Logical Complement
Truth table for boolean logical operators
X Y !X X&Y X|Y X^Y
True True False True True False
True False False False True True
False True True False True True
False False True False False False

For boolean logical AND, OR, and XOR operators, both operands are always executed.
Example:

Int i = Integer.parseInt(args[0]);//”10” 10
if( i > 10 & i++ < 20){} // ’i’ is incremented irrespective of first condition.

Short-curcuit (or conditional) operators (&&, ||)


&& Conditional AND ||

Conditional OR
Truth table for conditional operators:
X Y X && Y X || Y
True True True True
True False False True
False True False True
False False False False
For Conditional AND (&&) operator, the second operand never evaluated if the first operand is false. For
Conditional OR (||) operator, the second operand is never evaluated if the first operand is true.
Logical Operators (&, |) Conditional Operators (&&, ||)
The second operand is always evaluated. The second operand is optionally executed i.e., if the first
I.e., both operanads are always executed. operanad determines the result, then second operand
never executed.

Example:
Int a = Integer.parseInt(args[0]);
Int b = Integer.parseInt(args[1]);
if((b!=0) && (a%b==0)){ //Never throws ArithmeticException
System.out.println(“No exception”);
}

Ternary Operator (?:)

It is used to decide between two actions.
syntax:
<data type> <variable name> = <condition> ? <expression1> : <expression2>;
If the <condition> is true then <expression1> is evaluated; otherwise, <expression2> is evaluated. The
<expression1> and <expression2> must be evaluate to values of compatible types with left hand side
declaration.
Example: Find out max number

int a = Integer.parseInt(args[0]); //”10” 10 int b =

Integer.parseInt(args[1]);//”20” 20 int max =
a>b?a:b;
The ternary operator is equivalent to if-else but additionally returns value.

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Assignment Operators
There are three types of assignment operators:
  
Simple assignment operator
Exmaple:
 int a = 10;
  
Chained assignment operator
Example:
 int a, b,c;
 a = b = c =10;
  
Compound assignment operator
The following are the possible compound assignment operators: +=,-=,*=,/=,%=,&=,|=,^=
 Example:
sum += x; //which is equivalent to sum = sum + x;

Type casting
Primitive or Reference type widening does not require explicit cast.
But, either Primitive or Reference type narrowing requires explicit cast.
Example:
float f = 10.10F;
//int i = f; //Compilation Error saying “Incompatible types”
Int i = (int)f; // To avoid compilation error, use type casting

CONTROL FLOW
Control flow statements govern the flow (order) of control (execution) in a program during execution.
There are three main categories of control flow statements:
  Selection statements:

  
if
  
if-else
  
else if ladder
  
switch
  
Iteration statements:
  
while loop
  
do-while loop
  
Basic for loop
  
Enhanced for loops (JDK1.5)
  
Transfer statements:
  
break
  
continue
  
return
  
try-catch-finally
  
throw
 
assert

Selection statements
The selective statements are used to execute group of statements (block of statements) at most once
i.e., zero or once.
I. if() statement
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It is used to decide whether block of statements are executed or not based on the <condition>.
Syntax:
if(<condition>){
<statement(s)>
}
The <condition> must be boolean value but not numeric number. The if block will be executed
only if the <condition > is true.
Example:
Int age = Integer.parseInt(args[0]);
If(age < 18){
System.out.println(“Your age does not permit to login to our website.”);
}

II. if-else
The if-else statement is used to decide between two actions.
Syntax:
If(<condition>){
<statement(s)>
}else{
<statement(s)>
}
If the <condition > is evaluated to true then if block is executed, otherwise else block is executed.
Example:
int age = Integer.parseInt(args[0]);
If(age < 18){
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System.out.println(“Your age does not permit to login to our website.”);
}else{
SOP(“Logged into Inbox”);
}

III. else if ladder

It is used to select one among many alternatives.
Syntax:
If(<condition1>){
<statement(s)>
}else if(<conditon2>){
<statement(s)>
}
…
else{
<statement(s)>
}
The final else block is executed only if none of the above <condition>s are true.
Example:
if(false){ }else

if(false){ }else

if(false){

}else{ //Else block is executed since all above if() blocks are evaluated to false.
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IV. switch
Switch statement is used to choose one among many alternative actions.
Syntax:
switch(<switch expression>){
case label1: <statement(s)>
case label2: <statement(s)>
…
case labeln: <statement(s)>
default: <statement(s)>
}
The valid <switch expression> types are:
  
byte, short, int, char, but not long
 
Byte, Short, Integer, Character, but not Long

The valid case label types are:


byte, short, int, char values but not long value, but not any wrapper classes.
Program: Display Day name
class SwitchDemo{
public static void main(String[] args){
int day = Integer.parseInt(args[0]);
switch(day){
case 1: System.out.println("Monday"); break; case 2: System.out.println("Tuesday"); break; case 3:
System.out.println("Wednesday"); break; case 4: System.out.println("Thursday"); break; case 5:
System.out.println("Friday"); break; case 6: System.out.println("Saturday");break; case 7:
System.out.println("Sunday"); break;
default: System.out.println("Valid options are: (1-7)");
}
}
}
Java SwitchDemo
3 o/p:
Wednesday

Iteration Statements
The iterate statements are used to execute block of statements repeatedly until the boolean
<condition> becomes false.

I. While loop
In case of while loop, the <condition> will be evaluated before executing body.
Syntax:
while (<condition>){ <
body>
}
The <condition> is always boolean value.
Program: Write a program to print numbers from 1 to 10.
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Int I =1;
While(I <=
10){
System.out.print(I+”\t”
); I++;
}

II. do-while loop

In case of do-while, the body is executed before <condition> is evaluated i.e., the body will
be executed atleast once.
Synta
x: do {
<body>
} while (<condition>); //Watch: Semicolon at the end.

Program: Write a program to add numbers from 1 to 10;

Int I = 1;
Int sum = 0;
Do{
Sum += I;
I++;
}while(i<=10);

Difference between while and do-while

While Do-while
The <condition> is evaluated before The body will be executed before the <condition> is
executing the body. Hence, while loop evaluated. Hence, the body would be executed one or
executes zero or more times. more times i.e., body will be executed at least once.

III. Basic for loop (Simple or General for loop)

This loop is best suitable if we know the number of iterations in
advance. For example, reading array elements or reading collection
elements.
Syntax:
for (<initialization>; <condition>; <increment or
decrement>){ <body>
}
Program: Write a program to add array elements using for
loop. Int[] arr = {10,20,30,40};
Int sum = 0;
for(int i=0; I < arr.length;
i++){ Sum += arr[i];
}
Sop(“The total=”+sum);

IV. Enhanced for (or for-each) loop

This is first time introduced in jdk1.5. This is the most convenient loop for retrieving elements
from array or collection.
This loop cannot be used for general purpose.
This loop iterate elements always in forward direction but not in reverse direction.
Syntax:
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for(<element declaration> : <array or collection

name>){ <body>
}
Where type of <element declaration> is same as array type or collection type.
Example:
Int[] arr = {10,20,30};
Basic for loop Enhanced for loop
for(int I = 0; I < arr.length; I++){ for(int e : arr){
SOP(arr[i]); SOP(e);
} }
The basic for loop uses array The Enhanced for loop directly uses element but
index to read array data. not index. Hence, simple to use.

Note:
1. Enhanced for loop is used only with arrays and collections but not for general purpose.
2. Enhanced for loop cannot be used to retrieve elements in reverse order.

Transfer Statements
I. break
The ‘break’ is used to come out of the loops.
We can use break statement in one of the following cases:
  
Inside loops
 
Inside switch
Example:
For(int I=0 ; I<10; i++){ For(int
j=0; j<10; j++){
If(i==j) break; //the nearest for loop will be terminated.
}
}

II. Continue
The continue statement is used to transfer the execution back to the start of the loop i.e., the
remaining statements after continue will be skipped.
Program: Write a program to add even numbers but print odd numbers.
Int sum = 0;
for(int i = 0; i<=10; i++ ){
if(i%2 == 0){ //even number
sum+= I; //Adding even numbers
continue;
}
System.out.print (i+”\t”); //Printing odd numbers
}
Sop(“The sum of even numbers is:”+sum);

III. return
The return statement is always used from method block. The return statement is used to stop
execution of a method and transfer control back to the method calling.
There are two forms of the return statement:
return; //Optionally used with methods whose return type is void or from
constructor.
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return <expression>; //Must be used with methods whose return type is other than void.

A void method need not have a return statement – in which case the control normally returns to the
caller after the last statement in the method’s body has been executed. However, a void method can
optionally specify the first form of the return statement – in which case the control immediately
transferred to the method caller.

Program: Write a program to return maximum number

int max(int x, int y){
If(x > y)
Return x;
else
Return y;
}
(or)

int max(int x, int y){

return x>y?x:y; //ternary operator
}
ACCESS CONTROL
 Package declaration

  
Modifiers
  
Accessibility modifiers
  
import
  
Java Progamming Structure
 
Generate Java API Documentation

Packages
In java, package is a directory structure which contains group of related classes, interfaces, enums,
exceptions, errors, annotations, or subpackages.
Example:
Package Directory Types
java.lang java\lang String, System, Object, Integer, etc
java.io java\io InputStream, OutputStream, Reader, Writer, etc
java.util Java\util List, Set, Map, Vector, Hashtable, etc

Packages are declared using package keyword:

Format:
package <domain name> <.company name><.project name><.module name>;
Example:
package edu.online.accounting.billing; //multi level
package package edu.online.accounting.core; //multi level
package

At most one package declaration can appear in a source file, and it must be the first statement in the
source file.
Example:
package online;
//Correct
import java.lang.String;
Use ‘–d’ option to compile classes with package declaration.
aravindonlineclasses.com

Syntax:
Javac -d <directory> <java source file>
Example:
Javac –d . *.java
where ‘.’ Specifies current directory, where the generated class files will be placed.

Example:
package
online; class
Test{
public static void main(String[] args){
System.out.println("Package concepts");
}
}

Compilation:
Javac -d . Test.java

Also, the fully qualified type name must be specified in the java command.
Example:
Java online.Test

To access package types from other packages, use either fully qualified type (<package_name>.<type>) or
import types using ‘import’ keyword.

Modifiers in java
There are 13 modifiers in java:
Private
default
Protected
Public
Final
Static
Abstract
Interface
Synchronized
Transient
Native
Strictfp
volatile

Accessibility Modifiers
In java, there are 4 accessibility modifiers: private, no (or default or package) modifier, protected, and
public.
The below table summarizes the scope of accessibility modifiers:
Scenario Private default Protected Public
Within the same class Yes Yes Yes Yes
Subclass of the same package No Yes Yes Yes
Non subclass of the same package No Yes Yes Yes
Subclass from different package No No Yes Yes
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Non subclass from different No No No Yes

Note:
1) The scope of the private members is anywhere within the class.
2) The scope of the default members is anywhere within the same package.
3) The scope of the protected members is anywhere with in the same package as well as only subclass
of the different package.
4) The scope of the public members is anywhere!
5) The default modifier is also know as package modifier.

Imports
The given class can be accessible from outside the package using fully qualified type name, however, writing
long names can become tedious.
Example:
edu.online.One obj = new edu.online.One();

The import facility in java makes it easier to access classes from different packages, which will be declared
once using import statement and used it for any number of times just with simple type name.
Example:
import edu.online.One;
One obj = new One();

Java Programming Structure

The java program is basically divided into following sections:
[Comments Section]

[Package Declaration]

[Import Statement(s)]

<class modifiers> class <class name> [extends clause] [implements clause]{

[fields ]
[constructors]
[methods]
}

Comments
Java supports 3 types of comments:
1) Multline comments (From C
language) syntax:
/*
….
….
*/
2) Single Line comment (From C++ lanaguage)
Example:
//Tomorrow is a holiday
3) Java doc comments
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This is newly added in JAVA. These comments are used to add description about class as well
as methods.
Syntax:
/**
*
*/

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